Ecological Effects of Clay Mining in Kerala - 96

Tile and Brick Clay Mining and Related Environmental
Problems in the Chalakudy Basin, Central Kerala

D. Padmalal, K. Maya, K. Narendra Babu, S.R. Mini
Discussion Paper No. 96
Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development

Centre for Development Studies
Thiruvananthapuram

D. Padmalal, K. Maya, K. Narendra Babu, S. R. Mini
English
Discussion Paper
Rights reserved
First published 2004
Editorial Board: Prof. P. R. Gopinathan Nair, H. Shaji
Printed at:
Published by:
Dr K. N. Nair, Programme Co-ordinator
Centre for Development Studies
Prasanth Nagar, Ulloor
Thiruvananthapuram
Cover Design: Defacto Creations
ISBN No: 81-87621-99-0

Price:
KRPLLD
Rs 40
US$ 5
2004
0500
ENG
Contents
Introduction
Chalakudy Basin: A general profile
11
Materials and Methods
18
Clay mining from Chalakudy Basin
25
Characterisation and Nutrient Loading
36
Water Quality in Areas Adjoining Tile
56
and Brick Clay Mines

7
Tile and Brick Clay Based Industrial Units
75
Origin and Occurrence of Tile and Brick Clays
86
Impact Assessment of Clay Mining
98
10. Summary and Recommendations

References
104
108

D. Padmalal, K. Maya, K. Narendra Babu, S. R. Mini

1. Introduction
The environmental and socio-economic scenarios of the midland and lowland regions of
Kerala State encounter serious problems due to indiscriminate mining of clay rich top soil
from paddy fields and other wetland systems for the manufacture of bricks, tiles and other
clay articles. The clay mining activity assumes much importance in Kerala, a coastal State
that has to depend largely on neighbouring states for supply of rice (the staple food of
Keralites) and other essential commodities. The major environmental issues of clay mining
are fall in agricultural production, loss of fertile top soil, lowering of water table in domestic
wells adjacent to mining sites especially during summer season, as well as creation of
fallow lands / water logged areas. The clay mining and production of clay products like tile
and bricks bring benefits to a considerable section of people in the Chalakudy basin, even
while generating these environmental problems. Furthermore, thousands of labourers in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The project team is greatly indebted to Dr M. Baba, Director, Centre for
Earth Science Studies (CESS), Thiruvananthapuram for encouragement and guidance, and for extending
necessary facilities for carrying out this study. We are grateful to Dr K. N. Nair, Programme Co-ordinator,
KRPLLD for constant support, encouragement, and for enriching us with thought provoking ideas of
environmental economics and its importance in sustainable development. We place on record our
indebtedness and gratitude to Dr K. K. Ramachandran, Advisor (Rtd.), CESS for suggesting this problem
and for guidance throughout the course of this investigation. We also thank the Head and Staff members
of Environmental Sciences Division (ESD), CESS for their help and support. With heartfelt gratitude we
acknowledge the inspiration and constant encouragement rendered to us by Dr K. M. Nair, former
Director, CESS. His knowledge in the Quaternary coastal evolution of Kerala was very much beneficial
for shaping our views on the origin and occurrence of tile and brick clays. We thank Dr P. R. Gopinathan
Nair, Programme Advisor, KRPLLD for encouragement and support and also for sharing views on the
impacts of Gulf migrants on the socio-economic and environmental scenarios of Kerala State. Thanks are
also due to Dr K. Soman, Head and Dr S. Chattopadhay, Scientist EII, Resources Analysis Division,
CESS, and Dr Sunny George, Limnological Association of Kerala for fruitful discussions on various
aspects related to the tile and brick clay resources of Kerala. We are grateful to the Directors of Birbal
Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany (BSIP), Lucknow and Regional Research Laboratory (RRL),
Thiruvananthapuram for Radiocarbon dating and X-ray diffraction analysis of tile and brick clay samples.
We also thank Dr B. Sekhar, Radiocarbon dating Laboratory(BSIP); Dr P. P. Ouseph, Head, Chemical
Sciences Division, CESS; Prof. N. Chandramohan Kumar, Head, and Dr S. M. Nair, Senior Lecturer,
Department of Chemical Oceanography, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi for their
help in the analysis of tile and brick clay samples. Thanks are due to the staff members of CESS for their
help and support during the course of this study. Finally, we thank all those who were directly or indirectly
involved in the successful completion of this project.
D. Padmalal, K. Maya, and K. Narendra Babu are scientists at CESS, Thiruvananthapuram. Mini S.R. is
Technical Associate, Environmental Sciences Division, CESS, Thiruvananthapuram.
the construction sector and a few families of traditional pottery industry (Kumbharanmar
in Malayalam) also depend on these clays and / or the products moulded out of these clays
for their livelihood.
From the above, it is clear that clay mining from paddy lands and / or other wetland
systems has many positive and negative impacts. All these impacts have to be analysed, in
detail, for laying down strategies for regulating the mining activities on a sustainable basis.
This is most essential in a state like Kerala having low per capita land and mineral resource
availability, high population density and a unique society with high aspiration levels.
Clays and Clay Minerals
The term 'clay' has been used in several ways: (1) to designate very fine grained particles
of less than 0.004mm diameter, (2) as a rock composed essentially of clay minerals and
(3) as a mineral group known as 'clay minerals'. As a rock, it is composed of materials
which are earthy in appearance and composed mainly of extremely fine grained mineral
particles.
Clay exhibits plasticity when wet. It is water retentive and coherent when dry. Most
clays are derived as a result of crustal weathering, but a few are formed by hydrothermal
processes. Clay may be in situ or may be transported and later deposited into distinct
resources of variable dimensions. The clay formed at the site of the parent rock is known
as the primary or residual clay; the one carried away or transported and deposited elsewhere
is known as the secondary clay. Generally, the former clay is purer with less impurity in
the range of 5-15%, while the latter for obvious reasons is usually impure. The secondary
clays may contain mica, quartz and iron oxide as impurities. The common types of clay
found in Kerala are shown in Table1.1 along with their properties, places of occurrence
and uses.
The Tile and Brick Clays
The tile and brick clays are usually of low grade. Red burning type of clays should easily
burn hard at comparatively low temperatures. These clays have fusion point around 950C
to 1000C.
As per the estimates of State Planning Board, there are about 350 tile factories and 5000
brick kilns spread over the entire State and engaged in the manufacture of tile and bricks
(State Planning Board, 1996). The vast resources of alluvial clays in the paddy lands and
valleys are used by this industry. The clays available for the manufacture of tile and brick
are mostly found in the districts of Alappuzha, Kannur, Ernakulam, Kottayam, Kozhikode,
Palakkad, Kollam, Thrissur and Thiruvananthapuram. There are two main types of tile
and brick clays in the State - lacustrine and floodplain clays. The lacustrine clays are
Fire clay
Ball clay
Tile and
brick clay
2.
3.
4.
5.67
11.55
172.00
Estimated
reserve
(Million
Tonnes)
Thiruvananthapuram,
Alappuzha, Ernakulam,
Thrissur, Palakkad
Malappuram and
Kozhikode districts
Thiruvananthapuram,
Kollam, Kannur and
Kasaragod districts
Kollam, Alappuzha,
Ernakulam, Thrissur
and Kannur districts.
Thiruvananthapuram,
Kollam, Kasaragod
and Kannur districts
Major locations
Tile and brick clays are concentrated in the

floodplain and overbank areas of rivers, paddy fields
and / or other wetland systems of Kerala. Kaolinite
is the major mineral with traces of gibbsite, illite,
etc.
Ball clays are sedimentary plastic clays with fine

grains and dark in colour in the unfired state due to
the presence of organic impurities. They burn to
white and sometimes to cream colour before full
vitrification. Ball clays have a large proportion of
kaolinite having high plasticity with a variety of
impurities such as montmorillonite, attached to the
edges of the kaolinite platelets. The ball clays and
china clays do not differ much in their chemical
composition except that the former contains a
larger amount of silica. They are less refractory
than china clays and usually having a fusion point
nearly at 1675oC.
Fire clays are refractory clays which have a fusion

point above 1600oC and are not usually white
burning in nature. The fire clay exhibits unique
properties on firing. Porosity and specific gravity
of the clays may exhibit significant changes, the
former is decreasing, while the latter is increasing
as the firing temperature rises.
China clay, also called kaolin, falls under the

kaolinite group of minerals. They have a good
plasticity and refractoriness and do not possess
bleaching properties. The quality of china clay
depends much on the impurities present. The
presence of silica and feldspar form the impurities
which render it unsuitable for the manufacture of
high class ceramic and crockery products.
Properties
These clays are used for the production of a

variety of clay articles including various types
of tiles (roofing, flooring, decorative, etc.),
bricks (wire cut, interlocking and ordinary),
potteries, etc.
The main utility of the ball clays is attributed to

their plasticity and are mixed with non-plastic
or less plastic clays to make them attain the
required plasticity. They are usually used in white
wares to increase the green strength of the body.
Sometimes they are used in refractories as a
bond for less plastic and harder clays.
The fire clays are generally used in the

manufacture of refractory bricks which find
extensive use in places of heat generation and
furnaces such as boiler linings, glass-melting
furnaces, chimney linings, various iron and steel
melting furnaces, checkers and pottery kilns.
Over 60% of the china clay produced in the

country is utilized for the manufacture of
crockery and other ceramic products such as
electrical insulators, sanitary wares, stonewares,
high grade tiles and porcelain, and the remaining
quantity as filler in textile. paper and rubber
industries, as extender in paint and ultramarine
blue and a small quantity goes into the production
of insecticides, abrasives, cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals.
Uses of clay
Source: Compiled from various reports of Geological Survey of India, Department of Mining and Geology, Planning Board, Regional Research Laboratory
(CSIR) and Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS)
China clay
Type
1.
Sl.
No.
Table 1.1 Occurrence, quantity, quality and uses of the common clay deposits of Kerala
confined mainly to Kannur district, whereas, the floodplain clays are found in all the other
districts mentioned above. The clays are generally fine, plastic, and of variegated colours
including dull white and occur in depressions in laterite formations. The floodplain deposits,
which occur in the neighbourhood of rivers, are found in a number of districts. Tile and
brick clays are included in the group of minor minerals. Tile manufacturing units are
concentrated in certain areas in the State, namely, Feroke and neighbouring areas of
Kozhikode, Annallur-Alathur areas of Thrissur, Aluva-Chovvara areas of Ernakulam,
Chathannur-Adichanalloor areas of Kollam and Amaravila-Olathanni areas of
Thiruvananthapuram districts. Brick industry in the State is mostly working in the
unorganized sector, except a few factories making wire cut bricks. Most of the requirements
of building industries are met from country bricks made by hand moulding techniques.
There is no quality control available either for the raw materials or for the products made
out of these clays.
Background of the study
The river basins of Kerala are degrading fast as a result of various kinds of human
interventions. Lack of adequate scientific information on different aspects of ecosystem
functions and degradation is a major lacuna challenging regulatory efforts for environmental
conservation and management. In this context, the Kerala Research Programme on Local
Level Development (KRPLLD) has identified the Chalakudy basin of Central Kerala as a
case for examining the ecologic and economic bearing of various kinds of anthropogenic
activities to which the basin over the years is subjected. The present study is also a part of
this major programme and is intended mainly to document the related issues arising out of
the tile and brick clay mining in the Chalakudy basin.
Objectives
The following are the major objectives of the present study:
1.
Mapping of ongoing and abandoned clay mines in Chalakudy basin,
2.
Collection of primary and secondary data on tile and brick clay mining activities,
3.
Geochemical analysis of tile and brick clays and estimation of N, P, and K loss from
paddy fields on account of clay mining.
4.
Identification of hotspot areas of tile and brick clay mining in Chalakudy basin, and
5.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of clay mining and suggestion of

Environmental Management Plans (EMPs).
Previous studies
Bricks and tiles have been used for building construction for many thousands of years.
The word 'brick' has come to suggest solidity and performance. Essentially, the story of
brick building is the story of finding good quality brick-making earth in places where there
is lack of other building materials like wood and stone (Hayward, 1978). Brick and tile
making may be found in most of the countries and the clays suitable for their manufacture
are associated mainly with geologically recent deposits. Good deposits of tile and brick
clay are found in gently rolling hills (ILO, 1984). A micro-level survey of literature reveals
that, although many studies are available on the technological and economical aspects of
tile and brick making (United Nations, 1978; Powell, 1980; Keddie and Cleghom, 1980;
and many others), not much information exists on mining and related environmental problems
of tile and brick clays.
Different varieties of clays are found in nature - china clays, ball clays, fire clays tile/brick
clays (heavy clays) etc. Among the clay producing States of India, Kerala, probably,
ranks at the top. The State contains vast reserves of almost all the above types of clays
(Table1.1). Many studies are available on the china clay, ball clay and fire clay resources
of Kerala. But not much information is available on the tile and brick clay resources,
although the mining of these clays triggers many environmental problems, especially in the
midland and lowland regions of Kerala. (GSI, 1976; RRL, 1989; Soman, 2002).
Among the studies available, the most notable one is made by Kerala State Land Use Board
(KSLUB, 1981a&b). KSLUB made a detailed survey in Thrissur and Thiruvananthapuram
districts to know the impact of tile and brick clay mining on the fertility/agricultural activities
of the respective areas. At that time, the mining activity was not so widespread and did not
create serious concern, as the quantity of mining was very limited. While preparing a
report on the conversion of paddy land in the State, the Kerala Statistical Institute (KSI)
made a systematic documentation of the area affected by tile and brick clay mining in
various districts of Kerala. They found that Thrissur is the worst affected due to mining
(KSI, 1994). Later, Resmi (1996), in connection with her Master of Philosophy dissertation
work, made a detailed analysis of various externalities involved in tile and brick clay mining
of Thrissur district. In another study, Pronk (1997) made a systematic documentation on
the changing land use pattern with special emphasis on the motives and consequences of
clay mining and brick producing industries of Thrissur district. CESS (1999) in connection
with the Carrying Capacity studies, documented the tile and brick clay mining and related
issues of 'Greater Kochi Region'. In a more recent study on the evolution of South Kerala
Sedimentary Basin (SKSB), Nair and Padmalal (2003) made an attempt to unfold the origin
of tile and brick clays of SKSB, located between Kollam in the south and Kodungallur in
the north.
Study at a glance
The flow chart (Fig.1) provides an overview of the study components of the present
investigation.
CHALAKUDY BASIN
Drainage, Geology, Slope, Land Use, etc.
CLAY MINING AREAS

Mapping of mining and unaffected paddy fields / wetlands
QUANTITY
Clay mining from paddy lands / wetlands, clay
consumption by various clay based industrial units.
ANALYSIS
Physico-chemical & Socio-economic
Tile and brick clay
Characterisation
Surface samples
Mining area
Borehole samples
Particle size, C-org,

nutrient and trace elements,
X-ray studies, C14 dating, etc.
Water
Socio-economics
Non-mining area
Clay based industrial units
Surface and ground water
Physico-chemical and
bacteriological analyses
Labour force
Factors promoting
clay mining
& origin of clays
Environmental Management Plan

(EMP)
Fig.1 Flow-chart showing the major study components
The present study covers a spectrum of subject components related to almost all aspects
of tile and brick clay mining of the Chalakudy basin. The primary and secondary data
generated from the study could be used for chalking out strategies for the conservation
and management of the Chalakudy river basin particularly in its midlands and lowlands
affected by indiscriminate clay mining. The study may also be used for framing suitable
guidelines to streamline the tile and brick clay mining activities of the State on an environmentfriendly basis.
10
2. Chalakudy Basin: A general profile

