Propagation Models Practical Use

Propagation Models
Practical Use

Feb 2002

Propagation Models Practical Use

1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................4
2. LARGE CELLS.............................................................................................................4
2.1. APPROPRIATE PROPAGATION MODEL : OKUMURA-HATA..........................................5
2.2. MODEL LIMITATION AND ACCURACY.......................................................................5
2.3. SIMPLIFICATION FOR PRACTICAL USE......................................................................6
2.3.1. Rural, countryside or villages...........................................................................6
2.3.2. Residential or Industrial....................................................................................6
2.4. LOS, SINGLE AND MULTI DIFFRACTION CASE.........................................................7
2.4.1. LOS....................................................................................................................7
2.4.2. Single Diffraction..............................................................................................9
2.4.3. Multiple Diffraction.........................................................................................10
3. SMALL CELL ENVIRONMENT..............................................................................10
3.1. APPROPRIATE PROPAGATION MODEL : COST231-WALFISCH-IKEGAMI.................11
3.2. MODEL LIMITATION AND ACCURACY.....................................................................12
3.3. SIMPLIFICATION FOR PRACTICAL USE....................................................................13
3.4. LOS, SINGLE AND MULTI DIFFRACTION CASE.......................................................15
4. MICROCELL ENVIRONMENT...............................................................................16
4.1. APPROPRIATE PROPAGATION MODEL : COST231-MICROCELL..............................16
5. HILLY ENVIRONMENT...........................................................................................17
5.1. APPROPRIATE PROPAGATION MODEL : TERRAIN CLEARANCE ANGLE METHOD.....18
5.2. MODEL LIMITATION AND ACCURACY.....................................................................19
5.3. SIMPLIFICATION FOR PRACTICAL USE....................................................................20
5.4. LOS, SINGLE AND MULTI DIFFRACTION CASE.......................................................22
6. SEA ENVIRONMENT................................................................................................22
6.1. APPROPRIATE PROPAGATION MODEL : ITU-R P.370...............................................22
6.2. MODEL LIMITATION AND ACCURACY.....................................................................23
6.3. SIMPLIFICATION FOR PRACTICAL USE....................................................................24
6.4. LOS, SINGLE AND MULTI DIFFRACTION CASE.......................................................25
7. INDOOR PROPAGATION........................................................................................25
7.1. IN-BUILDING............................................................................................................25
7.1.1. Appropriate Propagation Model : ITU-R P.1238............................................25
7.1.2. Model Limitation and Accuracy......................................................................26
7.1.3. Simplification For Practical Use....................................................................27
7.1.4. LOS, Single and Multi Diffraction Case.........................................................28
7.2. TUNNEL...................................................................................................................28
7.2.1. APPROPRIATE PROPAGATION MODEL : WAVEGUIDE APPROACH WITH
MEASUREMENTS.............................................................................................................28
7.2.2. Model limitation and Accuracy.......................................................................35
7.2.3. Simplification For Practical Use....................................................................35
7.2.4. Measurement...................................................................................................36

Propagation Models Practical Use

8. CONCLUSION............................................................................................................37

Propagation Models Practical Use

1. Introduction
Propagation mechanisms are very complex and diverse. First, because of the separation between
the receiver and the transmitter, attenuation of the signal strength occurs. In addition, the signal
propagates by means of diffraction, scattering, reflection, transmission, refraction, etc. As a result,
the receive signal at any given point is actually the vector sum of signals through all means of
propagation path mentioned above. However, since the short-term fading of the received signal is
almost impossible to predict, all propagation models estimate only the average or median values.
In general, a propagation model is a set of mathematical expressions, diagrams, and algorithms
used to represent the radio characteristics of a given environment. It can be either empirical (also
called statistical) or theoretical (also called deterministic), or a combination of these two. While
the empirical models are based on measurements, the theoretical models deal with the
fundamental principles of radio wave propagation phenomena.
In the empirical models, all environmental influences are implicitly taken into account regardless
of whether they can be separately recognized. This is the main advantage of these models. On the
other hand, the accuracy of these models depends not only on the accuracy of the measurements,
but also on the similarities between the environment to be analyzed and the environment where
the measurements are carried out. The computational efficiency of these models is usually
satisfying.
The deterministic models are based on the principles of physics and, due to that, they can be
applied to different environments without affecting the accuracy. In practice, their implementation
usually requires a huge database of environmental characteristics, which is sometimes either
impractical or impossible to obtain. The algorithms used by deterministic models are usually very
complex and lack computational efficiency. For that reason, the implementation of the
deterministic models is commonly restricted to smaller areas of microcell or indoor
environments. Nevertheless, if the deterministic models are implemented correctly, greater
accuracy of the prediction can be expected than in the case of the empirical models.
The purpose of this document is mainly to select a set of propagation models for different
environment. All these propagation models are examined and it is then based on the author
experience, they are simplified by setting most of their default values for certain difficult
parameters considering the typical situation. With that, RF planners can use them during the
preliminary design stage (such as site selection, site survey) to obtain a rough estimation on how
far the distance of a BTS site can cover.
Bearing that in mind, the discussion of this document will primarily focus on the empirical
model, as they are comparably simpler and more straightforward as compared to deterministic
models.
On the basis of the radio environment, the prediction models can be classified into two main
categories, outdoor and indoor propagation models. Further, in respect of the size of the coverage
area, the outdoor propagation models can be subdivided into 3 additional classes, large cell, small
cell and microcell prediction models. In addition to that, special environment such as the sea
surface and hilly area are also discussed. For the indoor environment, it is classified into 2
different categories i.e. buildings and tunnels.

2. Large cells
In large cells scenario, the base station antenna is installed above the maximum height of the
surrounding roof tops or obstacles; the path loss is determined mainly by diffraction and
scattering at roof tops in the vicinity of the mobile i.e. the main rays propagate above the roof
tops; the cell radius is minimally 1 km and normally exceeds 3 km. A good example of such a
scenario is often encountered in the villages or countryside, where the importance of providing

Propagation Models Practical Use

the maximum coverage dominates the capacity requirement. The below figure illustrates a profile
view of such a circumstance.

