1.

Introduction

Chapter 7

1.1 Clarification and Thickening

Sedimentation: separation of a suspension into a clarified suspension ("overflow") and a

Sedimentation

"sludge" or "underflow" which contains most of the solids.

Clarification: the main objective is a clear liquid.

1. Introduction ..............................................................................................2

Thickening: the main objective is a concentrated solids suspension.

1.1 Clarification and Thickening ...................................................................2

1.2 Sedimentation process ..........................................................................2
1.3 Factors Affecting Sedimentation .............................................................3
1.3.1 Nature of Particles..........................................................................3

1.2 Sedimentation process

The high solids concentrations are such that, in the absence of agglomeration, settling rates are
smaller than for a single particle: settling is said to be "hindered" because:

1.3.2 Concentration Effects. ....................................................................3

the "apparent fluid" which is made up of the actual fluid and the other particles, has a larger

1.3.3 Flocculation ...................................................................................4

apparent fluid viscosity then the actual fluid. The drag of the "apparent fluid" on the particle

1.3.4 Sedimentation Vessel ......................................................................4

is thus larger. (In practice, a particle which collides with another particle is slowed down).

2. Prediction of Settling Rates .........................................................................5

the "apparent fluid" has a larger density that the actual fluid. The buoyancy force acting on

2.1 Coe-Clevenger Theory ...........................................................................5

a particle is, thus, larger.

2.2 Kynch Theory .......................................................................................7

As particles settle, liquid is displaced and flows upward, slowing down the particles.

2.3 Technique from Oltmann .......................................................................14

Electrical forces may repulse the particles.

3. Typical Thickeners .....................................................................................14

3.1 Regular Circular ....................................................................................14
4. References ...............................................................................................16
5. Notation ...................................................................................................16

In a typical batch settling of a suspension, 4 zones appear with, from top:

1.

clear supernatant: low particle concentration.

2.

free settling zone or "zone of collective

subsidence": the suspension has the same
concentration as the original suspension. If there is

2014/03/16 - Cedric and Lauren Briens

good flocculation, the boundary between zones 1

and 2, which is called "solid-liquid interface", is
sharp.
3.

compression zone: this is a transition layer whose

density is larger than the suspension density but

1
2

34

smaller than the sediment density. In this zone, the

liquid is slowly being squeezed out from a network
of flocs.
4.

compacted sediment: mixture of flocs and large

grains. (contains flocs which were already close to
bottom).

7-1

7-2

tim e

Boundaries between zones 2 and 3 and between zones 3 and 4 are not very sharp and may be

There are 3 main settling modes which depend on the original concentration:

hard to observe.

dilute: particles or flocculates behave freely with almost no interactions.

First, all 4 zones appear.

intermediate: flocculates are in loose contact. The displaced liquid tends to bypass the

As settling proceeds, zone 2 first disappears. This is called the "critical sedimentation point".

flocs and flow upward through channels whose diameter is of same order as the flocs

The downward speed of the interface is sharply reduced.

diameter.

Compression then occurs and liquid is slowly expelled from between the flocs under the sole

concentrated: channels do not form. The liquid must flow through voids in-between the

action of the weight of the sediment above. This is a very slow process.

flocs. The compaction is slow and its rate of compaction then depends on the weight of the

Settling ends when equilibrium between the weight of the flocs and their mechanical strength

flocs above: there is a cohesive assembly of flocs.

which resists compression is reached.

interface

in t e r f a c e
h e ig h t

height

s o lid - liq u id

in t e r f a c e

Intermediate

Dilute

z o n e
z o n e

Concentrated

c r it ic a l s e d im e n t a

time

z o n e

z o n e

1.3.3 Flocculation
It is generally beneficial since small particles form large flocs and can, thus, settle quickly.

tim e

It can be detrimental if lots of water is trapped within the flocs as then the apparent floc density
is reduced and the compression time is increased.

1.3 Factors Affecting Sedimentation

Spherical and compact flocs can be achieved through proper preparation, using:

1.3.1 Nature of Particles

1. additives (electrolytes to neutralize repulsive charges on particles, surfactants, materials

Spheres settle more quickly than plates or needles because of particle-particle interactions.

which attach to particles and drag them down: glue, lime, alumina...). See Hughes (1981).
For an example with coal particles, see Bueno et al. (1993).

1.3.2 Concentration Effects: "hindered settling".

As the particle concentration is increased:

2. proper flocculation equipment: gentle stirring brings particles together to form flocs. Gentle
mixing can be provided by rising gas bubbles, by slow paddles, by turbulence around

the upward velocity of the liquid displaced by settling particles increases.

obstacles such as baffles, by turbulent flow through a pipe or by turbulent flow through bed

the larger solid concentration increases the interstitial velocity of this rising liquid.

of large particles (which may be the already formed flocs and which may be fixed or

particle-particle interactions increase: there are more collisions and coagulation is enhanced.

fluidized). See Ives (1981).