Drainage characteristics
The Chalakudy river has a length of about 130 kms and a catchment area of about 1448
km. It is a sixth order river (CWRDM, 1995). Out of the total catchment, about 300 km
area lies in Tamil Nadu State. The river originates from the Anamalai Hills of the Western
Ghats and flows through highly varied geologic and geomorphic terrains. It merges with
the river Periyar at Elanthikkara, before debouching into the Vembanad Lake. The river is
formed by the confluence of 5 major tributaries, viz, Parambikulam, Sholayar, Kuriarkutti,
Karappara and Anakayam. The Sholayar and Parambikulam tributaries originate from
Tamil Nadu State and the opther three from Kerala. The Chalakudy River hosts several
water falls, of which the falls at Peringalkuthu and Athirappalli are the major ones. The
important reservoirs in the river basin are Peruvarippalam reservoir, Tunakadavu reservoir,
Parambikulam reservoir, Sholayar reservoir and Peringalkuthu reservoir. Fig.2.1 shows
the drainage pattern of the Chalakudy River depicting the locations of the reservoirs.
Physiography of the basin
The Chalakudy river flows through all the three major physiographic zones of Kerala, viz.
the highlands (>75m above msl), the midlands (8-75m) and the lowlands (<8m). The
midland region is marked by gently undulating landform covered by a thick blanket of
laterite. Laterite capped mounds occur all along the midland portion of the basin. The
other prominent feature in the midland is the occurrence of incised valleys within lateritic
mounds. The valleys are filled with alluvial sediments and are intensively cultivated mainly
for paddy (KSLUB, 1995). The valleys become flooded during monsoon periods. The hill
ranges along the eastern part constitute the rugged terrain of the Western Ghats. The
highlands located in the eastern side exhibit a typical topography with steep hills dissected
by deep 'V' shaped valleys and youthful rivers.
Terrain types
The Chalakudy river basin, as per Chattopadhyay and Chattopadhyay (1995), is composed
of a spectrum of terrain systems like scarp slope / rock cliff (D6), isolated hills (D5), hilly
area (D4), highly undulating terrain (D3), moderately undulating terrain (D2), low rolling
terrain (D1), floodplain including valley fills (F1), river terraces (F2) and coastal plain
(C3). Of these, the F1, F2 and C3 terrain categories constitute only a small portion and are
confined primarily to the river mouth zones of the Chalakudy basin.
Slope characteristics
The Chalakudy basin is marked by unique slope characteristics. The slope of the basin
ranges from gentle to very steep slope. Fig.2.2 presents a detailed slope map of the Chalakudy
11
12
Fig.2.1 Drainage characteristics of the Chalakudy basin. Note the locations of the reservoirs
basin. A major portion of the basin falls within the slope category between 25 percent and
55 percent. The slope decreases generally to less than 15 percent and reaches to 'level to
nearly level' surface towards the river mouth zones.
Geology of the basin
The Chalakudy river basin is covered mainly by Archaean crystallines. Sedimentary
formations ranging from Recent to Sub-Recent age are found overlying the crystalline
rocks along the coast. The crystallines are composed of a spectrum of rock types like
charnockite, charnockite gneiss, hornblende gneiss, hornblende-biotite and quartz gneiss.
The crystallines are intruded by acidic (granites) and basic (gabbro) rocks at many places.
Intrusive bodies of pyroxene granulites are also seen at some places. The crystallines are
found lateritised to a considerable portion of the basin. The Recent to Sub-Recent formations
include coastal sands and alluvium. Fig.2.3 shows the spatial distribution of various
geological units of the area.
Soil
The soils of the Chalakudy basin may broadly be grouped into three categories. They are:
1. alluvial soil, 2. lateritic soil, and 3. forest soil. The alluvial soils are confined mostly to
the western part of the basin. It is followed on the east by lateritic soils and then by forest
soils. Forest soils cover the weathered crusts of crystallines and are with high organic
carbon contents.
Population
The estimated population as per 1991 census comes to about 4.5 lakh. Nineteen local
bodies, including the Chalakudy municipality fall within the Chalakudy basin. In addition
to this, a portion of the Tamil Nadu State also falls within the basin in its eastern part. Of
the 19 local bodies of Kerala State, 10 fall completely while the remaining partially within
the basin.
Land use
The river basin consists of a spectrum of land use, which includes tea/coffee plantations,
forests, open scrub, mixed crops, rubber plantations, paddy fields and water bodies (Fig.2.4).
Of these land-use classes, forests occupy a major portion in the upstream and midstream
part of the basin. Mixed crops and settlements occur mainly in the downstream end.
Paddy lands are concentrated in the downstream part of the basin.
Agriculture is the prime occupation of the people in the basin. Since population density is
high in the midlands and lowlands, there is acute pressure on the land. The per capita
cultivated land is less than 0.1 hectare. The important crops of the area are paddy, coconut,
rubber, cashew, tapioca and banana. Forest lands occupy about 60 percent of the total
area of the basin.
13
14
Fig. 2.2 Slope classes of the Chalakudy basin (after Maya, 1997)
15
Fig. 2.3 Geology of the Chalakudy basin (after GSI, 1995)
Climate and rainfall

The basin is characterised by a tropical humid type climate with summer season during
March to May and rainy season during June to September (southwest monsoon) and
October to December (northeast monsoon). The basin receives an average annual rainfall
of 3250 mm. The rainfall increases from the western part to eastern part of the basin.
Nearly 70 percent of the total rainfall is contributed by the southwest monsoon. The
maximum, minimum and mean temperatures of the watershed are: 31.6C, 23.5C and
27.6C, respectively. The maximum temperature is experienced during the month of March
and minimum during December.
Biological environment
The Chalakudy basin is famous for its rich biodiversity and unique flora and fauna (Bachan,
2002). The species composition of the highland and the midland regions is similar to wet
evergreen forests and are dominated by species Hopea, Madhuca nerifolia, Syzigium
occidentale, Vateria indica, Xanthophyllum flavescens, Cinnamon riparium, Dimocarpus
longum, Humboltia vahliana, Elaeocarpus sp., Homonia riparia, etc. Moderately disturbed
and disturbed areas possess some deciduous species like Terminalia sp., Xylia xylocarpa,
Erythrina sp., etc. The lower regions of the basin are represented by Bamboo, Pandanus,
Thespesia, etc. The species richness in the riparian zones of the highlands and midlands
correlates well with that recorded at many sites of the Western Ghats. The lower reaches
(lowlands) show less species-richness and abundance. Species like Barringtonia
acutangula, Humboltia vahliana, Syzigium occidentale, Homonia riparia, Madhuca
nerifolia, Elaeocarpus sp. etc., are the true riparian species found abundantly in the
lowlands close to the river channels. Thespesia, Ficus, and a few species of mangroves /
mangrove associates like Avicennia, Acrostichum, etc., are recorded near Kuzhur and
Elanthikkara.
The highlands and midlands of the basin support significant wildlife including many
endangered and endemic species like Asiatic elephant, Tiger, Lion tailed macaque, Nilgiri
langur, etc. The degraded patches of riparian areas near the lowlands support wild species
of birds like King Fishers, Night Heron, Storks, Owls etc., and small mammals including
Otter and Civet. The evergreen riparian forests of Chalakudy basin support 21 species of
mammals including nine endemic species. The avi fauna in this area comprises 195 species
including 6 endangered and 8 species endemic to Western Ghats (Raju, 2002). This
includes the Great Indian and Malabar Pied Hornbills, Fishing Eagle, Darter and the critically
endangered species - the White Backed Vulture. Occurrence of 231 species of birds and
170 species of butterflies in the Athirapally-Vazhachal area has been reported (Bachan,
2002). The lower reaches of the river and related water bodies contain about 42 edible,
economically valuable fishes, 3 species of crabs, 4 molluscs and 5 types of prawns. Out
of the total record of fish, 19 are fresh water species.
16
17
Fig. 2.4 The major landuse categories of the Chalakudy basin (modified after CESS, 1999)
3. Materials and Methods
Introduction
This chapter explains the various methods employed in the collection, processing and
analysis of the primary and secondary data made use of in this study. A brief presentation
of the sample collection and analysis is also attempted. The entire study is designed to be
executed in two phases: 1. Field work and 2. Laboratory analysis.
Field work
A systematic survey was carried out in the entire study area for the collection of the
necessary field data. Samples for laboratory analysis were also collected in the course of
the survey. Locations of the abandoned and existing clay mines were mapped on 1:25,000
scale using Survey of India (SoI) topographic base maps. Whenever necessary, aerial
photographs and satellite imageries were also used.
A total of 10 clay samples from the existing/abandoned mines (referred to hereafter as
surface samples) and 5 shallow borehole samples (referred to as core samples) from
selected locations were collected for sedimentological and geochemical analyses. The lengths
of the cores vary from 2m to 6m. The location of the samples is shown in Fig.3.1. In
addition, 23 water (surface and well water) samples from two clay mining areas and a
control site were also collected for physico-chemical and bacteriological analyses. The
locations of the sampling stations are depicted in Fig.3.2. The details of the clay-based
industrial units, quantity of clay used by these units, labour force in the clay mining and
processing sectors were collected during interviews with the concerned sections using
standard formats. Published leaflets, paper cuttings regarding the reported environmental
issues of clay mining, etc., were the other sources of information availed of.
Laboratory analysis
The clay samples, (both surface and core) were subjected to sedimentological and
geochemical analyses following standard procedures. The method suggested by Lewis
(1984) was used for particle size (textural) analyses. The textural facies (sediment types)
were identified following the ternary model of Picard (1971). The content of organic
carbon in the sediments was estimated following wet oxidation method of El Wakeel and
Riley (1957). The N, P and K contents (total and available) were determined following
standard methods (Murphy and Riley, 1962; APHA, 1985). The heavy metal concentration
in the sediment samples was estimated using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopic (AAS)
methods following Rantala and Loring (1975). The details of the methods adopted for
geochemical analysis is furnished in Table 3.1. A few samples were subjected to clay
mineralogical analysis using XRD and identification of the minerals was carried out following
18
Fig. 3.1 Locations of the surface and borehole (core) samples, Chalakudy basin
19
A
R 18
R 17
))
))
))
R 16
RIVER CHANNEL
SAMPLING STATION
W5
W4
)
P6
P1
W2
W3
MINING AREA I
)
ANNALLUR
W 15
W 14
)
OL
)
W 13
P 8
)
P 7
P 9
W 10
W 11
)
W 12
MINING AREA II
VYNTHALA
Fig. 3.2 Water sampling locations of Chalakudy basin
20
Table 3.1 Various methods employed for the sedi

geochemical analysis of tile and brick
Sl.No.
Parameters
Method
1.
Particle size /
Texture
Combined sieving
pipette analysis
and Lewis (
2.
Organic
Carbon
Titrimetric wet oxidation
El Wak
3.
Phosphorus
Colorimetric
Murphy
4.
Nitrogen
Kjeldahl
APHA (
5.
Potassium
Flame photometric
APHA (
6.
Heavy metals
Atomic Absorption
Rantala
Spectrophotometric (AAS)
21
Table 3.2 Details of the hydrochemical and microbio

estimated in the water samples, Chalakud
Sl. No.
Parameters
Meth
1.
pH
Measured using a por

Water Quality Analyze
accuracy of 0.001 pH
2.
Conductivity
Measured using a por

Water Quality Analyze
accuracy of 0.1 S un
3.
Dissolved Oxygen
Winkler method with t
4.
BOD
Unseeded dilution tec

at 201oC for five day
5.
Alkalinity
Titration with standard

cresol green indicator
6.
Chloride
Argentometric titration
indicator.
7.
Sulphate
Precipitation with bari

measured the turbidit
420 nm.
8.
Nitrite - Nitrogen
Complexation with 4-a

sulphanilamide and N
diamine dihydrochlori
intensity of colour usin
22
12.
Inorganic
Phosphorus
Converted to molybde
ammonium molybdat
the colour was measu
882 nm.
13.
Total phosphorus
Converted all organic

forms by oxidation an
molybdenum blue
14.
Silicate - Silicon
Converted to molybdo
photometrically at 810
15.
Hardness
EDTA titration using E

indicator.
16.
Calcium
EDTA titration using a

(Murexide) indicator.
17.
Magnesium
EDTA titration [Total

Hardness Ca].
18.
Iron
Complexation with 1the orange red compl

colourimetrically at 51
19.
TDS
Filtration through 0.4

membrane filter pape
water in platinum dish
residue till constant w
20.
TSS
Drying and weighing

0.45 m Millipore me
23
JCPDS (1974) files. Radiocarbon dates of two samples (one shell and one peat) were
determined following standard procedures by Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany (BSIP),
Lucknow.
Hydro-chemical and bacteriological analyses of the surface and ground water sources of
two mining sites and a control station were also performed seasonally (monsoon and nonmonsoon) following standard methods (APHA, 1985). Table 3.2 presents the details of
the methodology adopted for the estimation of various hydro chemical and microbiological
parameters in the surface and well-water samples of the study area. The hydro-chemical
and bacteriological analyses were performed to know the impact of clay mining on the
ground water regime and other surface water sources of the area. The water quality
parameters were cross-checked against the water quality standards prescribed by BIS and
WHO. Using all these data, an attempt has been made to assess the environmental impact
of the clay mining activity using a modified version of the Adhoc method of Rau and
Wooten (1980).
Precision and accuracy
In the case of organic carbon estimations, average of triplicate measurement, not differing
0.2% of the analyses, was used. The precision and accuracy of all other analyses including
those of heavy metals were checked against USGS standards/internal standards and it was
found that the estimations were in agreement with the certified/reported values (Flanagan,
1976; Rantala and Loring, 1975).
24
4. Clay mining from Chalakudy Basin