2.1. Appropriate Propagation Model: Okumura-Hata

As a classic RF propagation model, the Okumura-Hata method is based on empirical data
collected in detailed propagation tests over various situations of an irregular terrain and
environmental clutter. The results are analyzed statistically and compiled into diagrams. The basic
prediction of the median field strength is obtained for the quasi-smooth terrain in the urban area.
The correction factor for either an open area or a suburban area should be taken into account. The
additional correction factors, such as for a rolling hilly terrain, the isolated mountain, mixed landsea paths, street direction, general slope of the terrain etc., make the final prediction closer to the
actual field strength values. The model is mathematically represented as below,
PL = 69.55 + 26.16 log(f) - 13.82 log(hb) - a(hm) + [44.9 - 6.55 log(hb)] log(d) dB K
Where :
f - operating frequency (MHz)
hb - Base station antenna height (m)
hm - mobile station antenna height (m)
a(hm) - correction factor for mobile station antenna height (dB)
d - distance from Base station (Km)
Type Of Area
Open
Suburban
Medium-small City
Large City (f > 400)

a(hm)
[1.1 log(f) - 0.7]hm
[1.56 log(f) - 0.8]
3.2(log11.75hm)2 4.97

(1)

K
4.78(logf) 18.33logf 40.94
2(log(f/28))2 + 5.4
0
0
2

2.2. Model Limitation and Accuracy

Due to the fact that empirical model is based on a set of measurement results, therefore the
resultant model should only be applied within a certain range of parameters in order to get a
reasonable prediction. Below is the range of the parameters that Okumura-Hata model should
operate,

Propagation Models Practical Use

Frequency range 150 1500 MHz

Base station height 30 200 m
Mobile height 1 10 m
Distance range 1 20 km

For the case of frequency beyond 1500MHz, there are plenty of extended Okumura-Hata models,
which can be utilized, for example, the COST231-Hata Model. However, it is beyond the scope
of our discussion.

2.3. Simplification For Practical Use

In the real network Implementation, large cell approach is usually adopted only in rural area such
as countryside or villages. This is due to the desire to maximize the coverage on per BTS basis
for economic reason. This approach is possible over the abovementioned area as they seldom face
capacity or interference problem. However, Should for any reason, the large cell approach is
adopted in a more populated area such as residential, industrial areas, provided the BTS antenna
height is much higher than the surrounding buildings or obstacle, Okumura-Hata model can also
be used. Below is the simplified version, which comes in handy for the RF planners especially
those who work out in the field.

2.3.1. Rural, countryside or villages

The below is assumed,
f = 925MHz
hb = 30m (Typical value for countryside, village)
hm = 1.5m (Typical value for the primary coverage objective i.e. to cover ground floor)
K = 10dB(Typical value for countryside, village which fall into suburban category)
a(hm) = 0 (Typical value for the primary coverage objective i.e. to cover ground floor)
Hence, equation (1) is changed to,
PL = 116 + 35log(d) dB

(2)

Should the maximum allowable Path Loss between the BTS and MS is found to be 130dB
(usually uplink limited, and can be calculated from the standard Link Budget), then the maximum
predicted coverage distance from the BTS site (at the bore site of the BTS antenna) will be,
d = Log-1((130-116)/35) = 2.4Km

2.3.2. Residential or Industrial

The same assumptions are made as in the Rural, countryside or villages except for K, which is
assumed to be 0 dB as such areas should be within the category of medium size city.
Hence, equation (1) is changed to,
PL = 126 + 35log(d) dB
(3)

Propagation Models Practical Use

Should the maximum allowable Path Loss between the BTS and MS is found to be 130dB, the
maximum predicted coverage distance from the BTS site would be 1.2Km.
No simplified equation is made for large city in this section for,
Large city usually adopts small cell or microcell approach due to capacity requirement
and interference control reasons
Large city BTS sites with practical BTS antenna height (usually lower than 30m) usually
do not enjoy a good propagation due to severe building blockage, hence the coverage
distance is usually less than 1Km, a value which is beyond the recommended OkumuraHata range
The below graph is generated to provide a quick estimate on the large cell coverage distance
should the BTS height is a variable.

2.4. LOS, Single and Multi Diffraction Case

Although the maximum coverage distance of a large cell can be estimated using Okumura-Hata
model, it is sometimes also desired by the field engineers (especially optimization engineers) to
predict the signal strength at the area nearby to the BTS, those areas are much closer to the BTs
site compared to the maximum coverage distance, say between 20m to 300m. Signals from the
BTS to these areas go through a LOS, single or multiple diffraction paths.

2.4.1. LOS
For the case of LOS, the propagation can be visualized from the below diagram.

Propagation Models Practical Use

The path loss of a LOS case can be modeled by using 2 sets of path loss slopes and a breakpoint
separating them. g, the distance at which the path loss slope changes, is actually the point where
the 1st fresnel zone of the radio path gets intercepted by the ground. Beyond this point, a ground
diffraction loss is added to the total path loss experienced by the propagation with respect to the
distance. g can be calculated using the below formula. (note : the earth curvature is ignored in this
context as the main objective of this section is only to estimate the signal strength at a very close
distance to the BTS location, where the earth curvature influence is insignificant.)
g = 4hbhm/
From measurement result, the path loss within the distance g closely resemblances the free space
loss, model i.e.,
PLd<g = 32.4 + 20log(d) + 20log(f)
On the other hand, the path loss beyond g can be modeled as,
PLd>=g = 42.6 + 26log(d) + 20log(f)
The above equations are rewritten assuming,
f = 925MHz
hb = 30m
hm = 1.5m
= 0.33m
First of all g = 545m, then,
PLd<g = 91.7 + 20log(d) when d<545m
PLd>=g = 101.9 + 26log(d) when d>=545m
For example, under a LOS circumstance, if the BTS ERP is 56dBm (consistent with the previous
example of 130dB allowable path loss), the signal strength at 0.5km away is,
Prx = 56dBm 91.7 + 20log(0.5) = -42dBm
On another example, the signal strength at 0.6km away is,
Prx = 56dBm 101.9 + 26log(0.6) = -52dBm (50% coverage probability)

Propagation Models Practical Use

2.4.2. Single Diffraction

For the case of a single obstacle standing in between the BTS site and the MS, a point-to-point
deterministic method is used to estimate the received signal strength at any point given. Refer the
below diagram,

For the sack of simplicity, all obstacles are assumed to give a knife-edge effect, which causes the
worst diffraction in radio signal propagation. In the mobile environment, and are usually very
small, in other words, h << d 1 and d2. This is mainly due to the fact that h b and hm are usually
much lower compared to d1 and d2. Therefore, 2 approximations are made to simplify the above
situation. First of all h=h, then, d1=d1 and d2=d2. The next diagram shows the simplified profile
view.

It is known and well proven that the diffraction loss produced in the above situation can be
calculated based on a factor called Fresnel Diffraction parameter, v.
v = h((2(d1 +d2)/(d1d2))1/2

where h = hB -hb (approx.)

When v is found, the diffraction loss incurred, Ldiff are then sought out using the below equations.
Ldiff = 0
v <= -1
Ldiff = 20log(0.5-0.62v)
-1<= v<=0
Ldiff = 20log(0.5exp(-0.95v))
0<= v <= 1
Ldiff = 20log(0.4-(0.1184-(0.38-0.1v)2)1/2
1<= v <=2.4
Ldiff = 20log(0.225/v)
v > 2.4

Propagation Models Practical Use

For quicker result Ldiff can also be found from the below graph with the value of v known.

