Example

Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes. One of them,

Bromine-79 has a mass of 78.9183 and an abundance of 50.69%.
What must be the abundance and the mass of the other, Bromine-81?

If Br-79 accounts for 50.69% the other must account for 100-50.69 = 49.31%

From the periodic table we see that the averaged Br weight is 79.904. Thus:

79. 904 = (0.5069 x 78.9183) + (0.4931 x Br-81)

Counting Atoms
Recall that we must account for all of the
atoms in a chemical reaction.
Physically counting atoms is impossible.
We must be able to relate measured mass to
numbers of atoms.
using atoms by the gram

Avogadro s number
The mole is an amount of substance that
contains the same number of elementary
entities as there are carbon-12 atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
NA = 6.02214199 x 1023 mol-1

Example
Combining Several Factors in a CalculationMolar Mass, the
Avogadro Constant, Percent Abundance.
Potassium-40 is one of the few naturally occurring radioactive
isotopes of elements of low atomic number. Its percent natural
abundance among K isotopes is 0.012%. How many 40K
atoms do you ingest by drinking one cup of whole milk
containing 371 mg of K?
Want atoms of 40K, need atoms of K,
Want atoms of K, need moles of K,
Want moles of K, need mass and M(K).

Convert strategy to plan

Convert mass of K(mg K) into moles of K (mol K)
mK(mg) x (1g/1000mg) mK (g) x 1/MK (mol/g) nK(mol)
nK = (371 mg K) x (10-3 g/mg) x (1 mol K) / (39.10 g K)
= 9.49 x 10-3 mol K
Convert moles of K into atoms of 40K
nK(mol) x NA atoms K x 0.012% atoms 40K
atoms 40K = (9.49 x 10-3 mol K) x (6.022 x 1023 atoms K/mol K)
x (1.2 x 10-4 40K/K) = 6.9 x 1017 40K atoms

Chapter 3 Molecules
Only the noble gases exist in nature as single atoms
The atoms of all other elements combine to form MOLECULES
e.g.

H2
H 2O

a DIATOMIC molecule
a POLYATOMIC molecule

In a neutral atom or molecule # protons = # electrons

Molecules and Molecular

Compounds
Molecular Structural and Empirical Formulas

Molecular Mass/Molecular Weight

Molecular Mass
molecular
sum of atomic mass of each
= atom in the molecule (in amu)
mass
Determine the molecular mass of H2O:
2 atoms H x 1.008 amu
1 H atom
1 atom O x

= 2.016 amu

15.999 amu = 15.999 amu

1 O atom

molecular mass
1 molecule H2O = 2.016 amu + 15.999 amu = 18.015 amu

Molar Mass of Molecules

mass in grams of 1 mole of the molecule
What is the molar mass of H2O?
molar mass
1 mole H2O = 2.016 g for two moles of H
+ 15.999 g for one mole of O = 18.015 g/mol

Molecular Mass: mass of one molecule

18.015 amu

Molar Mass: mass of one mole of molecules

18.015 g/mol

H
H

OH
OH

Molecular mass
Glucose
Molecular formula C6H12O6
Empirical formula CH2O

Molecular Mass: Use the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes,

6 x 12.01 + 12 x 1.01 + 6 x 16.00 = 180.18

Exact Mass: Use the most abundant isotopes,

6 x 12.000000 + 12 x 1.007825 + 6 x 15.994915

= 180.06339

Molecules and Molecular

Compounds
Picturing Molecules
Molecules occupy three dimensional space.

Molecular Compounds

Some Molecules
H2O2

CH3CH(OH)CH3

CH3CH2Cl

HCO2H

P4O10

Inorganic Molecules

s8

P4

Ions
When # protons # electrons, the species has a net charge and is
called an ION.

When an atom or molecule loses electrons, it becomes

positively charged.
For example, when Na loses an electron it becomes Na
+.
Positively charged ions are called cations.
When an atom or molecule gains electrons, it becomes
negatively charged.
For example when Cl gains an electron it becomes Cl-.
Negatively charged ions are called anions.
An atom or molecule can lose more than one electron.

Ionic compounds
Atoms of almost all elements can gain or lose
electrons to form charged species called ions.
Compounds composed of ions are known as ionic
compounds.
Metals tend to lose electrons to form
positively charged ions called cations.
Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form
negatively charged ions called anions.

Oxidation States
Metals tend to
lose electrons.

Non-metals tend
to gain electrons.

Na Na+ + e-

Cl + e- Cl-

Reducing agents

Oxidizing agents

We use the Oxidation State to keep track of the number of

electrons that have been gained or lost by an element.

Determination of Empirical Formula

Combustion Analysis

An Example of Determining the Empirical

and Molecular Formulas of a Compound
from Combustion Analysis Data.
Complete combustion of a 1.505 g sample of an unknown
compound consisting of C, H and S yields 3.149 g CO2,
0.645 g H2O and 1.146 g of SO2. What is the empirical
formula for the unknown?

Step 1: Convert the mass of each product into moles

of C, H and S.
3.149 g CO2 x 1mol/44.010g CO2 x 1mol C/1mole CO2
= 0.07155 mol C
0.645 g H2O x 1mol/18.02g H2O x 2mol H/mol H2O
= 0.0716 mol H
1.146 g of SO2 x 1 mol/64.06 SO2 x 1mol S/mol SO2
= 0.01789 mol S

Example
Complete combustion of a 1.505 g sample of an unknown
compound yields 3.149 g CO2, 0.645 g H2O and 1.146 g of
SO2. What is the empirical formula for the unknown?
Step 1: Convert the mass of each product into moles of C, H
and S.
0.07155 mol C, 0.0716 mol H, 0.01789 mol S
Step 2: Write a tentative formula
C0.07155 H0.0716 S0.01789 = C4H4S
By the way:
0.07155 mol C = 0.859 g
0.0716 mol H = 0.0716 g
0.01789 mol S = 0.574 g
1.505 g

Example 2
Determining the Empirical and Molecular Formulas of a
Compound from Its Mass Percent Composition.
When an unknown compound is decomposed into its
constituent elements, it is found to contain 71.65% Cl,
24.27% C, and 4.07% H by mass. What is the empirical
formula for the unknown?