Introduction
Clay mining from paddy fields and other wetlands for tile and brick making could be found
in many districts of Kerala. However, their concentration is more prominent in Thrissur,
Ernakulam, Palakkad, Malappuram, Kozhikkode, Alappuzha and Thiruvananthapuram
districts. According to a study conducted by the Kerala State Land Use Board in 1981,
about 46% of the tile factories in the State are located in Thrissur district (KSLUB, 1981b).
While analyzing the paddy conversion problems, the Kerala Statistical Institute (KSI) reported
that about 4445 hectares of the paddy land in Thrissur have been affected by tile and brick
clay mining (KSI, 1994). Next to Thrissur comes the Ernakulam district with an affected
paddy land area of 3560 hectares. Fig.4.1 shows the total wetlands in various districts vis-vis the area occupied by tile and brick clay mining.
Tile and brick clay reserve
Tile and brick clay mining from wetlands is one of the most ignored areas of surface
mining. Although reliable estimates are available on china clay, ball clay and fire clay
resources of Kerala and their mining and related environmental problems (GSI, 1976;
Ramachandran and Padmalal 1997, Soman 2002 and several reports of DMG, Government
of Kerala) little information exists on the tile and brick clay deposits of the State. A precise
estimation of the tile and brick clay deposits is very expensive and requires systematic
borehole sampling and analysis. However, an attempt has been made in this investigation
to compute these resources of Chalakudy basin using the available borehole information.
Necessary corrections were applied based on field information on the abandoned and
ongoing clay mines. The total unaffected paddy lands in the Chalakudy basin comes to
about 58.22 sq. km. Further, active clay mining is recorded from an area of about 0.96 sq.
km. From the borehole sampling and analysis, it is revealed that, tile and brick clay occurs
to about 5m below ground level (bgl) on an average. If one takes all these figures into
consideration, the Chalakudy basin can be estimated to enfold about 296 million m of tile
and brick clays. Nevertheless, the entire quantity cannot be mined from the area, as
mining of a portion of the clay itself would adversely affect the ecological, hydrological
and socio-economic conditions of the region. Detailed studies have to be initiated, without
much delay, to estimate the carrying capacity of the Chalakudy basin in regard to clay
mining activity. This is of utmost importance to regulate the future clay mining activities.
Major clay mining areas
Clay mining is reported from many parts of the midland and lowland regions of the Chalakudy
basin (Fig.4.2).The major clay mining areas are: Melur, Annallur, Vynthala, Valur,
Erayankudipadam, Alamattompadam, Cherukadappuram, and Mundakapadam. A brief
description of the field observations of clay mining areas is given below:
25
Fig. 4.1 District-wise account of wetlands and tile and brick clay mining areas
(Source: KSI, 1994)
26
1. Melur: Clay mining is reported from many parts of the Melur grama panchayat,
especially, in and around the Poolanipadam. The clay is used mainly for brick making.
The grey clay with unique properties, occurring 2 to 3m below ground level, is used
by the local people for pottery making. Several abandoned pits are seen in the area.
The depth of the pits varies from 2 to 5m below ground level (bgl).
2. Annallur: Annallur is one of the active clay mining areas of Chalakudy basin. Mining
by different groups is taking place at several locations. The clays in this area are used
mainly for tile and wire cut brick making. Conflict between miners and local people /
farmers is frequent in the area. A part of the abandoned mine is covered by water,
giving rise to artificial ponds. The depth of the mines varies from 2 to 8m bgl.
Indiscriminate clay mining over the years has created marked changes in the wetland
system of the area. The marginal areas of the paddy land at many places are reclaimed
for coconut plantation or for other agricultural crops. When lands are reclaimed, the
fertility of the soil declines.
3. Vynthala: Clay mining is reported at some locations of the paddy lands of Vynthala
region. The clay is greyish black to black, sandy and with appreciable quantities of
organic carbon. The clay is used for tile and wire cut brick making. Depth of the
mines varies from 2m to >6m bgl. A considerable portion of the paddy land has
already been converted to fallow lands / water logged areas consequent on indiscriminate
clay mining over the years. A part of the mined area has been reclaimed for agricultural
purposes.
4. Valur: Extensive clay mining is reported in the Valur paddy lands. Both manual and
mechanical mining activities are reported from the area. The clay is highly plastic,
greyish black to black and with appreciable amounts of organic carbon. The clay is
used for tile and wire cut brick making. The clay from this region is good for pottery
making also. The depth of the mines varies from 2 to 6m bgl. About 40 percent of the
paddy land in the area has already been affected by clay mining. The abandoned mines
are covered by water and are unsuitable for paddy cultivation.
5. Eravathur padam: This wetland is located in the southern side of Kuzhur. The area
lies flooded for most part of the year. Paddy cultivation is limited to a single crop in
any year. Clay mining operations and brick making are reported at some locations of
the Eravathur padam. Reclamation for mixed agricultural crops is noticed near the
marginal areas.
6. Karuva padam: The area is located near Kurumasseri. Small scale clay mining for
tile and brick making is taking place in the Karuvapadam along with the mining of
construction grade sand. A major part of the land is under paddy cultivation. The
marginal area of the paddy land is subjected to reclamation for coconut plantation.
7. Aduvasseri: The paddy land is located near Eachakkad (Kunnukara grama panchayat).
The area has been subjected to indiscriminate clay mining and a major part of the
27
Fig. 4.2 Major clay mining areas of Chalakudy basin, Thrissur district
28
wetland is now found to be fallow. Several brick kilns are working in the area and
making ordinary bricks. Some of the pits are very deep and are over 6m bgl. A part
of the area is reclaimed for raising agricultural crops.
8. Erayankudi padam: Extensive mining is taking place in the area. The clay scooped
from Erayankudi padam is used for tile and brick making. A substantial part (35-40
percent) of the area has been affected by clay mining. A major part of the abandoned
mine is under water. The depth of the excavation pits varies from 2 to 6m bgl.
9. Alamattom padam: Active clay mining is progressing at many places in the Alamattom
padam. The depth of the pits varies generally from 4 to 6m bgl. Combined mining
takes place for tile and brick clays (top layer) and construction grade sands (intervening
layers near the bottom part). The indiscriminate mining creates severe environmental
problems in the area. The clay extracted from the area is used mainly for brick making.
Reclamation is also noticed in the marginal areas of the Alamattom padam.
10. Cherukadappuram: Extensive clay mining is noted at Cherukadappuram area. The
clay is used for ordinary and wire cut brick making. The abandoned part of the mine
is covered under water and extensive areas are found water logged. The depth of the
excavation pits vary from 2 - 6m bgl. Mining for construction grade sand is also
reported at certain locations.
11. Mundakappadam: The area is severely affected by clay mining. The clay is used for
ordinary and wire cut brick making. The depth of the pits varies from 2-4m bgl.
Almost the entire paddy field of the area is degraded to fallow lands / water logged
areas as a result of clay mining.
Quantity of clay mining
A total of nine local bodies viz, Melur, Koratti, Kadukutti, Annammanada, Parakkadavu,
Kunnukara, Mala, Kuzhoor grama panchayats and the Chalakudy municipality are engaged
in clay mining from Chalakudy basin. The clay is used for making a variety of articles like
roofing, flooring and decorative tiles, wire cut and ordinary bricks, and potteries. The
present survey revealed that about 135975 tonnes/year of clay is being scooped out from
Chalakudy basin and used by various industrial establishments. Of the various local bodies,
the Annammanada grama panchayat extracts the highest amount of clay (35720 tonnes)
followed by Kuzhoor (24710 tonnes), Kadukutti (23970 tonnes) and Mala (21175 tonnes)
grama panchayats. The other local bodies mine only limited quantities of clay. Only a part
of the Kunnukara grama panchayat is falling in Chalakudy basin. An amount of 7350
tonnes of clay is being mined from the Chalakudy river basin falling within the limits of
Kunnukara panchayat. The clay mined from the area is used for ordinary and wire cut
brick making. Ordinary brick making is prominent in Kuzhoor grama panchayat as well.
Pottery making is reported from Annammanada, Kuzhur and Mala grama panchayats. In
addition to these, a considerable section of potter families are also involved in pottery
29
making in the Chalakudy basin on temporary basis. These people use clay only for pottery
making. On an average, less than 3 tonnes of clay per year is used by each family.
Land use mapping in paddy land
In 1992-93, according to the basic tax register, about 58 percent of the land classified as
nilam (i.e., paddy land) was under paddy cultivation in the State; about 3.5% of the land
remains as fallow, 8.5 percent as seasonal crops and 24 percent as perennial crops. The
remaining 6 percent of the land is put under non-agricultural uses which include building
and courtyards, roads, canals and the land used for clay mining. Estimates reveal that
about 2 percent of the paddy land in the State has been used for clay mining (KSI, 1994).
Most of the paddy lands used for clay mining will be unfit for cultivation after mining. In
rare cases, the mined areas have been brought again under paddy cultivation after a lapse
of a few years. The land use pattern within the paddy land may vary from place to place,
depending upon the socio-environmental conditions of respective regions. Reliable
information on the details of the micro-level land use within paddy lands is a pre-requisite
for planning developmental activities and for laying down strategies for regulating the
mining activities on an environment-friendly basis.
From the land use map of the entire Chalakudy basin, it is revealed that paddy lands are
confined, mainly to, north latitudes 7616' and 7628' (Fig.2.4). So, in the present
investigation, detailed (micro level) land use mapping within paddy lands has been limited
to this zone only. Fig.4.3 shows the spatial distribution of various land use categories
identified in the paddy lands of the Chalakudy basin. The areal extent of each land use class
is presented in Tables 4.1a & 4.1b. Of the total paddy land of 73.94 sq. km, an area of
11.84 sq. km has been reclaimed for agricultural activities and building constructions.
Further, 2.92 sq. km area has been found as abandoned mine, and active mining is being
reported from 0.96 sq. km area, only.
Hotspots in clay mining areas
Indiscriminate clay mining from the paddy fields and other wetlands has caused marked
changes in the hydrologic, agricultural and socio-economic environments of the basin
(Fig.4.4). Some of the locations are severely affected by the clay mining activity and are
seen in critical conditions. Such locations are designated hereafter as 'Hotspot areas', which
need special care and attention while taking up the area for corrective measures.
Criteria for hotspot identification
The following set of indicators which could be applied easily during field surveys and
evolved through constant discussions with various stakeholders of clay mining sector are
used for identifying hotspot areas in Chalakudy basin:
30
1. Continuance of paddy cultivation itself has become problematic due to indiscriminate

and random mining in the area.
2. People's opposition and frequent record of conflict between farmers and miners
regarding indiscriminate clay mining.
3. Marked lowering of water table in wells or changes in hydro geologic conditions in
areas adjacent to the mining sites.
4. Land stability problems, sliding / slumping of walls of mines, records of well collapse,
etc. in the mining hit zones.
5. Mechanical mining using various types of earth movers / proclains, massive scooping
of clays below the ground water table with respect to the ground water condition of
the summer season, etc.
Identified hotspots in Chalakudy basin
Based on the above indicators, four locations are identified as hotspot areas in the Chalakudy
basin. They are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Annallur and surrounding areas

Valur-Erayankudi areas
Eravathur and surrounding areas, and
Kuzhur-Mundakapadam areas
In these areas, the depth of mines often exceeds 6m bgl. Draining of water from the
unaffected paddy lands into the mining pits and subsequent pumping of water for further
mining impose severe problems on the hydrological regime of the area. The traditional
farmers, who cultivate unaffected paddy lands are forced to change the cropping pattern
frequently because of the new hydrological regime. This often leads to conflict between
traditional agricultural labourers and the miners. Prior to clay mining, the wetlands of
Annallur were famous for paddy cultivation. The traditional agricultural practice was
affected by the imposed changes in the hydrologic conditions of the area. Indiscriminate
digging without any depth control and use of excessive quantities of ground water for
further mining were the major causative factors for the observed changes in hydrologic
regime of the region. The farmers who still depend on agriculture in the paddy lands of the
area are at a loss to chose the type of agricultural practice they should follow or even to
decide whether they should cultivate the fields at all. They have already experimented with
vegetables, rhizomes and even mulberry on these disturbed lands encircling deep excavation
pits. In Valur, mechanical mining is being practised by the miners for the quick removal of
earth from paddy lands. In Eravathur and Kuzhur-Mundakapadam areas also, indiscriminate
clay mining is causing serious problems. The gaseous effluent generated from the cluster
of brick kilns is another threat as it is causing atmospheric pollution leading to respiratory
disorders among the people of the area.
31
Fig. 4.3 Spatial distribution of various landuse categories identified

in the paddy lands of Chalakudy basin
32
Table 4a: Detailed land use categories within the wet

Chalakudy basin
Sl. No.
Land use category
Ar
(Km)
1.
Unaffected paddy land
58.22
2.
Reclaimed paddy land
11.84
3.
Active mine
(tile and brick clay)
0.96
Abandoned mine (tile and

brick clay)
2.92
5.
River / Natural water body
8.98
6.
Total wetland surveyed
82.92
7.
Other / Unclassified areas
166.25
4.
Table 4b: Aerial distribution of various landuse categor

total paddy fields (100%)
Sl. No.
Land use category
Ar
(Km)
33
Fig. 4.4 Hotspot areas of clay mining, Chalakkudy basin
34
Laws and limitations

The tile and brick clay mining is taking place in private, unorganised sector. A considerable
section of the traditional farmers of Chalakudy basin is not able to continue paddy cultivation
due to imposed changes in the local hydrological conditions of the mining areas. The
mining activity has adversely affected the traditional pottery workers of the basin as well.
Their concern is that the clay suitable for pottery making is being lost excessively through
the extraction of clays for brick and tile manufacturing. Lack of a prudent quality control
/ assessment prior to giving sanction for mining is a major problem, leading to loss of high
quality clays suitable for pottery making. The existing rules / government orders governing
the extraction of tile and brick clays from paddy lands also are not specific about the
quality of the clays used for tile and brick manufacturing.
The Kerala Minor Mineral Concession Rules 1967, and the Land Utilization Order 1967 are
the two important statutory tools put forth to regulate the mining of tile and brick clays
from paddy fields and other wetland systems. While the former is meant for regulating the
mining process, the latter is enacted for the conservation of paddy lands for paddy cultivation.
But it is unfortunate to note that these two laws were formulated in a social context vastly
so different from the present one. The provisions of these laws are not therefore enough
to protect the genuine interest of the stakeholders who are concerned about environmental
degradation and paddy land conservation. Hence, these laws need appropriate revisions /
amendments for achieving the optimal / judicious extraction of the natural resources with
minimum adverse impact on the environment.
35
5. Characterisation and Nutrient Loading

Introduction
Understanding the physico-chemical characteristics is of paramount importance for
assessing the quality of tile and brick clays and also for evaluating properly the impact of
clay mining on the environment. A total of ten samples collected from major clay mining
areas and 36 sub samples of 5 borehole (core) samples were examined for texture, organic
carbon, nutrient elements like N, P and K (total and available), heavy metals and clay
mineral composition. The results of the analyses are discussed in the light of the available
literature and presented here.
Texture and sediment types
Texture refers to the relative proportions of particle aggregates constituting the sediments.
The sand, silt and clay constitute the most common particle aggregates in sediments / soil
samples. Hence, the relative proportions of these particle classes are used for describing
sediments or soil samples. Regarding tile and brick clays, both the terminologies, soils and
sediments fit well and used by different scientific groups.
The sand, silt and clay contents of the surface and borehole samples (core samples) are
presented in Tables 5.1 and 5.2, along with the sediment types worked out based on the
ternary model of Picard (1971). The maximum, minimum and average contents of the
particle aggregates are: 70.93%, 10.82% and 39.1% for sand, 41.64%, 12.11% and 23.98%
for silt, and 62.21%, 17.06% and 36.91% for clay fractions of the surface samples. Of
the ten surface samples, 3 samples fall in silty clay facies, 2 each in sandy mud, silty mud
and clayey sand facies and the remaining (one) falls in silty sand facies. Of the core
samples, the one retrieved from Melur is 5m long and shows dominance of mud in the
upper part and sand in the bottom part. The sand, silt and clay contents are: 6.67 - 87.04%
(av. 40.62%), 4.84 - 47.25% (av. 31.46%) and 8.05-61.55% (av. 28.15%), respectively.
A similar kind of trend is observed in the 6m long Annallur core also. In general, the sand
(av. 40.07%; range 16.16 - 66.91%), silt (av. 33.37%, range 12.02 - 50.45%) and clay (av.
26.53%; range 6.61-41.16%) contents exhibit a decreasing trend in the Annallur core. The
Vynthala core (2m) is composed, generally, of muddy sediments and intervened by a sand
rich layer in the middle. The sand, silt and clay contents are: 17.04-55.92% (av. 32.01%),
21.72 - 34.84% (av. 28.8%) and 19.53 - 52.39% (av. 39.3%), respectively. The
Puthenvelikkara core (5m) is generally, mud rich with sand dominant portion in the upper
part. The core exhibits 19.36 - 64% (av. 29.92%) of sand, 19.52 - 52.12% (av. 41.51%)
of silt and 16.47 - 32.52% (av. 28.54%) of clay. The Cherukadappuram core (6m) is
generally clay dominated with a mud-rich layer towards surface. The sand, silt and clay
contents are: 1.37 - 34.58% (av. 14.79%), 18.54 - 44.49% (av. 27.64%) and 39.65 72.84% (av. 57.53%), respectively.
36
Table 5.1 Sand, silt and clay contents of the tile and brick cla
Chalakudy basin
Sample
Locations
Sand %
Moisture
%
Coarse Fine
Total
Silt % Cla
Annallur (I)
4.47
7.87
39.01
46.88
24.25
28
Annallur (II)
10.65
3.18
30.79
33.97
33.84
32
Vynthala
4.12
33.53
37.4
70.93
12.13
17
Unjakadavu
31.80
9.26
10.41
19.67
24.94
55
Kochukadavu
24.00
2.96
7.86
10.82
27.03
62
Kumbidi
23.95
27.46
29.33
56.79
23.37
20
Melanthuruthu
34.23
12.88
6.79
19.67
23.13
56
Erayankudi
26.44
10.38
24.11
34.49
41.64
23
Mambrakadavu
27.10
45.45
10.81
56.26
12.11
31
Valur padam
27.43
25.29
16.2
41.49
17.34
41
Ternary diagram and sediment types

Fig.12 shows the ternary model worked out for the surface and core sediments of Chalakudy
basin. The sand-silt-clay plots fall within different facies fields, viz: sand, clayey sand,
silty sand, sandy mud, silty mud, clayey mud, silty clay, clayey silt and clay. Samples with
sand-silt-clay plots fall within the facies fields of silty clay, clayey mud and silty mud are
best suited for tile and wire cut brick making on a textural perspective. The sand-rich
samples require proper conditioning with mud dominated counterparts prior to use for tile
and brick making.
Moisture content
Moisture content is one of the important basic physical parameters of sediments and soils.
The moisture content of the surface samples varies between 4.12% and 34.23% with an
average of 21.42%. The ranges of moisture contents in the core samples are: Melur
24.75% - 51.17% (av. 33.21%), Annallur 9.49% - 74.45% (av. 44.02%), Vynthala 14.16
- 34.56% (av. 22.22%), Cherukadappuram 28.5% - 76.81% (av. 57.14%), Puthenvelikkara
13.5% - 50.62% (av. 34.26%). In general, the samples which are close to the ground
surface or rich in sand are with comparatively low soil moisture.
37
Table 5.2 Sand, Silt and Clay contents in the core sampl
Melur, Annallur, Vynthala, Puthenvelikkara and Cherukad
Sample
depth (cm)
Moisture %
Melur
31.28
0-10
51.17
40-50
28.16
110-120
37.36
180-190
39.91
240-250
280-290
27.16
360-370
24.75
420-430
25.85
Annallur
120-130
39
210-220
46.26
270-280
39.29
310-320
41.12
380-390
74.32
410-420
74.45
540-550
28.27
570-580
9.49
Vynthala
5-15
16.64
20-30
14.16
35-45
24.89
50-60
20.85
150-160
34.56
Cherukadappuram
85-95
28.5
200-210
76.81
260-270
61.23
310-320
64.73
340-350
58.57
400-410
58.72
500-510
53.9
Sand %
Fine
Total
Silt
%
Coarse
20.25
4.24
9.59
1.84
2.25
42.63
50.86
74.57
12.39
20.34
10.23
23.36
4.42
16.16
19.33
12.47
32.64
24.58
19.82
25.2
6.67
58.79
70.19
87.04
39.91
47.25
41.68
44.42
33.14
23.98
16.42
4.84
2
2
3
3
6
1
1
8
4.17
2.54
0.4
0.14
17.06
1.44
40.06
28.11
25.67
17.5
19.76
16.02
49.85
49.86
25.37
22.62
29.84
20.04
20.16
16.16
66.91
51.3
65.43
50.73
44.89
50.45
43.41
43.01
26.45
32.45
12.02
14.24
2
2
3
4
6
1
2
3
24.98
18.73
5.36
16.83
14.02
20.75
0.55
11.68
39.09
8.05
45.73
19.28
17.04
55.92
22.07
21.72
34.84
30.5
24.55
32.61
3
4
5
1
4
6.21
3.78
8.54
2.64
0.51
1.92
0.69
7.17
30.8
1.37
12.77
0.86
10.64
12.3
13.38
34.58
9.91
15.41
1.37
12.56
12.99
44.49
25.74
22.81
30.71
25.77
18.54
24.17
4
3
6
5
7
6
6
38
Fig. 5.1 Ternary diagram showing textural types of surface and subsurface
sediment / soil samples collected from tile and brick clay mining areas of
Chalakudy basin (modified after Picard, 1971)
39
Organic Carbon (C-org.)