Finally, the received signal strength at a distance d away from the BTS can be estimated as,
Prx = ERP 101.9 + 26log(d) + Ldiff
For example, should d1 = d2 = 0.3Km, h = 6m, ERP=56dBm
v = 6((2 x 600)/(0.33 x 600 x 600))1/2 = 1.2
From the above graph, Ldiff is found out to be 16dB
Hence, Prx = 56dBm 101.9 + 26log(0.6) 16dB = -67dBm (50% coverage probability)

2.4.3. Multiple Diffraction

The signal propagation in a multiple diffraction scenario is usually too complicated for a
deterministic model to represent. Also, such a deterministic model if there is any will require
huge amount of computation time in estimating the path loss or the resultant received signal
strength on sites. Hence, the author would recommend using an empirical model rather, where a
quick estimation can be obtained. Cost 231 Walfisch-Ikegami comes in very handy for estimate
objective and it is discussed more in details in the following Small Cell Environment section.

3. Small Cell Environment

For small cell coverage the antenna is sited above the median but below the maximum height of
the surrounding rooftops and therefore the path loss is determined by the same mechanisms as
stated in the large cell scenario. However large and small cells differ in terms of maximum range
and for small cells the maximum range is typically less than 1 3 km. In the case of small cells
with a radius of less than 1 km the Okumura-Hata model cannot be used. The below figure
illustrates a profile view of such a circumstance.

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3.1. Appropriate Propagation Model : COST231-Walfisch-Ikegami

The COST 231-Walfisch-Ikegami model (COST 231-WI) has been used extensively in typical
urban environments where the building heights are quasi-uniform. The model utilizes the
theoretical Walfisch-Bertoni model to obtain multiple screen forward diffraction loss for high
base station antenna heights, whereas it uses measurement-based data for low base station
antenna heights. This model also takes into account free-space loss, loss due to diffraction down
to the street, and the street orientation factor. It is normally used to estimate the small cell
coverage radius in the urban area. (typically in the range 200 m - 3 km). Below is the equation
representing the model.
Without free line-of-sight between base and mobile (small cells)
PLNLOS = Lfs + Lrts + Lmsd

(or PLNLOS = Lfs for Lrts + Lmsd <= 0)

where :
Lfs = free-space loss = 32.4 + 20*log(d) + 20*log(f)
Lrts = roof-top-to-street diffraction and scatter loss
= -16.9 - 10*log(w) + 10 log(f) + 20*log(HB - Hm) + Lori
with

Lori = -10 + 0.354* for 0<= < 35

Lori = 2.5 + 0.075*( -35) for 35<= < 55
Lori = 4.0 - 0.114*( -55) for 55<= <90
= Angle Of Incidence (degrees)

11

(4)

Propagation Models Practical Use

Lmsd = multiscreen diffraction loss

= Lbsh + ka + kd*log(d) + kf*log(f) - 9*log(b)
with

Lbsh = -18*log(1 +Hb - HB)

=0

for Hb > HB
for Hb <= HB

ka = 54
for Hb > HB
= 54 - 0.8*(Hb - HB)
for d >= 0.5Km and Hb <=HB
= 54 - 0.8*(Hb HB)*(d/0.5) for d<0.5 and Hb<=HB
kd = 18
= 18 - 15*(Hb - HB)/HB

for Hb > HB
for Hb <= HB

kf = -4 + 0.7*(f/925 - 1)

for medium sized cities and

suburban centres with moderate
tree density
for metropolitan centres

= -4 + 1.5*(f/925 - 1)

With a free line-of-sight between base and mobile (Street Canyon)

Microcells (Base station antennas below roof top level)
PLLOS = 42.6 + 26*log(d) + 20*log(f)

for d >= 0.020 km

(5)

3.2. Model Limitation and Accuracy

For reasonable prediction result, the below parameters have to be within the range of,

Frequency range 800 2000 MHz

Base station height 4 0 m
Mobile height 1 3 m
Distance range 0.02 5 km

Steep transitions of path loss occur when the base station antenna height is close to the height of
the rooftops of the buildings in its vicinity. Therefore, the height accuracy of the base station
antenna is especially significant if large prediction errors are to be avoided. Moreover, the

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Propagation Models Practical Use

performance of the Walfisch-Ikegami model is poor when the base station antenna height is
significantly lower than the heights of the rooftops of adjacent buildings.

From the author experience, the COST 231-Walfish-Ikegami model gives the best
approximation to the path loss experienced when small cells with a radius of less than 5
km are implemented in urban environments.

3.3. Simplification For Practical Use

In the real network Implementation, small cell approach is usually adopted only in urban or city
areas where the capacity/interference concern is more critical as compared to coverage. Below is
the simplified version of the model, which comes in handy for the RF planners especially those
who work out in the field.
First of all, considering a typical city model in China, the below default values are set for the
parameters of,

f = 925MHz (center frequency of GSM900)

w = 25m (a typical street width)
b = 50m (a typical building separation, normally set to 2 x w if no data available)
PLNLOS = 130dB (maximum allowable path loss, typical value from link budget)

For the case of hb > hB,

PLNLOS = 117.39 + 20Log(hB-1.5) 18Log(1+hb-hB) + 38Log(d)
Substituting PLNLOS = 130dB, equation (6) is rearranged to be,
d = 10((12.61-20Log(hB-1.5)+18Log(1+hb-hB))/38)
(7)

(6)

As equation (7) has the d described as a function of h B and hb, it is rather complicated to be used
to get a quick estimation on sites. In other words, the engineer will have to first of all, get the data
of hB, hb and after that, substitute them into equation (7) to make an estimate on d. To simplify
this calculation process, a hB vs. d graph is plotted like below. It should be noted that hB and hbhB are always chosen to be the multiple value of 3m, this is mainly based on the assumption that
every single storey measures approximately 3m. Hence, h b, hB and hb-hB can always be referred to
in the number of storey, this will make the building height estimate rather easy on sites.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

This graph relates in the case of hb>hB, hB (median height of the surrounding obstacle) to d (the
expected coverage distance at the bore site of the BTS antenna). Various h b and hB height
difference scenarios have been plotted, which are represented by different colors. In general, it is
found from the graph that d is inversely proportionate to h B. In addition to that, The higher the h b
as compared to hB, the further the signal propagation will get.
To use the above graph, consider the following example. If a BTS site is planned on a building (h b
= 30m) in a city center where the median height of the surrounding buildings (h B) measures 21m.
To estimate the distance of the coverage, a straight line is drawn at h B=27m, perpendicular to
axis-x, on the above graph. At the intercept point between the straight line and the h b-hB=3 curve
(pink), a horizontal line is extended towards axis-y and the value of d is read and found to be
0.81Km.
For the case of hb <= hB,
The PLNLOS equation is subdivided into 2 scenarios, i.e. for the case of d < 0.5kM and d >=
0.5Km. For the case of d < 0.5Km and d >= 0.5Km, PL NLOS are represented by equation (8) and
(9) respectively.
PLNLOS = 117.39 + 20log((hB-1.5) + (38-15(hb-hB)/hB)log(d) 1.6log(hb-hB)d
PLNLOS = 117.39 + 20log((hB-1.5) + (38-15(hb-hB)/hB)log(d) 0.8log(hb-hB)d