7-3

7-4

1.3.4 Sedimentation Vessel

At the level z, there will be settling of the particles only if their net velocity relative to the wall is

Wall effects will be significant if (particle diameter/vessel diameter) > 1%

directed down, i.e. if "the particles go down, relative to the liquid, faster than the liquid is going

The vessel height is important only for high solids concentrations (compaction).

up":

The vessel shape has no effect if the cross-sectional area is independent of height.

U > Qo' / A.

The vessel cross-sectional area may changed with height to improve high capacity thickeners.
Estimation of Qo'.
2. Prediction of Settling Rates

Volume balance on clear liquid:

Lab tests are required since the basic phenomena are too complex to model accurately.

Q = Qu + Qo'

In the following derivations, Q refers to the volumetric flowrate of clear liquid and c refers to the

C Q = Cu Q u

solids concentration, expressed in kg solids/m3clear liquid.

gives:

2.1 Coe-Clevenger Theory

Qo' = Qu (Cu / C) - Qu = Qu Cu (1/C - 1/Cu)

or:

Qo' = Q - Qu

Q = Qu (Cu / C)
With this theory, the required thickener area may be estimated from batch bench-top settling

which gives, since Qu Cu = Qf Cf,

tests. Consider a thickener with a feed of volumetric flowrate Qf and solids concentration Cf.

Qo' = Qf Cf (1/C - 1/Cu)

The overflow is clear and contains no solids. All solids thus exit with underflow.
If U is the velocity at which the solids settle (for a solids concentration C), no solids will be
Q o, Co

Overall mass balance on solids:

entrained into the overflow only if:

Qf Cf = Qu Cu

U > Qo' / A, or

A > (1/C - 1/Cu) Qf Cf / U

This can also be expressed as:

Overall volume balance on suspension:

G < U / (1/C - 1/Cu)

Qf = Qo + Qu

where G is the solids flux in kg / (s. m2 of thickener cross-section).

C
f

Q'o

Q, C
z

At a level z below the feed level, for a local solid

Over the height of the thickener, the solids concentration varies between Cf and Cu. The solids

concentration C and a local downward volumetric

settling velocity will also vary since it is a function of the solids concentration C. The minimum

flowrate Q of suspension, assuming that there is no

value of the vessel cross-sectional area A which will prevent "solids backup" will thus vary with

solids upflow, the mass balance on solids is:

the height z which is considered. To make sure that there will be no solids backup anywhere in

Q C = Qu Cu = Qf Cf

the vessel, the minimum area A is therefore calculated for all the (C, U) present in the
equipment and the largest value is selected.

Q ,C
u u

The lab tests measure the solids settling velocity U (relative to the liquid) for each concentration
Below the feed level, there is more liquid coming in from the top than coming out with underflow

C.

since:

given set of particles and liquid).

This velocity U is then assumed to be a function of the solids concentration C only (for a

Q C = Qu Cu and C < Cu yields: Q > Qu.

Some liquid "backs up" with an upward volumetric flowrate Qo' which varies with the slurry

The Coe-Clevenger method underestimates the required A. Errors could be caused by wall

concentration and, thus, the level z.

effects or channeling in the bench graduated cylinders used to evaluate U(C).

Assume that U is the settling velocity of the particles, relative to slurry, at the level z.

7-5

7-6

As time t increases, the concentration at any level still inside the suspension zone increases. If

A>Q0/U

one considers the level z for which the solid concentration is a constant value C, this level will
rise as the suspension becomes more concentrated.

250

minimum cross-sectional area, m2

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

Qf = 1 m3/s
Cf = 5 wt%
Cu = 30 wt%

200

solids concentration profiles

test with initial concentration ci = 7 wt%

150

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

High Q0

Low Q0

1
10
20

High U

Low U

14

50

10

15

20

25

concentration, wt%

concentration, wt%

time, s

16
100

0
6

30

30
40

12
10
8
6
4

2.2 Kynch Theory

As with the Coe-Clevenger theory, the fundamental assumption from which this theory is
derived is that the settling velocity U of the solids, relative to the liquid, is the same in an

2
0
0

industrial vessel as in a small graduated cylinder.

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

height from cylinder bottom, cm

This theory makes it possible to get U(C) from a

20

single settling experiment in a graduated

18

positions of zones of constant concentration

cylinder. Start with a concentration ci near Cf.

16

10

C, wt%

14
12

In practice, suspension settling in a graduated

10

cylinder is characterized by a clear interface

between clear supernatant and suspension. As

settling proceeds, the interface height h drops.