Organic carbon is an integral component of sediments and soils. Organic material which
survives degradation is incorporated in sediment / soil where it may be more or less preserved
or subjected to further biological degradation. Organic carbon compounds in sediments
are either allochthonous or autochthonous in origin. The relative proportions of organic
matter derived from these sources are a function of the characteristics of the catchment
areas in relation to productivity of the environment under which the materials have been
deposited.
The C-org content of the surface samples varies from 0.19% to 4.08% (av. 1.56%; Table
5.3). The organic carbon does not show any marked correlation with the mud content
indicating differential contribution of allochthonous / autochthonous organic matter to the
tile and brick clays of the Chalakudy basin.
The borehole samples exhibit wide variation in organic carbon contents. In Melur core,
the content of organic carbon exhibits a marked decrease towards down core and varies
from 0.16% to 1.68% (av. 0.47%; Fig.13). The Annallur core, on the other hand, exhibits
organic carbon content of 9.74% at a depth range 3.5m - 4.6m (Fig.14). This coincides
with a peat rich layer. The layer below this peaty formation is greyish white in colour and
with only low content of organic carbon (av.0.19%). The Vynthala core (Fig.15) is 2m
long and the organic carbon varies between 0.56% and 5.08% (av. 2.14%). The sand rich
layer at the middle records comparatively low carbon values (0.56%). The organic carbon
content of Puthenvelikkara core (Fig.16) varies between 0.28% - 4.09% (av. 2.34%).
The clay rich layer between 1.2m and 4.8m below ground level records the highest organic
carbon values (av. 3.85%). Based on the organic carbon profile, the Cherukadappuram
core (Fig.17) can be divided into two zones. The core up to 1.8m from the ground
surface is with low organic carbon (av.0.59%) and high iron oxide pigments as evidenced
from the colour of this layer. The zone below it represents black clay with high organic
matter having C-org values of 3.14% - 4.51% (av. 3.86%).
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient element for the growth of plants. Most of the nitrogen in
soil or sediment is in organic form. The total nitrogen content in the tile and brick clay
samples collected from the active mines (surface samples) varies between 0.607 mg/g and
1.59 mg/g (av. 1.115 mg/g). The available nitrogen ranges from 0.129 mg/g to 0.35 mg/
g (av. 0.229 mg/g) and contributes only about 20% of the total nitrogen. In the borehole
samples, the total nitrogen varies from 0.365 mg/g to 1.32 mg/g (av. 0.59 mg/g) in Melur,
0.208 mg/g to 1.08 mg/g (av. 0.63 mg/g) in Annallur, 0.22 mg/g to 0.71 mg/g (av. 0.43
mg/g) in Vynthala, 0.441 mg/g to 1.09 mg/g (av. 0.70 mg/g) in Cherukadappuram and
0.169 mg/g to 0.356 mg/g (av. 0.29 mg/g) in Puthenvelikkara. The ranges of available
nitrogen in Melur, Annallur, Vynthala, Cherukadappuram and Puthenvelikkara are: 0.050
mg/g - 0.403 mg/g (av. 0.146 mg/g), 0.048 mg/g - 0.272 mg/g (av. 0.147 mg/g), 0.045
mg/g - 0.144 mg/g (av. 0.086 mg/g), 0.098 mg/g - 0.235 mg/g (av. 0.168) and 0.028 mg/
g - 0.071 mg/g (av. 0.060 mg/g), respectively. Nitrogen is enriched several folds in the
surface layer (top layer) compared to middle and the bottom counterparts (Table 5.4).
40
Table 5.3 Organic carbon, iron, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents in
the tile and brick clay samples (surface samples) of Chalakudy basin
Surface sample
C-org. Iron
Mud %
Locations
%
(Fe) %
Nitrogen (N) Phosphor

N tot
mg/g
N avail
mg/g
P tot
mg/g
P
m
Annallur (I)
53.04
1.14
4.78
0.98
0.311
0.71
Annallur (II)
66.01
0.43
7.42
0.61
0.157
1.17
Vynthala
29.29
1.25
2.38
1.31
0.350
0.21
Unjakadavu
80.32
1.51
5.99
1.31
0.244
0.36
Kochukadavu
89.24
2.53
5.31
1.49
0.269
0.47
Kumbidi
43.85
0.19
5.18
0.65
0.143
0.44
Melanthuruthu
80.00
1.74
3.96
1.59
0.272
0.37
Erayankudi
65.08
0.98
4.98
0.79
0.129
0.75
Mambrakadavu
43.71
4.08
5.03
0.89
0.154
0.18
Valur padam
58.50
1.78
6.04
1.54
0.263
0.64
Minimum
29.290 0.190 2.376 0.607
0.129
0.176
Maximum
89.240 4.080 7.417 1.590
0.350
1.170
Average
60.904 1.563 5.106 1.115
0.229
0.528
41
CORE: MELUR
N tot mg/g
C-org%
Lithology
0
0.8
1.6
Measured from ground level
DEPTH (m)
zM
zC
3
zS
S
L L
L
L L L
L L
L
L
INDEX
zM Silty mud
zC Silty clay
zS
42
Fig. 5.2 Variation of organic carbon (C-org), nutrients (N, P & K) and Fe along the profile of Melur core
CORE: ANNALLUR
C-org%
Lithology
0
8 10
N tot mg/g
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
P tot mg/g
0
0.5
1.5
DEPTH (m)
zM
2
zS
cS
6
INDEX
zM Silty mud
zS Silty sand
43
Fig. 5.3 Variation of organic carbon (C-org), nutrients (N, P & K) and Fe along the profile of Annallur core
Phosphorus
Determination of phosphorus in soils and sediments has received wide attention because
of its importance in maintaining the soil fertility and plant growth. The content of total
phosphorus varies from 0.176 mg/g to 1.170 mg/g (av. 0.528 mg/g) in the surface samples
and available phosphorus forms only a negligible portion of the total phosphorus. The total
phosphorus concentration in the core samples varies from 0.398 mg/g to 1.093 mg/g (av.
0.774 mg/g) in Melur, 0.195 mg/g to 1.371 mg/g (av. 0.685 mg/g) in Annallur, 0.269 mg/
g to 0.722 mg/g (av. 0.482 mg/g) in Vynthala, 0.205 mg/g to 0.528 mg/g (av. 0.342 mg/
g) in Cherukadappuram and 0.188 mg/g to 0.519 mg/g (av. 0.373 mg/g) in Puthenvelikkara.
The available phosphorous in Melur, Annallur, Vynthala, Cherukadappuram and
Puthenvelikkara are: 0.001 mg/g - 0.008 mg/g (av. 0.004 mg/g), 0.001 mg/g - 0.010 mg/
g (av. 0.005 mg/g), 0.002 mg/g - 0.006 mg/g (av. 0.004 mg/g), 0.003 mg/g - 0.021 mg/
g (av. 0.008 mg/g), 0.002 mg/g - 0.065 mg/g (av. 0.013 mg/g), respectively. The available
phosphorous occurs only in very marginal amounts (Tables 5.3 and 5.4). The down core
variation of phosphorus concentration reveals that, like nitrogen, phosphorus gets enriched
in the surface layer compared to the middle and bottom sections.
Potassium
Like nitrogen and phosphorus, potassium is also considered a critical nutrient element for
plant growth and maintaining soil fertility. The content of potassium varies from 10 mg/g
to 23.75 mg/g (av. 16.375 mg/g) in the surface samples. In the core samples, the element
exhibits marked variation towards the down core direction. It varies from 0.800 mg/g to
10.400 mg/g (av. 5.450 mg/g) in Melur, 1.580 mg/g to 9.600 mg/g (av. 5.563 mg/g) in
Annallur, 11.250 mg/g to 18 mg/g (av. 15.850 mg/g) in Vynthala, 7.150 mg/g to 10.470
mg/g (av. 8.480 mg/g) in Cherukadappuram and 2.400 mg/g to 16.800 mg/g (av. 8.339
mg/g) in Puthenvelikkara. The ranges of available potassium in Melur, Annallur, Vynthala,
Cherukadappuram and Puthenvelikkara are: 0.032 mg/g - 1.184 mg/g (av. 0.208 mg/g),
0.012 mg/g - 0.264 mg/g (av. 0.097 mg/g), 0.025 mg/g - 0.138 mg/g (av.0.059 mg/g),
0.008 mg/g - 0.184 mg/g (av. 0.036 mg/g) and 0.068 mg/g - 0.504 mg/g (av. 0.301 mg/g),
respectively. Potassium is enriched in the surface of the core compared to the middle and
bottom counterparts (Table 5.4; Figs. 5.25.6).
Iron
Iron (Fe) is one of the most frequent and highly redox-sensitive elements in sediments and
soils of the earth. Particulate iron is deposited in the sediments as inorganic oxides or as
oxide coating on setting particles. Iron may also enter the sediments together with organic
debris and humic colloidal matter. The content of Fe varies from 2.38% to 7.42% (av.
5.11%) in the surface samples. In the core samples, Fe varies from 3.67% to 7.57% (av.
5.5%) in Melur, 2.85% to 5.34% (av. 4.04%) in Annallur, 1.58% to 5.15% (av. 3.5%) in
Vynthala, 3.22% to 5.17% (av. 4.6%) in Cherukadappuram and 3.6% to 4.64% (av. 4.1. %) in
Puthenvelikkara. The down core variation of iron does not show any specific trend (Figs. 5.25.6).
44
CORE: VYNTHALA
N tot mg/g
C-org%
Lithology
0
0.2
0.4
0.5
45
Fig. 5.4 Variation of organic carbon (C-org), nutrients (N, P & K) and Fe along the profile of Vynthala core
CORE: PUTHENVELIKKARA
N tot mg/g
C-org%
Lithology
0
0.2
0.4
0.5
0
zS
DEPTH (m)
cZ
zM
5
L
L
L
INDEX
zS Silty sand
zM Silty m ud
46
Fig. 5.5 Variation of organic carbon (C-org), nutrients (N, P & K) and Fe along the profile of Puthenvelikkara core
CORE: CHERUKADAPPURAM
N tot mg/g
C-org%
Lithology
0
0.4
0.8
zM
DEPTH (m)
cM
zC
INDEX
zM Silty mud
zS Silty sand
47
Fig. 5.6 Variation of organic carbon (C-org), nutrients (N, P & K) and Fe along the profile of Cherukadapuram core
Table 5.4 Organic carbon, Iron, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and

Potassium contents in the core sediments of Chalakudy basin
Sample depth
in cm from
top
Mud
%
C-org. %
Iron
(Fe) %
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus(P)
Pottassium (K)
N tot
mg/g
N avail
mg/g
P tot
mg/g
P avail
mg/g
K tot
mg/g
K avail
mg/g
Melur
0-10
67.32
1.68
5.15
1.32
0.403
0.73
0.004
10.40
0.040
40-50
75.38
0.78
7.10
0.79
0.227
1.07
0.001
8.80
0.032
110-120
79.99
0.29
7.57
0.50
0.123
1.04
0.002
8.00
0.052
180-190
75.52
0.27
4.25
0.40
0.087
1.09
0.008
8.40
0.096
240-250
94.69
0.25
3.67
0.59
0.143
0.46
0.003
3.20
0.124
280-290
41.18
0.20
4.46
0.38
0.050
0.40
0.004
2.40
0.088
360-370
29.88
0.16
4.93
0.39
0.067
0.58
0.005
0.80
0.048
420-430
12.89
0.16
6.83
0.37
0.83
12.89
0.16
3.67
0.37
0.40
0.007
0.00
1.60
Min
0.064
0.05
0.80
1.184
0.03
Max
94.69
1.68
7.57
1.32
0.40
1.09
0.01
10.40
1.18
Ave
59.61
0.47
5.49
0.59
0.15
0.77
0.00
5.45
0.21
120-130
70.21
1.99
5.21
1.08
0.272
1.12
0.010
9.60
0.264
210-220
79.95
0.39
5.34
0.47
0.090
1.34
0.010
8.05
0.092
240-250
79.81
0.35
5.16
0.57
0.146
1.37
0.009
9.20
0.093
310-320
84.17
0.43
3.16
0.64
0.179
0.62
0.007
8.85
0.104
380-390
33.06
9.54
3.64
0.78
0.148
0.34
0.002
2.40
0.012
410-420
48.67
9.93
2.83
0.93
0.241
0.29
0.001
1.58
0.052
540-550
34.19
0.31
3.43
0.33
0.053
0.20
0.002
2.42
0.072
570-580
49.07
0.07
3.55
0.21
0.20
33.060
0.070
2.832
0.208
0.195
0.001
0.001
2.41
Min
0.048
0.048
1.580
0.084
0.012
Max
84.170
9.930
5.341
1.080
0.272
1.371
0.010
9.600
0.264
Ave
59.891
2.876
4.040
0.626
0.147
0.686
0.005
5.563
0.097
5-15
55.26
2.29
3.16
0.71
0.144
0.43
0.004
17.50
0.025
20-30
80.66
1.66
3.63
0.50
0.095
0.43
0.004
16.25
0.035
35-45
82.95
1.13
5.15
0.44
0.092
0.56
0.002
16.25
0.055
50-60
44.08
0.56
3.98
0.28
0.055
0.72
0.005
18.00
0.040
150-160
77.86
5.08
1.58
0.22
0.27
44.080
0.560
1.576
0.220
0.269
0.006
0.002
11.25
Min
0.045
0.045
11.250
0.138
0.025
Max
82.950
5.080
5.148
0.710
0.144
0.722
0.006
18.000
0.138
Ave
68.162
2.144
3.497
0.428
0.086
0.482
0.004
15.850
0.059
85-95
86.41
0.59
3.70
1.09
0.235
0.45
0.007
10.47
0.036
200-210
65.39
4.33
3.22
0.92
0.228
0.22
0.003
7.80
0.008
260-270
90.02
4.51
4.99
0.79
0.206
0.21
0.003
7.22
0.012
310-320
84.60
4.21
4.97
0.60
0.152
0.27
0.003
7.15
0.009
340-350
98.61
3.60
4.81
0.65
0.164
0.31
0.006
8.00
0.009
Annallur
Vynthala
Cherukadappuram
48
Trace metals (Cu, Pb and Cd)