(8)
(9)

With the assumption of PLNLOS = 130dB, equation (8) and (9) are rewritten to be,
(38-15(hb-hB)/hB)log(d) 1.6log(hb-hB)d = 12.6 - 20log((hB-1.5)
(38-15(hb-hB)/hB)log(d) 0.8log(hb-hB)d = 12.6 - 20log((hB-1.5)

(10)
(11)

Both equation (10) and (11) are difficult to solved, hence, as usual, some calculations are done
using the EXCEL spreadsheet at the background in order to generate a graph to be used on sites.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

From the above graph, it is found that the drop of coverage distance with the increase of h B is
steeper for the case of d > 0.5Km as compared to distance within 0.5Km. This can be verified
from the 2 sets of PLNLOS equation (8 and 9) presented before this. Also, the curves beyond 0.5Km
are not smooth as d are worked out in a reverse spreadsheet calculation rather than solving
equation (10) and (11). Nevertheless, for the purpose of quick coverage distance estimate, the
above graphs are found to be sufficient. In general, it is concluded from the graph, that for the
case of hB >= hb, the higher the hB gets, the shorter the coverage distance d will be. Also, the
higher the height difference between h B and hb, the shorter the coverage distance will get. This is
observed comparing the various curves plotted in different colors above.
To use the above graph, consider the following example. If a BTS site is planned on a building (h b
= 24m) in a city center where the median height of the surrounding buildings (h B) measures 27m.
To estimate the distance of the coverage, a straight line is drawn at h B=27m, perpendicular to
axis-x, on the above graph. At the intercept point between the straight line and the h b-hB=3 curve
(pink), a horizontal line is extended towards axis-y and the value of d is read and found to be
0.37Km.

3.4. LOS, Single and Multi Diffraction Case

Cost231 Walfisch-Ikegami is a multiple diffraction propagation model by itself, hence the
multiple diffraction effect is in fact encompassed when the model is used. On the other hand, the
LOS and single diffraction scenario in a small cell environment is identical to what encountered
in large cell. Hence the same method discussed in the large cell environment can be used in small
cell.

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4. Microcell Environment
A microcell is a relatively small outdoor area such as a street with the base station antenna below
the rooftops of the surrounding buildings. The coverage area is smaller compared to the large and
small cells discussed previously. Such a microcell coverage is usually shaped by the surrounding
buildings. A microcell enables an efficient use of the limited frequency spectrum and it provides a
cheaper infrastructure. The main assumptions are relatively short radio paths (on the order of
200m to 1000m), low base station antennas (on the order of 3m to 10m), and low transmitting
powers (on the order of 10mW to 1W). There are many prediction models for a microcell
situation. In this article, the authors will only focus on a common empirical model for the reasons
explained previously.

4.1. Appropriate Propagation Model : COST231-Microcell

COST 231 defines a microcell as being a cell in which the base station antenna is mounted
generally below roof top level. Wave propagation is determined by diffraction and scattering
around buildings i.e. the main rays propagate in street canyons. COST 231 proposes the following
experimental model for microcell propagation when a free line of sight exists in a street canyon :
PLNLOS (GSM 900) = 101.7 + 26log(d) d > 0.020 m

(12)

The propagation loss in microcells increases sharply as the receiver moves out of line of sight, for
example, around a street corner. This can be taken into account by adding 20 dB to the
propagation loss per corner, up to two or three corners (the propagation being more of a guided
type in this case). Beyond, the complete COST231-Walfish-Ikegami model as presented in
section 3 should be used. Hence, for a NLOS circumstance,
PLNLOS = 101.7 + 26log(d) + 20n(13)

where n = number of corners encountered

Microcells have a radius in the region of 200 to 300 meters.

For example, consider a microcell as shown in the below aerial view. Assuming the surrounding
building heights, hB >> hb, the BTS antenna height, d = 0.150Km,
PLNLOS = 101.7 + 26log(0.15) + 20 x 2 = 120dB
Assuming a BTS ERP of 39dBm, the receive signal strength at that point will be,
Prx = 39 120 = -81dBm (50% coverage probability)

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Propagation Models Practical Use

5. Hilly Environment
A hilly environment is defined as an area where its surrounding land elevation changes with
respect to distance. Mobile propagation in this kind of area is expected to go through a great deal
of diffraction, reflection and scattering. Often is the case where there will be no LOS between the
BTS and MS. Below is the diagram showing the likelihood of signal propagation in such a hilly
area. As it is known that Okumura-Hata model is based on measurements conducted over some
urban and quasi-smooth areas, it is therefore generally agreed by users that such a model does not
predict well the path loss experienced over a hilly area. There are various methods developed in
the mobile propagation industry in order to obtain a satisfactory prediction. Most of these
methods propose adding a correction factors onto the classic Okumura-Hata model. Out of these
methods, there is one that suggests the concept of Terrain Clearance Angle has received the
most popularity and recognition. Hence, the following discussion will solely focus on it.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

5.1. Appropriate Propagation Model : Terrain Clearance Angle

Method
The Terrain Clearance Angle method (referred to hereinafter as TCA) is proposed by the
European Broadcasting Union (EBU), and adopted by CCIR. The main ideas of the method have
been to retain the CCIR reference field strength curves given in ITU-R P.370, the simplicity of
application, and to improve the accuracy by taking into account the terrain effects in the region of
the receiving area. These terrain effects are incorporated through the correction based on a
"terrain clearance angle." This angle should be a representative of those angles in the reception
area measured between the horizontal line at the MS, and that, which clears all obstacles within in
the direction of the BTS. The correction factor in terms of the "terrain clearance angle" is given in
the form of a curve. The curve is derived through an optimization process and is the results of

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calculations of the field strength on more than 200 paths. This correction factor should be added
to the field strength level obtained from the CCIR reference curves given in ITU-R P.370.
The Path Loss of this method can be represented by,
PL = PLOH + CTCA
(14)
Where
PLOH = Path Loss (dB) estimated using classic Okumura-Hata model
CTCA = attenuation/gain in dB which due to terrain
= 14.9 (6.9 + 20log(((v-0.1)2+1)1/2+v-0.1))
v = -93.1
= Terrain Clearance Angle (radian), refer to the diagram below.
For accurate estimation result, if possible, should be determined precisely with the GPS
location of both the BTS and MS sought and marked on a topographic map. However In practical,
a value of 1degree (for coverage estimate) and +1 degree (for interference estimate) are used
when the actual data are not available on site.

When is above the horizontal plane and found bigger than the value of LOS/NLOS border, a
pure NLOS situation is considered and the C TCA will be with negative value and considered as a
loss. On the other hand, a positive leads to a gain where a LOS situation is observed.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

5.2. Model Limitation and Accuracy

Due to the fact that TCA method still relies on classic Okumura-Hata model, all limitations on
this classic model should also apply to the TCA method (refer to Large cell section). In addition
to that, there are some limitations on the TCA. For TCA greater than +3 degree or lower than 7
degree, the TCA loss at +3 degree and 7 degree shall be used respectively.