There is a negligible amount of solids in

supernatant. Thus, the mass of solids below the

0
0

20

40

60

80

time, s

100

120

140

interface height is given by:

ms = ci hi a
Interactions between particles are such that all particles settle at the same velocity U.

height from cylinder bottom, cm

interface height, cm

settling velocity of flocs (U), cm/s

225 m2

solids concentration, wt%

0.8

10
12

0
0

10

20

30

time, s

7-7

7-8

40

50

v is defined as the velocity at which the level z for the zone whose concentration is a given and
constant value C rises, relative to the wall of the graduated cylinder.

Demonstration of v = constant, independent of t and z

The flux of solids, in kg/(s.m2), relative to wall, which is going through the zone of constant

Note that in the following derivation, the velocities v and U are absolute values (>0).

concentration C is given by:

Mass balance on solids for the slice of height dz in which the solids concentration is constant and

Fs = C U

equal to C:
Since U is a function of C only and C is constant for this zone, Fs is also constant, independent of

time and of the height z at which the zone is located.

C, U
dz

zo n e o f

The same can be said of the zone of concentration (C + dC) just below.

c o n s ta n t

c o n c e n tra tio n C

C +dC , U +dU

Thus:
constant = [(Fs at C+dC) - (Fs at C)] / dC = dFs/dC = d(CU)/dC

slice is moving and the velocity of the particles relative to slice is:

and:

(v + U) at top of slice

v = - d(CU)/dC = constant.

(v + U + dU) at bottom of slice

The velocity v at which the zone of constant concentration C is rising is thus constant and
mass flux of solids into slice:

independent of the time and the position z where this zone is located.

C (v + U)
mass flux of solids out of slice:

Experimental Determination of C(U)

(C + dC) (U + dU + v)

At the start of the settling experiment (t = 0), all the zones of high concentration are at the
bottom of the graduated cylinder (i.e. at z = 0). If the zone of concentration C reaches the

Since the slice has a constant solids concentration, there is no accumulation of solids in the slice

interface (which is then at the height h) at time t, since v is constant:

and the flux of solids entering the slice must be equal to the flux of solids coming out of it:

v = (h - 0) / (t - 0) = h/t.

C (v + U) = (C + dC) (U + dU + v)
or:
v = - U - C dU/dC = -d(CU)/dC

When the zone of constant concentration C reaches the interface, this means that all the solids
(positive if upward)

present in the graduated cylinder have passed through this zone (since there are no solids
above the interface).
As shown earlier, the mass flux of solids into the slice is:
C (v + U).
If a is the cross-sectional area of the graduated cylinder, the mass flowrate of solids into the
slice is:
C a (v + U).
If ms is the total mass of solids in the cylinder:

7-9

C a (v U) dt

7 - 10

Since C, v and U are constant and independent of time:

Getting U(C) from experiments

ms = C a (v + U) t = C a (h + Ut)
or:

hi Ci a = C a (h + Ut)

Settling experiments in a graduated cylinder

give a plot of the observed interface height h

which yields:

h
T

C = Ci hi / (h + Ut)

as a function of time t. For each time t, U is

compression
point

The above relationship applies only to the slices of constant concentration which "rise" from the

curve and the corresponding concentration C

is obtained from:

bottom of the cylinder.

given by the slope of the tangent to the

C = Ci hi / (h + Ut)
After the initial "startup stage", the interface first falls with a velocity U which corresponds to c0.
Substituting:

The interface then meets with the zones of higher concentration which are "rising" from the
bottom. There may be some zones of constant concentration which a negative v, i.e. which
would go towards the bottom: they will never form since as soon as they would form at the
bottom they would go down into the sediment in compaction (zone 3).

U = |(h - hT)| / (t -0) = (hT - h) / t

0
0

Obtaining:

time

C = Ci h i / h T

Since there are no particles above the interface, the velocity U of the particles which are just at

The U(C) data which are, thus, obtained can then be plotted.

the interface is equal to the velocity of the interface, i.e. U (at interface) = |dh/dt|.

The required minimum thickener area can be calculated for each (U,C):
A > Qf Cf (1/C - 1/Cu) / U

When the zone of concentration C reaches the interface, the velocity of the particles in this zone

The maximum of all these values is the actual required area.

thus becomes equal to the velocity of the interface:

U(for z=h) = |dh/dt| = |slope of tangent to h vs. t curve|

Note that since the "free settling zone" is what determines the thickener area, only the points
before the point where the "free settling zone" disappears should be used. In practice, this
means that only the points to the left of the "compression point" (which corresponds to the
disappearance of the "free settling zone") should be used.

7 - 11

7 - 12

Simpler Completely Graphical Technique (Talmage-Fitch, 1955)

If the h = hu line is below the compression point, take the tangent to the curve at the
compression point (as in above figure).