The trace metals such as Cu, Pb and Cd in surface samples varies from 14ppm to 49ppm
(av. 33ppm), 23ppm - 49ppm (av. 38ppm) and 2ppm - 5ppm (av. 2.7ppm), respectively
(Table 5.5). Only two cores recovered from Cherukadappuram and Puthenvelikkara are
examined for down core variations of these trace metals. The concentration of Cu, Pb and
Cd are: 17ppm - 24ppm (av. 21ppm), 12ppm - 36ppm (av. 21.ppm) and 1ppm - 2ppm
(av. 1.4ppm) in the Cherukadappuram core and 8ppm - 22ppm (av. 14ppm), 16ppm 36ppm (av. 30ppm) and 1ppm - 2ppm (av. 1.6ppm) in the Puthenvelikkara core (Table5.6).
The elemental distribution is inconsistent along the profile of the core.
Removal of N, P and K through clay mining
The survey carried out as part of this study revealed that an amount of 135975 tonnes of
tile and brick clay was removed from the Chalakudy basin in the year 2001-02. The clay
is with average moisture content of 21.42 percent. That is to say the total amount of clay
weighs 106849 tonnes on dry basis. The average N, P and K contents (total) of the clay
is estimated to be about 1.115mg/g, 0.528 mg/g and 16.375 mg/g, respectively. From
these values, it may be computed that an amount of 119 tonnes of N, 56 tonnes of P and
1750 tonnes of K has been removed annually through clay mining for the 'production of
tile, bricks and other clay articles. The plant-available portion of N, P and K in the clays
comes to about 24.5 tonnes, 1.6 tonnes and 6.7 tonnes, respectively. However, available
quantities of the N, P and K could be enhanced by adjusting the Eh-pH conditions of the
medium.
Matrix analysis
Matrix analysis of geochemical parameters for the surface samples of Chalakudy basin is
presented in Table 5.7. In the surface samples nitrogen exhibits positive correlation with
mud content and organic matter, indicating the possible source for nitrogen. Potassium
exhibits a negative relation with both organic carbon and mud contents. This indicates that
a substantial part of potassium is associated with coarser particles rich in feldspar minerals.
Phosphorus also does not exhibit a strong positive affinity with Fe. This indicates that Fe
/ Mn oxides and / or hydroxides on sediments act as a strong sink for phosphorus reached
in the system through various sources, especially through mineral fertilisers.
The matrix analysis worked out for the geochemical parameters of borehole samples is
shown in Table 5.8. Total nitrogen in the sample exhibits a positive correlation with organic
carbon, indicating that a substantial part of the nitrogen is contributed through organic
matter deposition. Total potassium, on the other hand, is bonded well to the silicate minerals
in the mud fraction. Total phosphorus exhibits a strong positive correlation with Fe,
indicating that a major part of the phosphorous is associated with Fe / Mn oxide or hydroxide
complexes as mentioned earlier.
49
Table 5.5 Trace metal contents in the tile and brick samples
(surface) of Chalakudy basin
Sl.No. Sample location
Cu
Pb
Annallur (I)
32
41
Annallur (II)
49
49
Vynthala
17
23
Unjakadavu
32
31
Kochukadavu
43
47
Kumbidi
32
42
Melanthuruthu
34
39
Erayankudi
41
37
Mambrakadavu
14
32
10
Valurpadam
36
40
Maximum
49
49
Minimum
14
23
Average
33
38
(All values in ppm)
50
Table 5.6 Trace metal contents in the core samples collected from
Chalakudy basin
Sample depth (cm)
Cu
Pb
85-95
24
36
200-210
17
12
260-270
23
12
310-320
21
28
340-350
22
12
400-410
20
12
500-510
21
29
570-580
18
27
80-85
36
190-200
13
27
290-300
14
36
Cherukadappuram
Puthenvelikkara
51
Table 5.7 Correlation matrix of the surface samples of the study area
Parameters
Mud
Mud
C-org.
Ntot
Navail
Ptot
Pavail
C-org.
0.076
Ntot
0.395
0.363
Navail
-0.027
0.064
0.726
Ptot
0.237
-0.554
-0.446
-0.322
Pavail
-0.597
-0.024
-0.043
0.484
-0.179
Ktot
-0.433
-0.648
-0.343
0.241
0.100
0.643
Kavail
0.162
-0.185
0.380
0.159
-0.336 -0.291
Fe
0.437
-0.128
-0.339
-0.545
0.679
-0.652
Table 5.8 Correlation matrix of the core samples of the study area
Parameters
Mud
Mud
C-org.
Ntot
Navail
Ptot
Pavail
C-org.
0.029
Ntot
0.162
0.281
Navail
0.228
0.239
0.971
Ptot
0.065
-0.392
0.170
0.194
Pavail
0.176
0.102
-0.132
Ktot
0.265
-0.104
0.066
0.073
0.167
0.099
-0.305
-0.079
-0.294
-0.290
0.129
0.141
0.064
-0.312
0.0108
0.149
0.580
0.121
Kavail
Fe
-0.122 -0.026
52
Fig. 5.7 X-ray diffractogram of the clay fractions of a few samples collected from
different litho units of Anallur core
53
Fig. 5.8 X-ray diffractogram of the clay fractions of a few samples collected from
clay mining areas, Chalakudy basin
54
Clay Mineralogy
Study of clay minerals has received much attention in recent years as these minerals are
associated with the finer sediments and play a pivotal role in elemental exchange between
sediments and water. Further, clay mineral-rich finer particles are very effective in trapping
organic matter within sediments. This clay mineral-rich layer containing organic matter
and other nutrient elements is the major life supporting factor of the wetland ecosystems.
The nature of the nutrient dynamics in the wetland system is dependent on the quality and
quantity of the clay minerals in the sediments. Analysis of the X-ray diffractogram of the
tile and brick clay samples of the Chalakudy basin reveals that the samples are composed
mainly of two major types of clay minerals - kaolinite and gibbsite (Fig.18). The presence
of these minerals continues even to the subsurface layers (Fig.19), too. The minerals are
derived, mainly, from the alteration of quartzo-feldspathic rocks in the catchment areas.
55
6. Water Quality in Areas Adjoining Tile and Brick Clay Mines

Introduction
Non-availability of good quality drinking water is a critical problem in many of the urbanised
areas of the State. Maintaining the quality of fresh water resources is of prime importance
in the coming years. Ground water has long been regarded as the purest water source for
human consumption in rural and semi-urban areas. However, compared to surface water
sources, only very little attention has been paid to the water quality assessment of well
water sources. In many cases, water from wells is used without much treatment. Recent
studies reveal that the well water of many of the areas of Kerala contain a variety of
harmful substances, the concentration of which increases with increase in human activities
in the recharge zones of the aquifer systems that contribute water to the wells (Krishnakumar,
2002; Alex, et al, 2003 and many others).
The water related problems are reported to be severe in the midland and lowland regions of
various river basins of Kerala, where scooping of clays for tile and brick manufacturing is
taking place at alarming rates. Therefore, an attempt has been made in this investigation to
assess the overall physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of surface and ground
water resources in some selected clay mining areas of the basin and compare it with a
control site where such human interferences are absent.
Water potential
The domestic wells of the study area are perennial in nature and contain sufficient quantity
of water even in summer season. The depth of the water column varied from 2.8 m to 6.5
m during monsoon and 0.9 m to 4.75 m during non-monsoon season (Appendix I). Even
though the wells in the Annallur area recorded the lowest level during the lean period, all
wells in the study area showed sufficient storage of water. However, in almost all cases,
the quantity of water during non-monsoon period was reduced to half or lower than the
half marks, compared to the water availability during monsoon period. All ponds left
behind after indiscriminate clay mining was over were also perennial in nature.
Chemical quality
The result of the physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters are furnished in Appendix
I and their variations are presented in Figs. 6.16.10. A few important water quality
parameters are discussed in detail in the following parts of this section.
pH and Conductivity: The well water samples collected from clay mining areas show
low pH values during both the seasons (monsoon, 5.167.02; non-monsoon, 4.976.02)
as compared to the control site (monsoon, 6.46 to 6.59; non-monsoon, 6.3 to 6.42).
Surface water from various clay mine areas showed wide pH values variation; 6.07 - 6.98
(monsoon) and 5.226.61 (non-monsoon) while that of the control site did not show
56
much variation; the values are almost similar to the mining areas (6.26 - 6.66, monsoon;
6.27 - 6.37, non-monsoon). The pH readings of surface samples and that of well samples
from non-clay mine areas were almost of the same order but the corresponding samples
from clay mining areas reveal marked pH differences. Conductivity of well water samples
does not exhibit any regular variation, either seasonally or regionally. Majority of well
water samples show higher range of readings during non-monsoon period (Table 6.1;
Appendix I). Conductivity of well water from clay mine areas varies from 32.1 to 109 S/
cm during monsoon and 50.7 to 117 S/cm during non-monsoon. Well water samples
from non-clay mining areas, however, showed lower range of conductivity values; (monsoon
period = 59 - 68 S/cm; non-monsoon period = 66 - 82 S/cm). Surface water from
pond and river showed marked seasonal differences in conductivity readings when compared
to the conductivity of well samples with higher values during non-monsoon season
(Table.6.1).
DO and BOD: Dissolved oxygen (DO) content of well water from clay mine areas shows
marked seasonal differences and exhibits low values during monsoon period (0.33 - 2.63
mg/l). Samples from non-monsoon period reveal enrichment of DO (1.71 - 7.72 mg/l)
and a few samples show values greater than 5 mg/l. Well water samples of the control
site, on the other hand, show comparatively high DO values during both the seasons
(monsoon 3.2 - 4.3 mg/l; non-monsoon 4.2 - 5.2 mg/l). Majority of samples from ponds,
which are abandoned clay mines filled with water, and that from Chalakudy River reveal
higher DO values (Appendix I). But the DO content of the Oxbow lake (3.13 - 3.84 mg/
l) and the minor stream channel from the control region (3.9 - 4.3 mg/l) are comparatively
low. BOD values of the well waters samples of the clay mining areas exhibit high readings
(monsoon 0.88 - 2.26mg/l; non-monsoon 1.71 - 8.72 mg/l), compared to the samples
from non-mining regions (monsoon 0.9 - 1.98 mg/l; non-monsoon 1.21 - 2.08 mg/l).
During monsoon period, about 80 percent of well water samples from mining areas exhibit
BOD values below the recommended value of <2 mg/l suggesting that they were good
quality water by drinking water standards. But, during the non-monsoon period, only 20
percent of well water exhibits lower values than standard reading. Well waters samples
from the control region exhibit comparatively low BOD content during both seasons.
Surface water, however, showed high BOD during monsoon as well as non-monsoon
periods. BOD of surface water is higher than well water. Majority of pond and river
samples exhibit higher BOD during non-monsoon period compared to that in monsoon
period. Water collected from Oxbow lake and stream channel at the control site at Koratti,
however, showed low BOD values than that of pond and river samples. Unlike pond and
river water, BOD of oxbow lake and stream channel are lower during non-monsoon as
compared to monsoon period.
Alkalinity: Alkalinity values of well water samples collected from the non-clay mining
areas are comparatively higher than that of clay mining regions (Appendix II). Almost all
well water samples show wide seasonal differences. Alkalinity values during monsoon
period vary between 6 mg/l and 120 mg/l (av. 20.8 mg/l) in samples from clay mining
areas and between 16 mg/l and 20 mg/l (av. 17.3 mg/l) in the control sites. The
corresponding ranges of alkalinity values during non-monsoon season in mining and non57
5.87
5.76
5.28
5.52
5.08
W3
5.16
4.92
W2
5.47
5.53
5.16
4.97
5.5
5.17
pH
5.55
6.5
6.46
6.32
6.49
6.71
7.02
7.5
4.5
4
W4
W5
W10
W11
W12
W13
W14
WELL WATER
P6
P9
P7
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
6.26
6.27
P8
NM
pH
6.98
6.59
P1
6.51
6.42
6.25
6.22
6.94
6.61
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
6.07
5.75
pH
R16
PO ND WATER
M
NM
7.5
7.5
7
6.5
6.5
pH
6
6
5.5
5.5
4.5
4.5
4
4
W3
W2
PADINJARE
CHALAKUDY
P1
P6
POND
WATER
W5
W4
TURUTHI
PARAMBU
W12 W11 W10 P 9

ALTHUR
Fig. 6.1 pH in Water samples collected from Chalakudy basin

58
107.7
55.2
50.9
W5
32.1
40
40.9
50.7
W4
60
33.1
53.4
51.6
70
80
54.9
Conductivity, s/cm
100
79.8
88.1
99.5
120
103.5
101.8
119.3
140
20
0
W2
W3
W10
W11
W12
W13
W1
WELL WATER
40
20
0
P1
P6
P7
P8
34.2
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cond.s/cm
75.5
48.3
73.4
47.9
60
51.7
80
58.3
64.2
65.7
Cond.s/cm
100
81.3
101
120
NM
57.3
P9
R16
PO ND WATER
M
NM
140
600
500
100
Cond.s/cm
Cond. s/cm
120
80
60
40
400
300
200
100
20
0
W3
W2
CHALAKUDY
WELLS
P1
P6
POND
WATER
W5
W4
PARAMBU
WELLS
W12
W10
ALTHUR
WELLS
Fig. 6.2 Conductivity in Water samples collected from Chalakudy basin
59
Table 6.1 Water quality parameters in surface and ground water sources, Chalakudy basin.
SURFACE WATER
Sl. No.
Parameters
Mining Area
Non-
MNS
Non-MNS
MNS
PH
6.07 - 6.98
5.22 - 6.61
6.26 - 6.66
Conductivity, S/cm
47.9 - 64.2
57 - 101
31.1 - 42.7
DO, mg/l
3.84 - 8.56
3.13 - 8.71
4.3 - 8.2
BOD, mg/l
2.03 - 5.46
2.47 - 9.16
2.1 - 3.18
Chloride, mg/l
8.2 - 11.3
12.9 - 27.4
6-8
TDS, mg/l
27.3 - 42.1
33.4 - 58.8
17.4 - 28
NO3-N, mg/l
0.08 - 0.42
0.07 - 0.64
0.06 - 0.83
NH3-N, g/l
15.1 - 165
11.1 - 33.3
4.2 - 79
Inorg. P, g/l
5.8 - 27.3
12.1 - 26.2
9.2 - 46.5
10
SiO2-Si, mg/l
1.85 - 2.34
0.48 - 1.31
3.72 - 5.06
11
Hardness, mg/l
14 - 15
16 - 26
8.5 - 14
12
Ca, mg/l
4.0 - 5.21
3.21 - 7.21
3.21 - 3.6
13
Mg, mg/l
0.49 - 1.09
1.46 - 2.67
0.12 - 1.21
14
Fe (dissolved), g/l
66 - 451
23 - 134
42 - 85
15
T C, CFU/ml
0 - 35
16 - 148
5 - 15
16
FC, CFU/ml
0-7
4 - 43
0-5
MNS, Monsoon Season;
Non-MNS, Non-monsoon Season.
60
mining regions are 10.7 - 117.3 mg/l (av. 24 mg/l) and 18 - 23.5 mg/l (av. 20.8 mg/l),
respectively. During both the seasons, pond water samples from all locations show
alkalinity value with less fluctuations compared with that of well water (monsoon: range =
14 - 16 mg/l; av. 14.4 mg/l; non-monsoon: range = 18.6 - 29.3 mg/l; av. 25.3 mg/l).
Chloride and Sulphate: Well water samples from clay mining areas and control sites
exhibit chloride values within the prescribed standards of BIS / WHO for drinking water.
Samples from all wells of the entire clay mine and non-clay mine areas reveal higher
chloride concentration in non-monsoon period than that of monsoon period. Chloride
content of well water from mining area varies between 8.3 mg/l and 20.7 mg/l during
monsoon season and between 10.7 mg/l and 21.3 mg/l during non-monsoon season. The
well water from control site at Koratti shows only minimum fluctuation between well
samples during monsoon (14.1 - 16.5 mg/l) and non-monsoon (16.2 - 19.3 mg/l) seasons.
Unlike the well samples, surface samples show only lower range of chloride values.
However, most of the surface waters record high values during non-monsoon period
(monsoon 6 - 11.3mg/l; non-monsoon period 8.35 - 27.4 mg/l).
Presence of sulphate in well water is very low and is recorded mainly during non-monsoon
period. Fifty percent well samples from clay mining regions reveal low sulphate content
during the monsoon period while none of the samples from non-clay mine area reveal the
presence of it. However, during the non-monsoon period, all well samples exhibit the
presence of sulphate (clay mining area 0.9 - 39.3 mg/l; non-clay mining area 0.8 - 1.02
mg/l). Only two pond water samples show sulphate during the monsoon season, while
during summer period all samples reveal its presence in varying concentrations, from 0.79
mg/l to 5.54 mg/l. River water shows sulphate in all samples only during non-monsoon
period where it fluctuates widely between different stations (0.45 - 3.16 mg/l). Water
from Oxbow lake too shows wide seasonal difference in sulphate content, with negligibly
low concentration during monsoon period (monsoon 0.54 mg/l; non-monsoon 4.97 mg/l).
Sulphate is absent in channel water of the control regions during monsoon period, while
during non-monsoon period, it exhibits very low value (0.42 mg/l).
Nitrite, Nitrate, Phosphate and Silicate: All well waters from mining sites show the
presence of NO2-N in monsoon as well as in non-monsoon periods and its concentration
vary widely from well to well. Majority of samples show high concentrations of NO2-N
during non-monsoon period (1.48 - 36.6 g/l) compared to monsoon period (0.29 - 17.8
g/l). The NO2-N values of well samples from the control site show low values with
minimum fluctuations with respect to samples from clay mining areas. They vary between
2.58 - 4.82 g/l and 5.12 - 8.93 g/l during monsoon and non-monsoon periods respectively.
Surface water from mining region shows lower concentration of NO2 - N (monsoon 0 3.23 g/l; non-monsoon 0.3 - 2.66 g/l) than control site (monsoon 1.75 - 6.6 g/l; nonmonsoon 2.07 - 9.3 g/l). Well water from clay mining regions exhibit comparatively high
values of NO3 - N compared to samples of the control site (Fig.20). Well water from clay
mining areas shows NO3 - N in the range: monsoon = 0.28 - 3.30 mg/l; non-monsoon =
0.26 - 2.54 mg/l. The corresponding range of NO3 - N in control region was very low and
61
7.72
6.04
5.3
W3
W4
2.35
0.46
W2
2.63
3.29
0.44
0.33
0.88
1.78
1.89
2.03
2.48
3.4
3.83
4.62
DO, mg/l
2.49
W13
W14
0
W5
W10
W11
W12
WELL WATER
DO , mg/l
4.6
8.2
7.2
10
7.88
8.98
6.55
7.11
6.85
8.56
8.71
NM
4.23
DO , mg/l
5.91
6.72
6
4
2
0
P1
P6
P7
P8
R16
P9
PO ND WATER
R17
RIVE
M
NM
10
9
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
8
6
DO , mg/l
DO , mg/l
7
5
4
3
2
1
0
W3
W2
PADINJARE
CHALAKUDY
WELLS
P1
P6
POND
WATER
W5
W4
TURUTHI
PARAMBU
WELLS
W12 W11 W10