5.3. Simplification For Practical Use

In order to allow sites engineers to have a quick estimate on the path loss or signal strength, 2
curves are created in this section based on the concepts presented. First of all, the Path Loss vs. d
for various hb as illustrated below. It should be noted that the top curve represents the free space
loss.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

The above graph is based on the ordinary Okumura-Hata model in the urban environment,
assuming hm(h1 on the graph) = 1.5m. It should also be noted that urban is chosen to get the
worst-case scenario. Should the hilly terrain is open or Quasi-open, relevant graphs using the
appropriate Land use correction factor within the Okumura-Hata can always be generated.
However, should the hilly area is covered by dense forest where roads or highways cut through
(intended coverage targets), higher loss model such as the one in urban should always be used.
On the y-axis, field strength (dBV/m) is quoted rather than Path Loss, however, the path loss
can be easily worked out by applying the below equation,
PLOH = 198.7 - E(dBV/m)

(15)

The second curve gives the value of C TCA with respect to as illustrated in the below graph. It
should be noted that the curve represents the equation presented previously.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

For example, one needs to estimate the on street receive signal strength at 2Km radial distance
from a BTS site with 56dBm ERP and 30m hb (referred to as h1 on the graph). Should the terrain
separating both the BTS and MS are extremely hilly with dense forest, the above graphs can be
used. First of all, the PL is worked out.
PL = PLOH + CTCA
From the graph above, PLOH = 198.7 63
(63 read from graph)
= 135.7dB
To find out CTCA, is determined before hand to be -3 degree. From the TCA correction factor
graph above, CTCA is found to be -10dB or in other words 10dB of loss.
Hence, PL = 135.7 + 10 = 145.7dB.
Finally, Prx = 56dBm 145.7dB = -90dBm (50% coverage probability)

5.4. LOS, Single and Multi Diffraction Case

For a LOS situation in the hilly environment, the LOS approach presented under the large cell
section can also be applied. However, it is important to ensure that the irregular terrain profile
between the BTS and MS are strictly free of blockage prior to the use of such a LOS method.
Should any of the rolling terrain intercepts into the 0.5 Fresnel Zone, the TCA method should be
utilized to get a quick path loss estimate. For the case of single and multi diffraction case, it is
already explained in the previous section that TCA method serves well for a quick and precise
estimate.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

6. Sea Environment
In this document, Sea environment is used to categorize all huge water body on the earth surface
whereby the mobile signal will sometimes propagates over. This water body includes ocean, big
lake and river. Water body seldom gets the coverage priority both from the mobile user and
operator perspective. However, there are still cases where this environment needs to be planned
for coverage. For example, sea surface within the offshore territory of a country, water vessels
route.
In general, radio propagation over water body is often perceived as free as propagation in free
space. The fact is, water surface propagation closely resemblances the free space loss slope for
radial distance within the BTS LOS. Beyond the LOS, mobile signal will drop steeper in its
strength due to surface diffraction. In other words, the water surface path loss should appear to be
2 curves with different slopes, with a breakpoint separating them.

6.1. Appropriate Propagation Model : ITU-R P.370

Strictly speaking, ITU-R P. 370 should not be referred to as a propagation model as it is merely a
set of recommendation based of measurements. In this recommendation, a great deal of
measurement had been collected, including over the sea surface. Receive signal strength on
different frequency bands had been measured from various radial distance from a standard test
transmitter. The results are transformed into graphs to provide good reference on how the radio
signal gets attenuated over sea under various test transmitter height scenario (refer to the below
graph).
From the graph title, it is known that the test had been conducted using a transmitter with 1KW
(60dBm) ERP output. Also, the receiver (MS) height on the sea surface was set to 10m while the
entire measurement was done over a cold sea surface (typical sea condition for temperate
climates). It is worth mentioning that ITU-R P.370 also publishes graphs from other sea condition
such as warm sea. However, it is not brought out for discussion in this document because both the
cold and warm sea projects a similar result between distances of 10Km to 35Km, i.e. around the
limit of GSM propagation. Various test transmitter height (referred hereinafter as BTS) were set
and lead to multiple curves.
Also, the original graph shows only the propagation pattern from 10Km onwards. The author has
extrapolated all the curves into the regions of 1 to 10Km. When that is done, the author had
maintained the slope between the original 10Km readings and the distance of the horizon (LOS).
Hence, the extrapolated region will give a reasonable accuracy when it is used for path loss
estimation. Nevertheless, most of the BTS height scenario will have a maximum allowable path
loss beyond this extrapolated region, which is later presented in an example.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

It should also be noted that the above graph represents the result of 10% of all time. In other
words, the duration of the measurement was approximately 10% of a year. Hence, any planning
using the above graph will give a desired performance for at least 10% of the whole year.
However, it does not mean the remaining 90% of the year will experience a bad performance. It
simply means that the actual performance is deemed for fluctuation above and below the mean
value planned. Comparing the above graph with the one with 50% of all time, it is found that the
measured signal of the latter, for the same condition at any distance, is always 5dB lower than the
former.
The choice of time percentage lies mainly on the budget of the project. From the author opinion, a
10% time consideration shall be sufficient considering the relatively low amount of traffic
expected from the sea surface.

6.2. Model Limitation and Accuracy

As this method relies heavily of the measurement result presented in graphs, the application of
this model should always confine to other geographic area with the same climate and sea
condition. In addition to that, all measurement range on the parameters such as h b, hm, and d shall
be obliged for the best estimate result. However, extrapolation can still be made on the graph for

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Propagation Models Practical Use

scenarios, which any of the parameters fall outside of the measurement range. If that is the case, a
certain degree of error should be anticipated.

6.3. Simplification For Practical Use

When sea environment is considered, the need to estimate the maximum coverage boundary
appears to be more desired as compared to estimate the signal strength at d distance away from
the BTS. To have a quick estimate on how far the coverage of a BTS can go on the sea surface
(assuming BTS is close to the coast), the maximum allowable path loss is first determined. In
previous section over land, 130dB had been used assuming the need to guarantee a MS receive
level of 74dBm on street, assuming a building penetration loss of 20dB and the need of 8dB
slow fading margin (90% coverage probability). However, for the case of sea surface, the MS are
generally expected to be on water vessels with less penetration loss (assumed to be 10dB) as
compared to building on land. Hence, the maximum allowable path loss over sea is 140dB.
140dB path loss is equivalent to a receive signal strength of 59dBV/m on the graph. This is
sought using the equation of,
PL(dB) = 198.7 E(dBV/m) (for the case of GSM900, 2.2dBi of MS antenna gain)
At this point, a correction factor called C hm shall be added to the required signal strength found
out above, E. Should the MS height hm is lower than the standard 10m. From ITU-R P.370,
Chm = -0.67 x 20log(hm/10)

(16)