In a continuous thickener with an underflow

concentration Cu, Coe- Clevenger have shown

hi

that the minimum thickener area is given by:

hT

If the h = hu line is above the compression point, take the tangent at the point at which the
h = hu line crosses the curve (Osborne, 1981) (if the compression point is hard to locate, it
may be worth to plot log (h - h ) vs. time t, where h

is h measured for an infinite time).

A > Qf Cf (1/C - 1/Cu) / U.

compression
point

In a batch settling test, one can associate the

height hu to the Cu in the same manner as ht

hu

is associated to C:

2.3 Technique from Oltmann

The "initial" point, (ti, hi) is identified.

hi Ci = hT C = hu Cu.

hT

The compression point is located.

A straight line is drawn from (ti, hi) to the

compression point.

Due to the relatively large value of Cu, hu

0
0

tu

time

compression
point

does not correspond to an actual tangent and

is thus a completely fictitious value defined as:
h u = h i Ci / Cu .

The horizontal line h = hu is found as before.

The time tu is given by:

hu

tu = te - ti

same as before, except that tu is calculated

Thus:

A > 1.2 tu [(Qf Cf) / (Ci hi)]

(1/C - 1/Cu) = (hT - hu) / (Ci hi)

and, also:

0 ti

U = (hT - h) / t = (hT - hu) / tu

t t

time

differently and an empirical safety factor of

1.2 is used.

where tu is a fictitious time obtained from the intersection of the tangent at (h, t) with the
horizontal line h = hu.

3. Typical Thickeners
Thus:
A > tu [(Qf Cf) / (Ci hi)]

3.1 Regular Circular Thickeners

and the minimum required area can be calculated by drawing the tangent to a variety of curves.

Large diameter shallow tank with flat bottom. The feed liquor is introduced about 0.3 to 1 m

The tangent which gives the maximum "minimum required area A", i.e. the largest tu, will give

below the surface, as smoothly as possible.

the required thickener area.

The underflow is continuously removed at the bottom and rotating rakes with scrapers push the
solids deposited at the bottom towards the outlet. The rake is hinged so that it lifts

In practice, one must check whether the horizontal line h = hu is above or below the

automatically if it encounters too much resistance, thus preventing mechanical damage or motor

"compression point" for which all the "free-settling" suspension zone has disappeared (note that

burnout.

the "free-settling" sedimentation and not the compression of the sediment determines the

The overflow runs around the tank.

thickener area).

These units can range up to 150 m in diameter.

7 - 13

7 - 14

4. References
Bueno J.L., Lorenzano J., Garcia R., Powder Technology 75 (1993) 119-125.
Hugues M.A., Chapter 4 (part I) in "Solid-Liquid Separation", ed. L. Svarovsky, Butterworths,
Toronto (1981).
Ives K.J., Chapter 4 (part II) in "Solid-Liquid Separation", ed. L. Svarovsky, Butterworths,
Toronto (1981).
Osborne D.G., Chapter 5 in "Solid-Liquid Separation", ed. L. Svarovsky, Butterworths, Toronto
(1981).
Talmage W.P., Fitch E.B., Industrial Chemistry 47 (1955) 38-41.

5. Notation
a

cross-sectional area of graduated cylinder, m2

cross-sectional area of thickener, m2

solids concentration, kg/m3

Cf

solids concentration in feed stream, kg solids /m3 of clear liquid

Co

solids concentration in overflow, kg solids /m3 of clear liquid

Cu

solids concentration in underflow stream, kg solids /m3 of clear liquid

Cui

critical underflow solids concentration, kg solids /m3 of clear liquid

ci

solids concentration at beginning of batch settling, kg solids /m3 of clear liquid

Fs

flux of solids going through the zone of constant concentration, relative to wall,
kg/ (s.m2)

7 - 15

mass flux of solids through the thickener, kg/(s.m2)

GB

bulk transport mass flux, kg/(s.m2)

GH

limiting total mass flux, kg/(s.m2)

Gs

batch flux or relative settling mass flux, kg/(s.m2)

interface height, m

interface height after an infinitely long settling time, m

hi

suspension height in batch settling test, m

hT

height at intersection of tangent to settling curve with height axis, m

hu

fictitious height characteristic of underflow, m

ms

total mass of solids in graduated cylinder, kg

7 - 16

volumetric flowrate of suspension, m3/s

Qf

volumetric flowrate of feed suspension, m3/s

Qo

volumetric flowrate of overflow suspension, m3/s

Qu

volumetric flowrate of underflow suspension, m3/s

time, s

te

time used in Oltmann's procedure, s

ti

fictitious time used in Oltmann's procedure, s

tu

fictitious time corresponding to the underflow concentration

solids velocity relative to fixed coordinates, m/s

velocity at which the zone of constant concentration C is rising, m/s

7 - 17

cu, s