ALTHUR
WELLS
Fig. 6.3 Variation of Dissolved Oxygen in water samples collected from Chalakudy
basin
62
3.31
3.23
3.3
3.5
1.6
1.29
0.51
0.26
0.37
0.5
0.44
0.31
0.42
0.83
1.5
1.68
1.99
1.63
NO 3 -N, mg/l
2.5
2.37
2.5
W5
W10
W11
W12
0
W2
W3
W4
W13
W1
WELL WATER
0.7
NO 3 -N, mg/l
0.39
0.48
0.076
0.065
0.1
0.097
0.24
0.28
0.4
0.11
NO 3 -N, mg/l
0.5
0.2
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.3
0.83
0.75
0.64
0.8
0.7
NM
0.75
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
P1
P6
P7
P8
P9
R16
PO ND WATER
NO 3 -N, mg/l
M
NM
3.5
3.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0
0
W3
W2
PADINJARE
CHALAKUDY
WELLS
P1
P6
POND
WATER
W5
W4
TURUTHI
PARAM BU
WELLS
W12
W11
W10
ALTHUR
WELLS
Fig. 6.4 Variation of Nitrite and Nitrate in various water samples of Chalakudy basin
63
337
400
350
242
300
134
146
30.7
W10
W11
W12
32.2
26.1
W4
30.6
44.2
W3
70
46.1
W2
50
20.1
40.1
100
89.2
102
150
146
178
200
152
TP,
g/l
250
0
W5
W13
W14
WELL WATER
P8
P9
311
28.6
TP,
43.1
g/l
P7
29.1
16.8
36.5
64
P6
PO ND WATER
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
318
NM
165
165
P1
24.1
60.2
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
25.5
TP,
g/l
R16
R17
RIV
Fig. 6.5 Variation of Inorganic phosphorous in various water samples of

64
fluctuates between 0.13-0.28 mg/l (monsoon) and 0.1 - 0.16 mg/l (non-monsoon). Surface
water from ponds in clay mining areas shows high values of NO3-N compared to the
channel water of the control region. The NO3 - N concentration shows wide differences
(9-341 g/l; monsoon and 5.6 - 147 g/l; non-monsoon) among the well samples from
clay mining regions. The well waters of control region show NH3 - N values between
Below Detection Level (BDL) and 16 mg/l during monsoon and BDL and 5.6 mg/l during
non-monsoon. Figs.6.26.10 depict the level variability of hydro chemical parameters
between well water and pond water of the study area.
Well samples from clay mining and non-mining areas show wide concentration differences
in inorganic phosphorus content. There were no regular seasonal variations in the
concentration of inorganic phosphorus in well water samples. The inorganic phosphorus
concentration in well waters from mining area varies between 8.7 mg/l and 64 mg/l during
monsoon and between 18.1 mg/l and 76.5 mg/l during non-monsoon. Samples from the
control site exhibit exceptionally lower values of inorganic phosphorus (monsoon 0.69 4.58 g/l; non-monsoon 0.88 - 5.66 g/l). Compared to well water, pond water exhibits
comparatively low range of inorganic phosphorous (monsoon 5.8 - 11.6 mg/l; non-monsoon
12.1 - 26.2 mg/l). River water, on the other hand, shows slightly higher concentrations of
inorganic phosphorus than pond water samples.
All well water samples exhibit wide difference in SiO2 - Si concentration among the samples
from monsoon and non-monsoon periods. The concentrations of SiO2 - Si were double
or even more during monsoon period compared to the non-monsoon period. During
monsoon and non-monsoon periods the SiO2 - Si content in well water from clay mining
areas varies between 3.66 mg/l and 6.94 mg/l and 1.27 mg/l and 2.79 mg/l respectively;
while in well water samples from control regions, the SiO2 - Si content varies between 3.8
mg/l and 4.25 mg/l, and 1.80 mg/l and 2.10 mg/l during monsoon and non-monsoon
periods respectively. Compared to well water, the SiO2 - Si content in pond water is
slightly lower; 1.85 - 2.34 mg/l during the monsoon and 0.48 - 1.23 mg/l during nonmonsoon periods. Also, the seasonal differences of SiO2 - Si are lower in pond water than
in well water. River water, on the other hand, reveals SiO2 - Si values comparable to that
in well samples and the differences in the nutrient concentration between the two seasons
were quite high (2.96 - 3.62 mg/l).
Hardness: Hardness of all ground water and surface water samples ranges within the
standard values of BIS / WHO and no extreme fluctuations are observed. Majority of the
well water samples show only a little difference of hardness between the two seasons.
Seventy percent of well samples reveal higher hardness values during non-monsoon period
compared to monsoon period. There are no clear-cut differences of hardness values between
clay mining and non-clay mine areas. Pond water exhibits clear seasonal difference with
higher readings during non-monsoon period. River samples, on the other hand, show
inconsistent variation as regards hardness during monsoon and non-monsoon periods.
While two river samples (R16 & R17) exhibit lower readings during monsoon period, the
sample collected from the river point near the bridge constructed at Chalakudy reveals
65
higher readings for the same period. Water samples from the lake and the minor channel show
slightly higher values than river samples, with greater concentration for non-monsoon period.
Dissolved Iron: During monsoon season, except the water from two wells (W3 and
W21), one from mining and another from control region, all other water samples show
dissolved iron less than the standard value of 300 g/l. Water samples from wells, W3 and
W21, show Fe concentration of 668 g/l and 457 g/l, respectively during the monsoon
season, but in the rest of the well samples, Fe varies between 12 g/l and 283? g/l only.
However, during non-monsoon season, all samples except that from W21 exhibit Fe values
fairly below the maximum value fixed by WHO / BIS. Majority of the well water samples
reveal high Fe content during monsoon period compared to the corresponding values in
non-monsoon period (Table 6.2). All well water samples show wide seasonal difference
of Fe. During both the monsoon and non-monsoon seasons water samples from surface
sources show lower iron values than the standard value. Most of the pond water samples
show high values of Fe during the monsoon period while river water samples and Oxbow
Lake (OL) waters samples exhibit high Fe content during the non-monsoon period.
Bacteriological quality
Almost all well samples from clay mining and non-mining areas reveal the presence of
Total Coliforms (TC). The TC population in well water from non-clay mining areas are
lower compared to that of clay mining areas. Only 40 percent of pond samples show TC
during the monsoon period while all pond water samples show its presence during nonmonsoon period when compared to well waters. All river samples and Oxbow lake sample
reveal the presence of TC during both the monsoon and non-monsoon periods. River
waters exhibit wide difference in this type of bacterial population between the two seasons.
During monsoon and non-monsoon seasons about 50 percent of the well water samples
show the presence of faecal coliforms (FC). The FC population varies between 4 CFU/ml
and 15 CFU/ml during non-monsoon and between 5 CFU/ml and 25 CFU/ml during monsoon
seasons. Pond water samples are more contaminated with pathogenic bacteria during nonmonsoon period compared to monsoon period (Appendix I). Water from all the three
sampling stations of river environment show the presence of FC during the summer period,
while only one sample exhibits pathogenic contamination during monsoon period. Oxbow
lake samples indicate the presence of pathogenic bacteria in both the seasons.
Water quality assessment
Water level in all wells shows wide seasonal fluctuations. On an average, the maximum
lowering of water level (2.08 m) is noticed in the wells of Annallur and minimum at Alathur
(1.82m). In both places, the observation wells are located close to clay mining areas.
Wells in the control region at Koratti also exhibit comparable rate of water level lowering
(av. 2m) as in clay mining regions. Generally, seasonal changes of well water level are
most likely to be followed by corresponding changes in water quality. Post monsoon
66
35
20
20
16
16.7
16
20
W12
W13
4.5
10
10
11
15
10.5
15
16
Hardne ss, mg/l
25
21
22
30
0
W2
W3
W4
W5
W10
W11
W14
WELL WATER
22
14
P6
10
5
0
P7
PO ND WATER
P8
P9
Hardne ss, mg/l
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
15
26
23
P1
14
15
15
20
14.5
19
25
14
16
Hardness, mg/l
30
NM
9.5
R16
R
R
Fig. 6.6 Variation of Hardness in various water samples of Chalakudy basin
67
Fig. 6.7 Variation of Dissloved Iron in various water samples of Chalakudy basin
68
18.5
21.6
25
3.2
3.2
5.2
0.8
W4
0.8
W3
2.4
2.8
W2
1.6
4.8
3.2
6.4
10
5.6
9.6
15
4.8
3.2
TSS, mg/l
15.2
20
W12
W13
0
W5
W10
W11
W14
WELL WATER
20
15
10
10.4
14.8
TSS, mg/l
25
4.4
2.4
2.4
4.8
10
30
10.4
13.2
15
35
TSS, mg/l
20
40
16.4
18.4
18.4
22
25
NM
5
0
P1
P6
P7
P8
PO ND WATER
P9
R16
R17
RIV
Fig. 6.8 Variation of Total suspended solids in various water samples of

Chalakudy basin
69
recharge in wells will dilute the chemical concentration and pre-monsoon evaporation will
increase its concentration (Subba Rao, et al, 2002).
The study shows that, in general, majority of the chemical constituents of well samples
ranged within national and international drinking water standards (WHO / BIS). Both ground
water samples and surface waters reveal remarkable concentration variations of chemical
constituents between monsoon and non-monsoon periods. Well water of monsoon period
exhibits high values compared to non-monsoon periods samples as regards pH, NO3 - N,
NO3 - N, SiO2 - Si, dissolved Fe and suspended solids; whereas, high values are observed
for conductivity, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, chloride, BOD, sulphate, NO2 - N, reactive
phosphorus and hardness.
Well water from mining area exhibits more chemical contamination than that from nonmining areas. During the monsoon period, well samples from clay mining areas reveal low
values for pH, DO and alkalinity, when compared to the values of well samples from the
control site. Even though the chloride and hardness values of all well samples from mining
and non-mining areas are low as per water quality standards, samples from clay mining
areas show wide fluctuations in its concentration. Well water from clay mining areas
indicates higher content of nutrients of N and P species and Si than the well water from
non-clay mining areas. During monsoon period, concentration of NO3 - N, PO4 - P and
SiO2 - Si in well samples from clay mining areas was exceptionally high in comparison
with the concentration of corresponding parameters in well water from non-mining region,
Koratti.
Bacteriologically, well samples from both clay mining and non-mining areas are considerably
contaminated and the contamination is more during non-monsoon period. The total bacterial
population present is in higher levels in all well samples irrespective of seasons and regions.
This type of bacteria though has not been generally considered under quality parameters
up to a level of 100 CFU/100ml, in the present case, all wells exhibited elevated levels of
TC. The incidence of FC contamination is 40% in samples during monsoon period and
50% non-monsoon period. Regionally, FC contamination is more prevalent in Annallur
and Alathur areas as compared to Vynthala regions. Water from well sample (W2) reveals
excess presence of pathogenic bacteria during both the seasons. The well is situated very
close to pond P1 and it should be noted that only this pond water shows the presence of
FC during monsoon and non-monsoon periods. The presence of FC is always a threat to
ground water quality. The bacterial and viral contamination of ground water depends on
the extent and types of contaminated water coming into contact with land and the nature
of soil system involved. All types of pathogenic bacteria have the ability to move vertically
and horizontally through soil column and the removal of such organisms from the soil
depends again upon the physical and chemical conditions of soil (Balance and Oslon,
1980).
The presence of pathogenic FC in large numbers of wells suggests that those who consume
groundwater that has not been disinfected are at increased risk of infection and disease
70
70
80
61
70
50
50
40
25
30
25
30
W4
W5
20
0
10
20
20
24
30
20
40
45
50
35
TC , C ounts/ml
60
0
W2
W3
W 10
W 11
W 12
W 13
W 14
W ELL WATER
NM
148
160
90
140
80
NM
60
NM
P1
P6
P7
P8
PO ND WATER
30
40
15
30
20
10
20
50
10
10
24
36
40
60
40
70
60
80
M
Counts/ml
100
35
Counts/ml
120
0
R16
P9
R
R
Fig. 6.9 Variation of Total coliforms in various water samples of Chalakudy basin
71
10
15
15
15
20
15
10
FC , C ounts/ml
25
25
30
W11
0
0
W10
W5
W4
0
0
W3
W2
W12
W13
W14
WELL WATER
P1
P6
P7
P8
PO ND WATER
NM
10
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0
FC,C ounts/ml
43
0
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
6
FC ,C ounts/ml
P9
R16
R1
RI
Fig. 6.10 Variation of Feacal Coliform in various water samples of Chalakudy

basin
72
Table 6.2 Characteristics and seasonal variation of surface and ground water in mining and non-mining areas
Sources
of water
Ground
water
sources
Season
Monsoon
NonMonsoon
Surface
water
Sources
Mining Area
Comparatively low value for pH, DO and
alkalinity; the concentration of Cl,
conductivity, hardness, Ca, Mg and Fe were in
agreement with BIS/WHO drinking water
standards; hardness and Cl showed wide
fluctuations between different wells; nutrients
of N and P showed high values when
compared with non-monsoon values as well as
with samples from non-mining area; 40 % of
well samples showed the presence of faecal
coliforms.
Compared to monsoon values low pH,
ammonia, Si and NO3 concentrations are
recorded; DO, BOD, conductivity, chloride
and hardness recorded higher values.
H
low
NO
res
mi
de
co
Sa
cas
co
mi
inc
Cl
co
Monsoon
High value for pH, DO and BOD, and low

value for Cl, hardness, nutrients when
compared with the values in corresponding
ground water.
BO
an
tha
NonMonsoon
Revealed decrease in values for pH and DO,

while in all other parameters increase in
concentration.
DO
co
inc
the
73
from pathogenic micro-organisms. In order to eliminate FC, periodical treatment and

testing of such well water is essential. Disinfection can serve as a useful barrier and is
recommended as a prudent public health policy for all ground water systems (Macler and
Merkle, 2000). Technologies for inactivating micro organisms in ground water are well
understood, practical application and some treatment procedures are relatively inexpensive.
These include the traditional chlorination or the modern ultraviolet light treatment, ultrafiltration, membrane filtration or other technologies suitable for small systems. Other
means to control microbial contamination in well water focus on proper design and
construction of wells ensuring their neat physical condition besides keeping the peripheral
areas clean.
74
7. Tile and Brick Clay Based Industrial Units