Assuming hm on a typical small size vessel of 3m above sea level, C hm = 7dB

Hence, the effective required signal strength should be,
Preq = 59dBV/m + 7dB = 66 dBV/m
With that, a ruler is placed perpendicular to the x-axis of the above graph and moved in a leftright fashion. While doing that, the intercept point between the ruler and the appropriate curve
(37.5m Hb for example in this case) is observed and it corresponding E(dBV/m) is read on the yaxis. Where 66dBV/m is found, the distance d, is then obtained on x-axis. In this case,
d = 15Km (maximum coverage distance)
The same procedure is repeated for the case of h b = 75m, d is found to be 25Km. Hb higher than
25m gives much longer d, so much so that it exceeds the GSM limit, hence, they are not
discussed further.
From ITU-R P. 370, the distance of horizon in sight from the BTS (with h b height) can be
calculated using the below equation,
dh = 4.1(hb)
(17)
Using this equation, the dh of hb = 37.5m and 75m are found to be 25Km and 35Km respectively.
Hence, as a rule of thumb, the maximum coverage over sea shall always equal to or less than the
distance of horizon in sight from the BTS, in other words d h, depending on the MS height and
vessel penetration loss.
The same graph can also be used to make a quick estimate on the receive signal strength, at a
distance d away from the BTS. For example, assuming a BTS height of 37.5m and ERP of
59dBm, the signal strength at 5Km away, at a MS height hm of 10m is found to be,

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Propagation Models Practical Use

Prx = ERP PL = 59dBm - (198.7 75)
= -65dBm

(75dBV/m read from graph)

6.4. LOS, Single and Multi Diffraction Case

It has been explain in this section that in sea environment, the path loss slope within the horizon
distance closely resemblances the slope of free space loss, i.e. 20log(d). To estimate the path loss
for both the LOS and diffraction scenario, the same graph presented can be used.

7. Indoor Propagation
Propagation prediction for indoor radio systems differs in some respects from that for outdoor
systems. The ultimate purposes, as in outdoor systems, are to ensure efficient coverage of the
required area and to avoid interference, both within the system and to other systems. However, in
the indoor case, the extent of coverage is well defined by the geometry of the building, and the
limits of the building itself will affect the propagation. In addition to frequency reuse on the same
floor of a building, there is often a desire for frequency reuse between floors of the same building,
which adds a third dimension to the interference issues.
Because of the complex nature of these factors, if the specific planning of an indoor radio system
were to be undertaken, detailed knowledge of the particular site would be required, e.g. geometry,
materials, furniture, expected usage patterns, etc. However, for initial system planning, it is
necessary to estimate the number of base stations to provide coverage to distributed mobile
stations within the area and to estimate potential interference to other services or between
systems. For these system-planning cases, models that generally represent the propagation
characteristics in the environment are needed. At the same time the model should not require a lot
of input information by the user in order to carry out the calculations.
Consistent with the purpose of this document, i.e. to provide the site engineers with a quick and
practical estimate on the coverage distance, this section presents mainly general site-independent
models.

The following discussion is subdivided into in building and tunnel.

7.1. In-building
An in-building environment can be of a corporate building, shopping complex, stadium and
airport. The indoor radio path loss is characterized by both an average path loss and its associated
shadow fading statistics. Several indoor path loss models account for the attenuation of the signal
through multiple walls and/or multiple floors, this will allow for frequency reuse analysis
between floors. As mentioned before, the model described in this section is considered to be sitegeneral as it requires little path or site information.

7.1.1. Appropriate Propagation Model: ITU-R P.1238

ITU-R P.1238 is an ITU recommendation that focuses on indoor coverage issue. In it, there is a
site-general indoor propagation model (empirical) presented which is widely used for preliminary
indoor planning. It should be noted that the model presented below has its distance power loss

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Propagation Models Practical Use

coefficients includes an implicit allowance for transmission through walls and over and through
obstacles, and for other loss mechanisms likely to be encountered within a single floor of a
building. The basic model has the following form:

LID = 20 log(f) +Nlog(d) +Lf (n) 28dB + X

where:
N = distance power loss coefficient
f = frequency (MHz)
d = separation distance (m) between the BTS/antenna and the MS (where d >1 m)
Lf(n) = floor penetration loss factor (dB)
n = number of floors between BTS/antenna and MS (n 1).
Xcoverage probability margin to overcome indoor shadow fading
Typical parameters, based on various measurement results, are given in below tables. Additional
general guidelines are given at the end of the section.
Power loss coefficients, N, for indoor transmission loss calculation
Power loss coefficients, N
Frequency (GHz)
Residential
Office
900 MHz
33
1.8-2 GHz
28
30

Commercial
20
22

Floor penetration loss factors, Lf(n) (dB) with n being the number of floors penetrated, for
indoor transmission loss calculation (n >=1)
Floor penetration Lf(n) (dB)
Frequency (GHz)
Residential
Office
Commercial
900 MHz
9 (1 floor)
19 (2 floor)
24 (3 floor)
1.8-2 GHz
4n
15+4(n-1)
6+3(n-1)
For the various frequency bands where the power loss coefficient is not stated for residential
buildings, the value given for office buildings could be used. It should be noted that there might
be a limit on the isolation expected through multiple floors. The signal may find other external
paths to complete the link with less total loss than that due to the penetration loss through many
floors.

7.1.2. Model Limitation and Accuracy

As the model is an empirical one, it should be noted that the accuracy of the result relies heavily
on the building commonalities between the one where the measurements were taken and the one
where the model is applied. However, this model has been generally accepted to provide a first
hand or preliminary indoors design whereby the number of BTS/antenna is required for a
particular building.
For a more accurate or detailed design, ideally a site-specific (deterministic) model should be
applied. However, knowing such a model requires huge and complex computation that can only
be done by a computer, with the presence of expensive and sophisticated building data (such as
wall material, floor plan, ceiling structure), a more practical approach is preferred.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

It is very common nowadays to use the presented empirical model to do a real indoor design. The
first hand estimate is then verified by an experienced engineer by conducting survey in the
building. On places where a difficult decision is expected, propagation test will be required.

7.1.3. Simplification For Practical Use

For a quick estimate on how far an in-building signal can propagate, the above equation is
rewritten into,
LID = 20 log(925) +Nlog(d) +Lf (n) 28dB + X(90%) or
LID = 39 +Nlog(d) +Lf (n)
(19)
Assuming, f=925MHz, indoor standard deviation of 8dB, 90% coverage probability required
which gives 8dB margin.
For example, with an in-building BTS ERP (omni directional antenna) of 39dBm located on the
3rd floor of a typical office multi-floor building, measuring 50m x 50m x 3m (long, width and
height), the signal strength estimate will be,
P1 = 39dBm PLID = 33log(25) + 0 = -46dBm
P2 = 39dBm PLID = 33log(27) + 9 = -56dBm
P3 = -68dBm
P4 = -73dBm

It should be noted that the above example is solely based on preliminary coverage consideration.
The aim of this example is to illustrate how the presented propagation is used for quick
estimation. In practice, there are other critical issues that need to be considered when doing an inbuilding design, such as the internal and external interference. When it comes to interference

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Propagation Models Practical Use

consideration, the above configuration is usually not adopted as the omni antenna on such a high
location will radiate unnecessary power out from the building. This causes interference to
surrounding outdoor sites and subsequently jeopardize the overall network quality.