Step 1: Determine the mass of each element in a 100g sample.

71.65 g Cl, 24.27 g C and 4.07 g H in the sample.

Example 2
Step 2: Convert masses to amounts in moles (molar mass).
71.65 g Cl x 1 mol Cl = 2.021 mol Cl
35.45 g Cl
24.27 g C x
4.07 g H x

1 mol C
12.01 g C
1 mol H
1.008 g H

= 2.021 mol C
= 4.04 mol H

Step 3: Write a tentative formula. Cl2.021C2.021H4.04

Step 4: Convert to small whole numbers. Cl1C1H2 or ClCH2
Possible molecular formulas:
Cl2C2H4 or Cl3C3H6 or Cl4C4H8 etc.

Example 2
Step 4: Convert to small whole numbers. Cl1C1H2 or ClCH2
Possible molecular formulas:
Cl2C2H4 or Cl3C3H6 or Cl4C4H8 etc.
We experimentally determine the molar mass to be 98.96
g/mol. Determine the molecular formula of the unknown.
Empirical formula mass is 49.48 g/mol
This is half of the actual molar mass so the correct
formula is

Cl2C2H4

Empirical Formula
Burn 0.115 g of a hydrocarbon, CxHy, and produce
0.379 g of CO2 and 0.1035 g of H2O. What is the
empirical formula of CxHy?

CxHy + some oxygen

0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O

CxHy + some oxygen

0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O

First, recognize that all C in CO2 and all H in H2O is

from CxHy.
1. Calculate moles of C in CO2
8.61 x 10-3 mol C
2. Calculate moles of H in H2O
1.149 x 10 -2 mol H

CxHy + some oxygen

0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O

Now find ratio of mol H/mol C to find values of x and y

in CxHy.
1.149 x 10 -2 mol H/ 8.61 x 10-3 mol C
= 1.33 mol H / 1.00 mol C
= 4 mol H / 3 mol C
Empirical formula = C3H4

An Example from Test 1 2004

A 0.157 g sample of an unknown material undergoes combustion analysis. From this,
0.213 g of CO2, 0.0310 g of H2O, and 0.0230 NH3 was produced. The remainder
of the material is oxygen. What is the simplest empirical formula for this
compound?
The concept:
CxHyNzOw is converted into CO2, H2O, NH3 and there is Ow that is not directly measured

Moles
g / 44.02
g/mol
= 0.00484 moles
% CO2
mass=C0.213
= 0.05812
/ 0.157
= 37.0%
Moles
= 0.00484
moles / 0.157 = 2.21%
%C
mass
H = 0.00347
Mass%Cmass
= 0.00484x12.011
0.05812
g
N = 0.00189 / =0.157
= 12.0%
% mass
C = 0.05812
% mass
O = 100 /0.157
(37.0 =+ 37.0%
2.21 + 12.0) = 48.79%

Moles H2O = 0.0310 g / 18.01 g/mol = 0.00172 moles

Moles H = 2x0.00172 = 0.00344 moles
Mass H = 0.00344x1.0079 = 0.00347 g
% mass H = 0.00347 / 0.157 = 2.21%

assume 100 g:
moles C = 37.0/ 12.011 = 3.08 moles
moles H = 2.21 / 1.0079 = 2.19 moles
Moles NH3 = 0.0230 g / 17.03 g/mol = 0.00135 moles
moles N = 12.0 / 14.0067 = 0.856 moles
Moles N = 0.00135 moles
moles O
Mass N = 0.00135x14.0067 = 0.00189
g = 48.79 / 15.994 = 3.05 moles
Ratio: C 3.58 H 2.54 N 1.00 O 3.05
% mass N = 0.00189 / 0.157 = 12.0%
C18H13N5O18

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chapter 4

How do elements combine?

Compounds - two or more elements in a
specific ratio
Molecules - a discrete group of atoms

elements or compounds or ions

Ions - positively or negatively charged
atom or group of bonded atoms

Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations depict the kind of
reactants and products and their
relative amounts in a reaction.
4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) 2 Al2O3(s)
Some key features:
stoichiometric coefficients
the letters (s), (g), and (l) are the physical
states of compounds.

Chemical Equations
4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) 2 Al2O3(s)
This equation means:
4 Al atoms + 3 O2 molecules gives
2 molecules of Al2O3
4 moles of Al + 3 moles of O2 gives
2 moles of Al2O3

Balancing Equations
A trivial example:
Nitrogen monoxide + oxygen nitrogen dioxide
Step 1: Write the reaction using chemical symbols.

Step 2: Balance the chemical equation.

2 NO +

1 O2

2 NO2

Balancing Equations
Never introduce extraneous atoms to balance.
NO + O2 NO2 + O

Never change a formula for the purpose of balancing an equation.

NO + O2 NO3

Balancing Equation Strategy

Balance elements that occur in only one
compound on each side first.
Balance free elements last.
Balance unchanged polyatomics as groups.
Fractional coefficients are acceptable and can
be cleared at the end by multiplication.
Please practice on your own.
Tonnes of exercises are available at
the end of the chapter