Introduction
The clay mined from the wetland systems is used mainly for the manufacture of a variety
of clay products like bricks, tiles, drainage pipes and pottery wares. Bricks are usually
baked in the nearby areas of the mining site, whereas for the manufacture of the other clay
products, the quarried clays are being transported to distant places where the clay-based
industrial units are located.
Most of the tile and brick clay-based units are working mainly as Small Scale Industries
(SSIs), while a few others are working as Cottage Industries (CIs). These industrial
establishments and clay mining provide employment opportunities to a considerable number
of people living near the wetland systems of Kerala. The decline in agricultural activities
and simultaneous rise in building construction consequent to the Gulf boom that hit the
State in the early Seventies are some of the causative factors for the flourishing clay-based
industrial units in Kerala.
Historical records
Clay is one of the most widespread and earliest mineral substances used by mankind. It
carries the records of ancient races inscribed upon tablets, in brick buildings, in monuments
and in pottery. Unquestionably, clay industry represents the first large-scale mineral industry
that has persisted through ages. Burned clay figures in 30000 - 20000 BC has been
discovered in Moravia and excellent palaeolithic pottery with date of ~10000 BC has been
found in Egypt. Bricks, tile and clay tablets were extensively used by the Babylonians and
the Early Egyptians for building constructions, for irrigation and for writing materials.
The Early Asiatic and African dwellings were built with bricks made of clay. Coming to
the Indian subcontinent, manufacture of clay articles was predominant even in the time of
Harappan civilisation. Excavations reveal that the Harappan settlements were built with a
combination of mud bricks, burned bricks and other clay articles (Bateman, 1960).
A review of the historical records reveals that there are several incidences responsible for
the growth of clay mining and / or clay based industries in the world. The Great Fire of
London in the year 1666 AD has been instrumental in the passing of the Rebuilding Act of
1667. This act gave a boost to the clay-based industrial establishments over the traditional,
wood-based ones not only in England but in the remaining parts of the world as well.
It is uncertain how far the production of clay articles in Kerala can exactly be traced back
in the history (Pronk, 1997). As per the records of European travellers of the 15th and
16th centuries, tile manufacturing was undertaken by a special group of people known as
'potters'. Later, in the beginning of 20th century, more and more people entered the tile and
75
brick clay mining and clay article manufacturing because of the very rapid rise in demand
of building blocks, roofing tiles and other clay articles. But, unfortunately, as in many
other industrial sectors, the tile industries of Kerala are affected by 'sickness' in the last
few years due to various factors including unscientific planning and resource consumption,
rise in production costs, drop in the demand of tiles and increasing awareness of
environmental degradation.
Clay-based industries
Nine local bodies of the Chalakudy basin are engaged in clay mining and processing of
various clay articles. Of these, 7 fall within the jurisdiction of Thrissur district (Melur,
Koratti, Kadukutti, Mala, Annammanada, and Kuzhur grama panchayats and Chalakudy
municipality) and the remaining (Parakkadavu and Kunnukara* grama panchayats) are
within the Ernakulam district (Fig.7.1). Table15 shows the details of clay-based industrial
units of the Chalakudy basin as on April 2002. A total of 102 clay-based industrial units are
identified during the field survey. Out of these, 3 units are found closed - one each in
Parakkadavu, Kadukutti and Melur grama panchayats. Spatial analysis of various claybased industrial units of the basin reveals that more than 80% of the industries are
concentrated in 4 local bodies - viz., Annammanada (working units 25), Kuzhur (working
units 21), Kadukutti (working units 16; closed unit 1) and Mala (working units 12) grama
panchayats.
Types of clay-based industries
Chalakudy basin hosts almost all types of clay-based industrial establishments. A total of
36 units are manufacturing only tiles - roofing, flooring and decorative. Nine units, depending
on the demand, manufacture both tiles and wire cut bricks (Table7.1). Manufacture of
wire cut bricks is reported from all local bodies of the study area except Melur and Mala
grama panchayats. Ordinary brick production is confined to a few local bodies in Kuzhur
(9 units), Annammanada (1 unit) and Kunnukara (1 unit). The demand for ordinary brick
is declining year after year while the demand of wire cut brick is increasing. In addition to
these major clay-based activities, traditional pottery making is also practiced in many local
bodies like Annammanada, Mala and Kuzhur grama panchayats.
Quantity of clay used by industries
Table7.1 shows the quantity of raw clays used annually by the various clay-based industrial
units of the Chalakudy basin. More than half of the clay is used exclusively by the tile
industries (54840 tonnes) concentrated in Mala, Kadukutti and Annammanada panchayats.
Next to tiles, come the wire cut brick units (53640 tonnes), followed by tile-cum-wire cut
units (15260 tonnes) and ordinary bricks (12060 tonnes). Only a meagre amount of clay
is used by the traditional potters for pottery making.
* Part of Kunnukara grama panchayat falling within Chalakudy basin has only been considered.
76
Fig. 7.1 Local bodies of Chalakudy basin involved in tile and brick clay mining
77
Table 7.1 Clay-based industrial units in various local bodies of

Chalakudy basin as on April 2002
Sl.
No.
Local bodies
Ti
Number of clay based ind

Working units
C
Ti+WB
WB
OB
Po
u
1.
Parakkadavu
2.
Kuzhur
3.
Melur
4.
Chalakudy
5.
Annammanada
13
6.
Koratti
7.
Kadukutti
10
8.
Mala
10
9.
Kunnukara*
10
Total
99
Ti Tile; WB Wire cut bricks; OB Ordinary bricks; Po
* Part of Kunnukara grama panchayat falling within the Chalakudy basin has
78
Table 7.2 Information on the quantity (tonnes) of clay used by the clay
based industrial units of Chalakudy basin during the period 2001-02
Sl.
No.
Local bodies
Tile
Tile +
Wire cut
brick
Wire cut
brick
Ordinary
brick
Melur
2300
Chalakudi
2500
2050
2400
Koratti
500
2500
1800
Kadukutti
15380
5710
2880
Annammanada
12775
2500
19870
500
Parakkadavu
9000
Mala
18625
2500
Kuzhur
2760
10840
11060
Kunnukara*
6850
500
54840
15260
53640
12060
Total
* Part of the local body falling within the Chalakudy basin alone has been considere
79
Table7.3 Distribution of labour force in the clay based industrial units,

Chalakudy basin
Local bodies
Tile
Tile +
Wire cut
brick
Wire cut
brick
Ordinary
brick
Melur
18
Chalakudi
25
39
35
Koratti
50
27
Kadukutti
183
71
34
Annammanada
251
61
235
12
Parakkadavu
63
Mala
385
18
Kuzhur
48
294
228
Kunnukara*
182
15
870
255
Sl.
No.
Total
918
239
* Part of the local body falling within the Chalakudy basin has only been considered
80
Employment opportunities
Tile and brick clay mining and its processing provide employment opportunities to a
considerable section of the people in the midland and lowland areas of Kerala, particularly
those residing in areas close to paddy fields and other wetland systems. In addition to this,
thousands of labourers in the construction industry also indirectly depend on the products
manufactured from these clays. From the present study, it is revealed that the Chalakudy
basin accounts for about 2293 labourers in the clay-based industrial units. Out of these,
918 labourers, including a considerable proportion of women labourers, are working in tile
industries, 870 labourers in the wire cut brick industries, 255 labourers in the ordinary
brick units, 239 labourers in tile+wirecut brick units (Table 7.3). Although many families
are engaged partly in pottery manufacturing, collection of detailed information requires
more intensive surveys. Only 5 labourers in Annammanada and 3 each in Kuzhur and Mala
panchayats are, at present, reported to be engaged in pottery making on a regular basis.
Each labourer earns Rs 100-150 per day from clay mining and /or processing of various
clay articles.
Development profile of industrial units
The trends in the development of clay-based industrial establishments in Chalakudy basin
are shown depicted in Fig.7.2. Although the total number of clay-based industrial units is
generally increasing every year, the tile industries have been affected by 'sickness' in the
early nineties, and since then, the total number of tile industries is on the decline. This is
primarily due to fall in demand of roofing tiles. Further, majority of owners of tile industries
are reluctant either to go in for modernisation of their units or for diversification of the
products. Another important reason for the observed shift is, probably, the change in the
preference of the people from tiled houses to terraced houses with reinforced concrete
roofs. Non-availability of clay suitable for tile making could also be another reason. It is
difficult to shift an established tile plant. The wire cut brick industries working with diesel
powered grinding / processing units, on the other hand, could be shifted from one location
to another, depending upon the change in local socio-political environments. For example,
clay mining that flourished in 1997-98 (32000 tonnes/year) in Kuzhur, has slowed down
during 2001-02 (24710 tonnes/year) consequent on the protest of the local people. At the
same time, the number of units and consumption rate have increased in the adjacent local
body (Annammanada grama panchayat) during 2001-02. The demand for wire cut brick
is rising over the years, and at the same time, demand for tile is on the decline. Appropriate
product diversification and modernisation of units, can, perhaps, change favourably the
fate of tile industries in the coming years.
Factors supporting clay mining
There are several factors responsible for the growth of brick industries in Kerala. Increasing
demand of construction materials in the State, export of clay articles / products to
neighbouring States, paddy cultivation turning out to be uneconomic, change in the attitude
of the people / aversion of people to work in agricultural sectors, rapid rise in foreign
81
35
30
NUMBER OF INDUSTRIAL UNITS
25
20
15
10
Fig. 7.2 Development is clay-based industrial establishment of Chalakudy basin.

Industrial units functioning as on April 2002 have only been considered
for this analysis
82
remittances (Fig.7.3) and investment of a major portion of savings in construction and

renovation of buildings etc., are chief factors that have accelerated the pace of tile and
brick clay mining in Chalakudy basin, and probably, as a whole.
The number of households in Kerala has increased considerably consequent on the trend
of the people accepting nuclear family norm. This has, no doubt, promoted the percapita
utilisation of natural resources, especially in regard to building construction. More recently,
scholars all over the world have acknowledged that the number of households has an
important role in bringing about a drastic change in the resource consumption pattern of a
region (Jiang, 1999; Keilman, 2003; Liu et al., 2003). Even if the size of a population
remains constant, more households imply a larger demand for resources (Keilman, 2003).
As per the studies of Nair (1994 & 1998), a substantial part of the money received in the
form of foreign remittances in Kerala has been invested in building constructions over the
years. Fig.7.4 depicts the trends in building constructions in Ward No.IV of Kuzhur
grama panchayat of Chalakudy basin. Thatched houses are on the decline while terraced
and tiled houses are increasing. This clearly indicates the increase in the demand of building
blocks like burnt bricks and other materials. The growing use of bricks for wall construction,
which offered advantages over other types of building blocks has also become a factor for
the growth of clay mining in the wetlands of Kerala. The properties of brick such as,
durability and incombustibility as also its cheapness make it the preferred material for
house construction. The availability of raw material has brought brick manufacturing to
the Chalakudy basin. Further, a large number of farmers have unwillingly sold their land to
the clay industries as paddy cultivation had become a non-profitable avocation preferring
the short-term benefits from land transaction to possible loss from agriculture.
83
Fig. 7.3 Foreign remittance of Kerala during the period 1968/69-`997/98

(updated after Nair, 1994)
84
Fig. 7.4 Trends in building constructions in Ward No. IV

of Kuzhur grama panchayat, Chalakudy basin
85
8. Origin and Occurrence of Tile and Brick Clays

Introduction
Kerala is blessed with many valuable mineral resources such as heavy mineral placers,
silica sand, limestone, lime shell, graphite, iron ore, bauxite and different varieties of clays.
An inventory of various mineral resources of the State is given in Appendix II. Of the clay
deposits, china clay accounts for 172 million tonnes, fire clay for 11.55 million tonnes and
ball clay for 5.67 million tonnes (State Planning Board, 1996). However, no account exists
on the tile and brick clays, often designated as the heavy clays, whose indiscriminate
mining has already caused severe environmental problems in many parts of the wetlands
of Kerala. The boom in construction sector in the past 2-3 decades consequent on the rise
in foreign remittances (Fig.7.3) is, perhaps, the major causative factor for the flourishing
tile and brick industries as well as indiscriminate mining of the heavy clays from paddy
fields/wetlands. Although, alternatives are plenty, the people of Kerala depend more on
bricks for building mainly because of its durability, incombustibility and finish.
The trade off involved in the utilisation of mineral resources for building up of industries
and conservation of resources for future development has been a subject of debate for
long (Murthy, 1975). However, lack of information on the occurrence and origin of
mineral deposits often leads to problems in their prudent extraction and use. The situation
is acute in the case of tile and brick clays. Hence, an attempt has been made in this study
to narrate briefly the occurrence and origin of the tile and brick clays of Chalakudy basin.
Occurrence
In Chalakudy basin, the tile and brick clay deposits are found mainly in the paddy fields of
the midland and lowland regions. In many places, the top 2-3m thick portion is reddish
brown to brownish red in colour. It is followed by thick greyish black to black, sticky,
plastic clays. The reddish clays at the top are used for brick making, whereas the highly
plastic clays below are used for tile and wire cut brick making. The traditional potters of
the area also depend on these clays for pottery making. The black clays are often interlayered
by peat beds / laminations, at certain levels. Although these clays are concentrated in all
the physiographic regions of Chalakudy basin, widespread occurrences are noticed in the
midlands and the lowlands of the basin.
Stratigraphic analysis
Deep borehole data
No secondary information exists on the subsurface formations lying below the tile and
brick clay covered areas of the Chalakudy basin. Therefore, information on two bore
86
wells of Central Ground Water Board (CGWB, 1999) drilled, one at Cherai and the other at
S.V.Puram, has been used in this report to get a general picture about the subsurface
sequence underlying the tile and brick clay formations of the study area. Of these two
boreholes, the former is located ~8 km west and the latter ~15km northwest of the
confluence point of Chalakudy River with Periyar at Elanthikkara.
Table 8.1 shows the details of the borehole information. At Cherai, the succession begins
with 46m thick Quaternary deposits, followed by 52.8m thick Tertiary. The crystalline
basement is recorded at 98.8m bgl. The S.V.Puram borehole, on the other hand, records
21.8m thick Quaternary deposit followed downward by 4m thick laterite and 41.8m thick
Tertiary. Crystalline basement is encountered at 67.4m bgl. The Quaternary formation is
composed mainly of alternations of clay and sand layers with occasional peaty intercalations
at various levels. The clays occurring at the surface of the Quaternary deposit are used for
tile and brick manufacturing.
Shallow borehole data
As part of the present investigation, a total of five shallow sediment cores were retrieved
from the tile and brick clay dominated regions of Chalakudy basin. The locations are: 1)
Melur, 2) Annallur, 3) Vynthala, 4) Cherukadappuram and 5) Puthenvelikkara. The cores
were sectioned at regular intervals and were examined for sedimentological and geochemical
characteristics.
The Melur core is 5m long and composed of 5 distinct litho units. The core begins with a
silty mud (zM) layer of 2.4m, which is followed downward by 0.5m thick silty clay (zC),
1.1m thick silty sand (zS), 0.3m thick sand (s) and the lateritised primary rocks (Fig.8.1).
The sand above the lateritised rocks is often gravelly in nature, and form an erosional
contact with the laterite. The entire sequence appears to be a channel fill, with gravelly
channel lags at the erosional contact over the laterite.
The Annallur core (6m long) is composed mainly of 3 litho-units. The core begins with
3.5m thick silty mud (zM) which is followed downward by 1.5m thick silty sand (zS) and
>1m thick clayey sand (cS) (Fig.8.2). The silty sand has high organic carbon content and
has a peaty layer at its middle which has been C14 dated to 6630120 ybp (Santhosh, et al,
2003). This indicates, clearly, that the tile and brick clays of the Annallur area are younger
than 6630120 years and might have been deposited over a sequence of swampy environment
of Early-Middle Holocene age.
The Vynthala core is only 2m long though, it is composed of a complex suite of lithological
units. The core begins with a sandy mud (sM) of 0.2m, which is followed downward by
0.15m thick clayey mud (cM), 0.15m thick silty clay (zC), 0.25m thick silty sand (zS),
0.5m thick sand (S) and 0.75m thick clayey mud (cM), (Fig.8.3). The entire sequence,
except the sand unit, is organic rich and is generally used for tile and brick making.
87
Table 8.1 Details of the nearest deep bore wells drilled in coastal areas
close to the tile and brick clay covered zones of the Chalakudy basin
Sl.No. Bore well details