7.1.4. LOS, Single and Multi Diffraction Case

Based on the measurement presented in ITU-R P. 1238, it is concluded that for the operating
frequency between 900MHz and 2000Mhz, the LOS path loss slope resemblances the free space
loss. Therefore, whenever there is a LOS between the indoor BTS/antenna and the MS,

PLLOS = 20 log(f) +20log(d) 28dB + X

(20)

On the other hand, it has been explained in the beginning of this section that the presented indoor
propagation model is an empirical one (site-general). Such a model has already the refraction,
reflection, transmission, single and multiple diffraction phenomenon implicitly covered within the
power loss coefficient.

7.2. Tunnel
The tunnel environment can be of a train, underground transit or road tunnels. In general, road
tunnel is usually bigger in size considering the size of the vehicles (cars) that pass through it.
Contrary to that, a train or underground rail transit tunnel is usually found much smaller in size
with respect the size of the train. The most common approach in characterizing the radio signal
propagation within tunnel is the wave-guide approach, whereby the entire tunnel is modeled as an
electromagnetic wave guide with constant cross sectional area. Various theories and measurement
had been conducted and its feasibility and accuracy is proven, especially for road tunnel
environment. However, the author has some reservations on the wave-guide approach being
applied in a train tunnel, as it will be explained more in details the later sections.
A wave-guide approach is of a deterministic model. In it, the concepts of either ray tracing,
optical ray or a mix of both are used. These concepts take into consideration the entire reflection,
scattering and diffraction phenomenon. Hence, such a model requires a huge computation
platform and it involves a lot of in-depth electromagnetic explanation which apparently beyond
the scope of this discussion. Nevertheless, readers are recommended to refer to a good example of
such a model at http://www.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/.
As the aim of this document is to provide the RF engineers with a practical rule of thumb model
in rf propagation under different circumstances, the following discussion will discuss on a simple
method where the a first level engineering can be based on.

7.2.1. Appropriate Propagation Model: Wave guide Approach

with measurements
In developing the model explained in the above website, various measurement had been done in
the process of development as well as after, in order to verify the model accuracy. Some of the
measurements presented in graphs can be extracted and used in doing a first level road tunnel
coverage design. (It should be noted that train tunnel coverage will be discuss separately later)
The below graph shows the path loss measurement vs. the distance of MS from the BTS antenna.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

The above measurement was done in a short straight rectangular, wide-profile, single-lane
concrete tunnel section. The transmit antenna is a directional log-periodic GSM900 antenna with
12 dBi gain, located inside the tunnel. As for the receiver, a /4 monopole omni directional
antenna was used. It should be noted that the receiver antenna is place on a moving lorry, which
cruises along the tunnel. Hence, there was no penetrating loss appeared between the transmit and
receive antennas.
From the above graph (only refer to the measurement curve), it is observed that generally, the
radio signal experiences a more severe fluctuation in the close proximity of the transmit antenna,
which is not observed when the distance d, increases. The signal attenuation increases gradually
with respect to the distance d. However, the magnitude is not as big as one would have imagined,
this is mainly due to the ducting effect whereby most of the signal gets propagated in a guided
manner within the tunnel towards the receiver.
The next scenario shows the path loss vs. distance d along a curved and circular shaped tunnel.
Prior to that, the cross sectional view of such a tunnel is shown below.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

Also, the schematic view of the tunnel is shown below.

This is a single-lane subway tunnel, concrete curved arched. The path loss within this tunnel with
respect to the receiver distance d is shown below.
From the below graph (only refer to the measurement curve), once again, it is observed that the
radio signal experiences a more severe fluctuation in the close proximity of the transmit antenna,
which is not observed when the distance d, increases. The signal attenuation increases more
severely in overall with respect to the distance d, this is mainly due to the presence of curves
along the entire tunnel.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

It is often for maintenance and installation reason, the transmitting antenna (with the
BTS/repeater) is installed outside of a tunnel. The effect of such kind of installation is examined
using the deterministic model explained in the abovementioned website. 2 different antenna
installations are simulated, one with the antenna located inside the tunnel while the other at a 30m
distance away from the tunnel opening. Both installations are with an identical omni directional
antenna located along the tunnel axis at the height of 2.5m from the floor. The tunnel is
rectangular in shape measuring 10m widths and 5m high. The below graph shows the Path loss
vs. the receive distance d.
It is observed from the graph that at small d, the signal from internal antenna is measured
significantly higher as compared to the one from the external antenna. This is explained by the
difference in amount of signal being coupled to the tunnel as modeled as a wave-guide. Also, the
signal fluctuation of the internal antenna is more pronounced. At larger distance, the 2 curves
however converge. The reason for this is evident. In the vicinity of the internal antenna, many
rays impinge almost homogeneously spread over a solid 360-degree direction, resulting in a high
level and a highly fluctuating interference pattern. Consider an increasing distance from the
transmitter, the rays reaching the receive antenna via multiple reflections under large angles with
respect to the tunnel axis, are highly attenuated. These rays can be interpreted as belonging to
highly attenuated propagation modes. The remaining rays almost exclusively hit the receive
antenna from the frontal direction, reflecting under grazing incidence, which corresponds to the
less attenuated modes. For the external antenna position, only rays of the later type enter the
tunnel, resulting in the convergence of the 2 curves at large distances, where for the internal
antenna position the less attenuated rays dominate.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

When an external antenna installation is adopted, the exact location of the antenna in terms of its
height from ground, lateral distance from the tunnel axis, distance from the tunnel opening play
an important role in achieving the best propagation into the tunnel. Once again, simulations had
been done and the findings and conclusions are extracted and quoted below.
To integrally characterize the influence of different external transmitting antenna positions,
simulations are made in a model tunnel as illustrated below.

The basic form of the cross section is an ellipse with a horizontal half axis of a =6m, and a
vertical half axis b=5.5m. The floor is situated 2.5m above the lowest point of the ellipse; the total
height of the tunnel is 5m. The entire course consists of 2 sections: a right bend of length l 1 =
600m with radius of curvature rc = 800m, followed by a straight section of length l 2 = 1000m. The
transmitting antenna, a vertically polarized dipole, is located at different positions in front of the
tunnel opening. The mean received power level is calculated over the entire cross section for each
meter inside the tunnel. The operating frequency of all simulations is 1GHz.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

First, the transmitting antenna is situated at a distance d =20m in front of the tunnel opening at 3
different heights: hT1=0.5m, hT2=2.5m and hT3=4.5m. The predicted power level for each position
is plotted in the below graph. Not surprisingly, the centric position (h T2=2.5m) leads to the lowest
path loss. The difference between the curves for h T1 and hT3 is partially due to the ground reflected
rays in front of the tunnel opening and the asymmetric shape of the cross-section.

