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Seismic Tomography
I. Introduction:
What is seismic tomography ?
Tomography is the study of the internal properties of a body by observing the behavior
of rays passing through the body. Seismic tomography uses mathematical modeling of P
and S wave travel times to map velocity perturbations in the interior of the Earth. The
primary energy source used in global seismic tomography is seismic waves generated by
earthquakes which pass through the Earth in all directions, and are recorded on
seismograms around the world. Inversion of arrival time data is used to determine the
speed of the waves at any given point in the Earth. Using seismic tomography to
interpret the internal structure of the Earth is similar in technique to a CAT-scan.
Computer assisted tomography (CAT) uses X-rays transmitted through the body in
many different directions. A mathematical method is then applied to explain the loss in
intensity of the X-rays due to the varying absorptive properties of different parts of the
body. The comparison between CAT-scans and seismic tomography differs because Xrays travel in straight paths, whereas the ray paths of sound waves bend with changes in
the velocity structure of the medium.
What are the uses of seismic tomography ?
Seismic tomography has several applications in exploration and global geophysics.
Crosshole transmission tomography is used to image subsurface features between
boreholes with greater accuracy than conventional surface reflection methods. Seismic
tomography can also be used to characterize fractured bedrock, map groundwater
reservoirs, and locate ore bodies. Global seismic tomography is used to interpret the
presence of ancient subducted slabs, locate the source of hotspots, and model
convection patterns in the mantle.
What are the limitations of seismic tomography ?
Global seismic tomography is limited by the irregularity in time and space of the source,
and by the incomplete coverage of recording stations. The primary source is
earthquakes, which are impossible to predict and only occur at certain locations around
the world. In addition, the global coverage of recording stations is limited due to
economic and political reasons. Because of these limitations, seismologists must work
with data that contains crucial gaps. Experimental data can not accurately replicate
conditions deep in the Earth's interior, therefore making comparisons with real world
data difficult. Another limitation in imaging deep structures is attenuation and absorption
of energy due to the long distances waves travel through the Earth, which reduces the
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resolution which can be attained. Due to the problem of attenuation, the minimum sizes
of features in the mantle which can be resolved are blocks 100-200 km on each side.

II. Velocity structure in the mantle

Temperatures in the mantle from velocity perturbations.
Mapping of velocity perturbations in the Earth's mantle results in an indication of mantle
temperature variation. Waves tend to travel faster in colder regions than in hotter
regions. This is due to density contrasts related to temperature. Colder materials are
more dense than hotter materials, allowing them to transmit waves at a higher speed.
Figures 1 & 2 show maps of the mantle generated from tomographic data. These map
are color coded with red correlating to slower velocities and blue indicating faster
velocities. Looking at these maps, one can discern a strong correlation between tectonic
features and the velocity of waves. Areas of younger, hotter material, such as actively
spreading ridges, correspond to red (slow) areas on the velocity map. Areas of old,
colder material, such as the interiors of continents, correspond to blue (fast) areas on the
velocity map. See Figures 1 & 2.
Velocity anisotropy and mantle convection.
Velocity anisotropy means that waves propagate at different rates in different
directions. This property can be used to infer mantle convection patterns. The primary
component of the mantle is believed to be olivine. The anisotropic structure of olivine
crystals allows waves to propagate faster along the long (a) axis of the crystal than along
the short axes (perpendicular to a). Flow in the mantle due to convection is believed to
align the olivine crystals with their long axis oriented in the direction of the flow.
Therefore, mantle convection patterns can be mapped using velocity perturbations,
because the waves will travel faster along paths where crystal lattices have been aligned
due to flowing of mantle material. Verically and horizontally polarized shear-wave
velocities determined by tomography indicate that vertical flow is dominant under ridges
and subduction zones, and horizontal flow dominates under cratonic areas.

III. Application of seismic tomography for solving geologic

questions:
Applications of seismic tomography to plate tectonics.
As seen in figures 1 & 2, seismic tomography can be used to delineate plate boundaries.
Tomographic velocity maps of the mantle show areas of high and low velocity, and
additionally with temperature variation and anisotropy, these velocity variations have
been used to infer the depth of mountain roots and ancient subducted slabs. Three
dimensional models have been generated to show the velocity structure of the mantle
underneath the continents. Near the center of the continents, and under mountain
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ranges, velocity contours can be seen to curve. This seems to support the theory of
isostasy, or compensation of a thick unit of continental crust by a large mass of buoyant
material beneath. Tomography has also been used to infer the location of ancient
subducted slabs. See figure 3. Figure 4 shows P and S wave models which illustrate
global high and low velocity areas. High velocity areas, where ancient subduction zones
are believed to have existed, have been interpreted to represent remnants of old slabs of
dense subducted oceanic crust. See figure 4. Another application of seismic tomography
to plate tectonic theory lies in the imaging of low velocity zones below proposed hot
spots, or areas of constant volcanic activity. Hot spots are believed to originate deep in
the mantle. Images generated from tomographic studies have shown low velocity zones
extending deep into the mantle under the Hawaiian and other hot spots. This could
indicate higher temperatures in these areas and possibly melt generation at depth. This
can also help to disprove some proposed hot spots which do not correlate to low
velocity zones.

IV. Discussion and conclusion:

Seismic tomography has potential for many aspects of exploration geophysics. These
include shallow, high resolution techniques used in environmental and economic
exploration, such as crosshole transmission tomography used to image the flanks of salt
domes, and better evaluate ore bodies between boreholes. The applications used to
image the deep structure of the Earth are limited in their usefulness, and can only be
realistically improved by increasing the density of seismogram coverage. The only other
option to improve the available data is to detonate large explosions, such as nuclear
bombs, at locations where gaps in the data exist.

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