Hence, for such an external antenna installation, a central position always gives the best
propagation, although it is not easy obtained in the real environment.
Next, to determine the influence of the distance between the transmit antenna and the tunnel
opening, several simulations with a spacing of 1m, 20m, 50m, 80m and 120m between the
transmit antenna and the tunnel opening are carried out. The height of the transmit antenna is set
to hT=2.5m. The below graph shows the result of various distance. The larger the distance from
the transmitting antenna to the tunnel opening, the lower is the coupled power into the tunnel.
Deep inside the tunnel, however, the curves are converging in analogy to the observations of the
previous explanation. For a Tx-spacing of 80m, there exists a breakeven point at about 800m
from the tunnel opening. Such a breakeven point is only possible in curved geometries. Its
occurrence strongly depends on the actual geometry of the tunnel and the lateral transmit antenna
location, which all become apparent in the following discussion.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

Last, the impact of a lateral shift is investigated for the same tunnel model. At 2 distances d=20m
and d=80m from the tunnel opening, 3 different transmit antenna locations are used, respectively.
The first is the centric position; the 2 nd position is shifted by 5.5m to the left, whereas the 3 rd
position is shifted accordingly by the same amount to the right. The Tx height at all positions
equals hT=2.5m. As expected, the transmit antenna at the left position results in the highest
received power level, due to the largest area of direct tunnel illumination compared to the other 2
locations. Additionally, the difference in received level between the left and right Tx positions is
smaller for the larger spacing (d=80m). Furthermore, no crossing of the curves is observed for the
left Tx position, like in the case of a purely straight tunnel. It can be concluded that the influence
of a curve is less pronounced for a transmit antenna moved towards the outside of the tunnel.
In short, when lateral BTS antenna placing is considered outside of a tunnel, the side, which leads
to the most direct illumination up to the first tunnel bending point (the point where LOS turns
NLOS) is the preferred location.

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Propagation Models Practical Use

7.2.2. Model limitation and Accuracy

All the simulation and measurement results presented are for the development of a highly
sophisticated tunnel deterministic model. If any of the measurement results are to be utilized to
aid any form of preliminary tunnel coverage design, it should be ensured that the physical
characteristics of the tunnel under design to closely resemblance the one where the actual
measurements were done before. Also, both the simulation and measurement results above were
done without a penetration loss considered between the transmit and receive antennas. Hence,
those results can be of use in a road tunnel predictions. However, it is not sure whether such a
measurement result and simulation is appropriate for a narrow train tunnel. Therefore, a real
measurement is desired to obtained the data for a detailed train tunnel coverage design, this will
be discussed more in details in later section.

7.2.3. Simplification For Practical Use

Referring to Graph (a) GSM900, such a curve can be used to do a preliminary road tunnel
coverage design. A straight line can be drawn under the measurement curve with respect to the
distance d, as illustrated in the above graph at 50dB path loss level. 50dB loss is said to be the
maximum path loss one should be expecting for a 100m tunnel, which its characteristics are
similar to the one under the measurement. To find out the path loss beyond 100m straight and
rectangular shaped concrete tunnel, we will either need to conduct a measurement or running the
prediction using a reliable deterministic computer-aided model (for example the one explained in
the recommended website above).

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Propagation Models Practical Use

Graph (b) can also be used for preliminary coverage design for a curved shaped road tunnel. As
illustrated on Graph (b), a straight line is drawn under the measurement curve. The maximum
path loss allowed in such a curved tunnel is found out to be 78dB for a distance of 800m.

7.2.4. Measurement
As mentioned under the model limitation and accuracy section, all the measurement and
simulation result presented before this are based on a received antenna placed on top a lorry
where no vehicle penetration presents. Therefore, it is believed that all the above are valid for a
car tunnel where the size of the vehicle (car) is relatively smaller than the tunnel cross sectional
area. In such a case, a wave-guide approach holds where cars are simply considered as small
disturbance in the overall radio propagation when they move in and out of the tunnel. However,
should a train tunnel is the case, the worst-case scenario will have to be taken as illustrated in the
below diagram.

From the cross sectional view, it is obvious that the space for signal propagation is limited when
the train passes through the tunnel. Should the transmit antenna is placed at or outside of the
tunnel opening, while the coverage objective is the MS within the train, the question of whether a
wave guide propagation is still appropriate will arise. It might be the case whereby the reception
of such a mobile will have to rely on the mean of transmission through all the decks separating
both the transmit and receive antenna. To be 100% sure, it is strongly recommended that
measurement to be done to get the real picture of the path loss within a tunnel when a detailed
coverage planning is required. Also, as the tunnel propagation relies greatly on the cross-sectional
shape, geometry (straight or curved), number of curves and its curvature radius, construction
material, measurement stands out to be the best approach for a detailed design, should a
deterministic tunnel model is not available. (Like the one found on the abovementioned website)
7.2.4.1. Equipment

Ballmann STX-GSM 2 GSM900 Test Transmitter or equivalent

Rhode & Schwarz SME 23 GSM1800 Test Transmitter or equivalent
Rhode & Schwarz ESVD test receivers or equivalent
Kathrein K73226 V-Polarized, 12dBi antenna or equivalent
Jaybeam J7360 17dBi GSM1800 antenna or equivalent
/4 monopole mobile receive antenna or equivalent
Antenna Tripod

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Propagation Models Practical Use

Power Supply

7.2.4.2. Equipment Setup

Test Transmitter and Antenna installed at the potential BTS antenna location/s.
Test Receiver inside the train which cruises through the tunnel

7.2.4.3. Pre-test data collection

Procure or create the schematic or plan, cross-sectional view of the tunnel
Obtain or estimate the speed of train passing through the tunnel in both direction
Determine Potential BTS antenna locations
Determine the maximum path loss allowed considering the real link budget scenario

7.2.4.4. Test Procedures

Pre-test measurement to obtain the best transmission channel, free from any inband or out of band interference
Installed and activate all Test Transmitter at the potential BTS antenna location,
one at a time
Record the actual ERP of the Test Transmit antenna
Install and activate test receiver inside the train shortly before entering tunnel and
run the recording in a time-stamping manner
Repeat the measurement in the opposite direction

7.2.4.5. Measurement Plotting

Convert all measurement points from time-stamping to distance-stamping manually by
linking the speed of train
Average data at a distance window of 40 to eliminate excessive fast fading effect
Plot the Path Loss vs. distance graph

8. Conclusion
In this document, most of the propagation environments had been studied as well as their most
common RF propagation models that best represent them. This results to the choice of a specific

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Propagation Models Practical Use

model with respect to the different environment. Each of these models are elaborated and
simplified with the aim to provide users quick estimate of both received signal strength or the
path loss experienced. Each model has it limitation and accuracy discussed. Not surprisingly,
most of the chosen and discussed models are of the empirical category, with the exception of
tunnel environment. Measurement is strongly recommended for the tunnel environment in a
detailed coverage design, a simple test procedure is also included.

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