1.
Location (s)
Cherai
100833
761131
2.
RL (m)
0.863
Above msl
3.
Depth drilled (m) bgl
102.40
4.
Quaternary sediments (m)
46.00
5.
Laterite
6.
Tertiary
52.80
7.
Depth to basement
98.80
88
Fig. 8.1 Litholog of Melur core along with vertical variation of

sand, silt and clay contents
89
Fig. 8.2 Litholog of Annallur core along with vertical variation of

90
Fig. 8.3 Litholog of Vynthala core along with vertical variation of

91
Like the Annallur core (6m long), the Cherukadappuram core is also composed only of 3
major litho-units. The core begins with 1.8m thick silty mud (zM), followed downward
by 1m thick clayey mud (cM) and >3.2m thick silty clay (zC) (Fig.8.4).The organic carbon
contents of the clayey mud and clay are very high as the sediments are admixtured with
decayed vegetal materials. The top silty mud layer is brownish red to yellowish red and is
used extensively for brick making. The bottom organic rich (often with peaty intercalations)
sediments are not generally used for tile or brick making. The bottom sediment appears to
be correlatable to the peaty sediments of Annallur.
The Puthenvelikkara core is 6m long and composed of a distinct Holocene sedimentary
formation resting uncomfortably over lateritic surface. The core begins with 1m thick
silty sand (zS) followed downward by 1.5m thick clayey silt (cZ) with shell remains of
pelecypods and gastropods, 2.5m thick silty mud (zM) with occasional molluscan shells
and >2m thick lateritised sediments (Fig.38). Two samples of this section are dated using
radiocarbon methods. An organic carbon-rich sediment collected from 4.7m bgl is C14
dated to 7050140 ybp, and another sample of shell (ostrea) from 2.5m bgl is C14 dated to
544080 ybp. This clearly indicates that the clays at this site are of Holocene age. The
ostrea appears to be transported from a near-by provenance.
Palynology
The analysis of fossil pollen assemblages in sediments / sedimentary deposits could give
inferences on the relative age of sediments, vegetative history, climatic conditions, sea
level changes and even cultural development of human beings (Tooley, 1980; Shajan, 1998).
The Palynodebris / peaty material collected from 5m below the ground surface at Valur
reveal the occurrence of Rhizophoracea, Poacea, Arcacea, Meliacea and Morcea, in addition
to some unidentified spores and pollens. Of these, Rhizophoracea are present in abundance,
indicating mangrove vegetation in contributing palynodebris to the sedimentary deposit of
the Chalakudy basin. It is important to note from the Valur section that a sample collected
3m bgl is C14 dated to 5520160 years and another one from 2m bgl is dated to 3393110
years (Table 8.2; Shajan, 1998).
Geochronology
The results of the C14 dates of samples analysed are given in Table 8.2 along with some of
the dates collected from the available literature. Peat deposits of variable thickness (a few
cm to even half a meter) are encountered in some of the borehole samples at different
levels. Detailed analysis of peaty debris reveals that the provenance of organic debris is
very near, and the bottom part of some of the peat beds are with distinct roots penetrating
the subsoil, indicating in situ appearance. But, the shells are recorded only in boreholes
which are located near the coast. All the dates indicate that the clays used for tile and brick
making are of Holocene age (7000 ybp and 3000 ybp).
92
Fig. 8.4 Litholog of Cherukadappuram core along with vertical variation of

93
Fig. 8.5 Litholog of Puthenvelikkara core along with vertical variation of

94
Table 8.2 Radio carbon dates of samples of Chalakudy basin associated

with tile and brick clays
Locations
1. Valoor
Latitude
Depth
Longitude
(m, bgl)
101430
Material
Ag
(Year
Peat
3390
Peat
5520
Peat
6630
2.5
Shell
5440
4.7
Sediment
7050
762025
2. Valoor
101430
762025
3. Annallur
101808
761444
4. Puthenvelikara
101145
761437
5. Puthenvelikkara
101145
761437
Depositional environments
Ternary diagram of sand-silt-clay percentages are being used for decoding the hydrodynamic
conditions prevailed during the depositional phases of sediments. One of the important
and simple versions of ternary diagram is the one proposed by Pejrup (1988), and hence
followed in this study. The scatter plots of tile and brick clay samples, including the sub
samples of the sediment cores, fall within II and III sectors of Pejrup's model (Fig.8.6).
These sectors are indicative of a quiet to rather violent hydrodynamic conditions under
which corresponding sediments have been deposited in the natural system.
In general, the sediment cores of the lower reaches of the Chalakudy basin have a greyish
black to black organic matter rich mud/clay at its bottom. This overlies reddish brown or
brownish red silty sediments. The interphase between these two sequences is sharp or
slightly gradational. In an earlier study, Shajan (1998) reported the occurrences of mangrove
pollens of Rhizophoracea in the organic matter rich sediments of Valur. This together with
the above peculiar hydrodynamic conditions indicates a marshy / swampy environment
during the formation of subsurface black clay / mud in the downstream reaches of Chalakudy
basin, particularly near Valur, Vynthala and Annallur areas. The upper reddish brown,
structureless, silty sediments indicate deposition from suspension. This could presumably
be overbank accumulation of sediments from a fluvial system (Allen, 1964).
95
Fig. 8.6 Ternary diagram showing hydrodynamic regimes of deposition of

the tile and brick clay sediments of Chalakudy basin. Sections I-IV
reflect increasing hydrodynamic conditions (after Pejrup, 1968)
Origin of tile and brick clays
The formation of tile and brick clay deposits of Kerala, according to Nair and Padmalal
(2003), is related to the evolution of fluvial systems and monsoonal activity coupled with
sea level changes during the late Quaternary Period. Palaeoclimatologically the period
from 10000 - 4000 ybp is reported to have witnessed high monsoonal activity. The
radiocarbon dates of the tile and brick clay sediments / samples are also of this age (Table
8.2). The abundant occurrences of marine shells with C14 date of 544080 ybp, recorded
2.5m bgl at Puthenvelikkara, shows the prevalence of marine activity during middle Holocene.
The corresponding tidal zone with mangrove vegetation might have extended into the Valur
or even to Vynthala-Annallur stretches. The dominance of Rhizophoraceae pollens in the
96
sediments collected ~3 m bgl at Valur and C14 age (5520 160 ybp) of organic matter
recovered at the level confirms this view. But the region further inland, particularly, near
Melur and surrounding regions were influenced by fluvial sedimentation as indicated by
the lithological suite with fining upward sequence and comparatively low organic matter.
The presence of mangrove vegetation far inland from the present day coast-line at about
6000-5000 ybp, according to Shajan (1998), might have resulted from the shifting of
coastline inland, consequent on the early Holocene transgression which culminated around
6000 ybp. The regressive phase during late Holocene (~3000 ybp) which gave rise to the
present position of coastline might have resulted in the westward advancement of fluvial
dominated sediments over the organic matter-rich mangrove detritus dominated sediments
(locally known as Kandal). The peculiar sedimentary sequence (greyish black to black
carbonaceous clay/mud - reddish brown to brownish red silty sediments) of Annallur and
Cherukadappuram might have evolved in this way. In short the tile and brick clay sediments
of Chalakudy basin are of fluvial or fluvio-marine origin and are formed during the coastal
evolution processes of Holocene.
97
9. Impact Assessment of Clay Mining

Introduction
The severity of the impact of mining activities on environment may be considered to be
next only to that on agriculture. No doubt, minerals are indispensable for development and
sustenance of the quality of life. At the same time, it is essential that the mining activities
need to be continuously monitored and kept under control for the overall management of
the environment. Most of the developmental activities generate environmental problems,
but people do not give due regard and attention to those problems. The question to be
addressed with regard to environmental issues of mining pertains to conservation of minerals
on the one hand, and the environmental problems on the other. Depending on the location
and the type of mining, the magnitude and the importance of environmental impact would
vary (Ramachandran and Padmalal, 1997). The impacts, according to Rau and Wooten
(1980), can be broadly classified into four categories: 1) impact on land, 2) impact on
water 3) impact on atmosphere, and 4) impact on socio-economic conditions of the people
in the region. The first three impacts are often categorized collectively as physical impacts.
All these impacts have to be analysed in great detail before undertaking/ approving any
developmental project. An attempt was made in this study to assess the environmental
impacts of clay mining activities using a modified version of ad-hoc method of Rau and
Wooten (1980). This is basically a method for presenting various impacts in an abstract
way. It starts with a list of potential impact areas which are environmental conditions and
characteristics. Then it classifies the nature of impacts according as to whether they are
adverse or beneficial. From Table 9.1, it is clear that the negative impacts dominate the
positive over which clearly give added weightage to environmental considerations rather
than the short term socio-economic benefits. It also stresses the need for stringent regulatory
efforts to streamline the mining activity on sustainable basis. Unfortunately, almost all the
mineral based industries of Kerala, including the tile and brick clay based units, have started
functioning before the mandatory requirements of environmental clearance by the Ministry
of Environment and Forests, Government of India came into force.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
EIA is a process of analysing the pros and cons of an action or a set of actions as it would
affect the environmental conditions / parameters that have been considered as significant
in a given scenario. The canvas of EIA is wide and complex. At the same time, it is an
essential and unavoidable exercise which must be done to understand the degree of an
impact or an action or set of actions on the environment in which we live. Because of the
complexity of various 'systems' concerned, it is but natural that one should expect an array
of methodologies in EIA. To mention a few are 'ad-hoc' method, Check list method,
Matrix method, Network approach, Battlelle environmental approach, etc. (Munn, 1978;
Rau and Wooten, 1980; IBM, 1994). No method is fool-proof and without defects.
98
Table 9.1 Enviromental Impact Assessment of Tile and Brick clay mining /
processes, Chalakudy basin
Environmental Components
HiNeIm
MeNeIm
Sub-environments / environmental
parameters
LoNeIm
Major
Environments
Rat
a) Land and Water
Land scape
Land stability
Soil
Ground water quality
Ground water quantity
Surface water quality
c)
b) Air /
VegeNoise
tation
Surface water quantity

Air quality
Noise
Natural
Agricultural
Communication facility and transportation
Social structure
d) Socio-economic
Employment / levels of employment

Income generation
Economic base
Land values
Small land holdings
Large land holdings
Land use
Aesthetics
Hazards
99
The method adopted

In the present study a slightly modified form of 'ad-hoc' method of Rau and Wooten
(1980) is used to evaluate the impacts of clay mining and processing. This is primarily
because the impacting actions and the impacts on environment are largely known. Further,
this method is easy to assimilate and apply by the various user agencies in tile and brick
clay mining and processing sectors.
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
The EIS is nothing but a clear briefing on the EIA meant for a decision maker. It is
important that impacting actions, which have been considered here, are the ones which
have either 'medium to high positive' or 'medium to high negative' impacts on the
environment. This in no way belittles the significance of lesser impacts. Nevertheless, the
impacts on the higher side would give a clear picture both to the decision maker and the
public. Table 9.1 illustrates the EIA of various activities related to clay mining and processing
of raw clays into different clay products.
Impacts on land
The major impacts of clay mining on land are changes in landscape, land stability and soil
loss. Due to continued and unscientific clay mining, pits of different dimensions would be
formed in the affected areas. Some of the pits may later be covered with water to form
artificial ponds. On many of the occasions, extensive areas are converted into water
logged areas. The depth of the pits often reaches 6m or more from the general ground
surface. The artificial ponds created in random locations due to indiscriminate clay mining
may lead to land stability problems in the adjoining areas. The problem of subsidence will
be aggravated in areas where the subsurface geology is with sand and clay alternations.
Land failure incidences / sliding of the walls left behind after mining was completed into
the neighbouring lands are also recorded in some cases. All these, on many occasions,
have led to conflicts between miners and agricultural labourers / farmers in Chalakudy
basin.
Impacts on soil
Clay mining is the process of scooping of soil that actively supports the agricultural activities
of an area. The removal of naturally formed soil for clay articles is really a loss forever of
this fertile natural medium. The entire process is a kind of man made erosion of materials
otherwise segregated by the Mother Earth through its geologic processes. The top soil is
usually fertile in nature. The present study also reiterates the fact that the surface (top)
layer is several folds richer in N, P, K and other micro-nutrient elements than subsurface
layers. But according to some farmers of the Chalakudy basin, the top soils of certain
areas of the paddy lands are unsuitable for agricultural activity. But the subsurface layers
seem to be more fertile and good for cultivation. In such cases, removal of a layer or two
from the surface would be a beneficial act.
100
Impacts on water resources

There can be no doubt that clay mining causes changes in the surface and ground water
sources of the area. The following are some of the changes noticed in surface and ground
water sources of Chalakudy basin.
Surface water: Clay mining, transportation of the mined clay and its processing cause
notable changes in surface water quantity and quality of the area. The mining activity
creates pits of variable dimensions, which in due course gets covered with water to form
artificial ponds. As far as the quantity of surface water is concerned, its volume increases
as mining continues in an area. During mining, transportation and processing, there are
chances of contamination of surface water resources with dust or by other means. The
labourers working in clay mining and those moulding clay into bricks come from
neighbouring States / districts and colonise in the surrounding areas with inadequate facilities
for waste disposal. This, in due course, leads to surface water contamination through
misuse / mismanagement of the surface waters. Reclamation of abandoned mines with
urban solid wastes is also practiced in some areas. The leachates from wastes can also
cause water pollution. Generation of dust during transportation and its settling in surface
water sources (especially during summer season, the time when the activity attains its
peak), release of air pollutants during firing and baking of clay articles which get absorbed
in rain water, can also contaminate the surface water source of the area.
Ground water: Lowering of ground water table of the hinterland below normal levels is
reported at many places in the basin, where acute clay mining is reported. It is usual for
the miners to pump out water from the pits for carrying out further mining. This leads to
draining of water from the hinterlands and in turn aggravates water scarcity in the hinterlands,
especially, during summer season. Draining of water from the unaffected paddy lands into
the active mines is another problem that ultimately ends up in the conversion of paddy
lands for other types of cultivation in the area.
Air and noise
Although clay mining does not cause any direct change in air environment, transportation
and processing of raw clays into end products could cause atmospheric pollution. Rise in
suspended particulates, SO2, CO and CO2, are reported from areas around the brick kilns
and tile / brick industries (Shukla, 1981). Studies carried out by Brumsack (1977) revealed
that even some of the toxic metals are released into the atmosphere during the process of
converting clay to brick and other clay articles. According to Pronk (1997), there are even
records of health problems to the people of the Thrissur district due to excessive emission
of smoke arising from clustered brick kilns. As far as noise is concerned, clay mining
does not contribute much to noise pollution, except the noise generated from the vehicles
that transport raw clays scooped from wetlands and the products from the clay-based
industrial units.
101
Vegetation
The area where clay mining is practised is usually paddy lands which are generally devoid
of any natural vegetation. But in some cases, wetlands other than paddy lands, particularly
in the fringe areas, are also scooped out for tile and brick making. The processes of
mining and reclamation in the fringe areas of the mines, in fact, foreclose the option of
natural regeneration of wetland ecosystems. As regards agriculture any type of quarrying
or reclamation would produce only negative impacts the magnitude of which is proportional
to the area under quarrying or to the extent of area brought under reclamation.
Socio-economics
In the trade-off between the socio-economic needs and environmental conservation,
generally, the former takes the upper hand. In a situation where competing demands do
occur, choice of the most environmentally viable activity is extremely difficult. The mining
of clays from paddy lands of Chalakudy basin is not an exception. On the one hand, the
demands for construction material are to be met as these are some of the basic needs
inherent in variable scale of development. In the process, the resource demand for such
activities is bound to shoot up. However the environmental viability of these activities
canot be ignored.
As regards socio-economic condition of the Chalakudy basin, the clay mining activity
provides employment opportunities. The economic base of the region will also be enhanced,
if the mining is allowed. In the case of land use, it is clear that any type of quarrying would
drastically change the existing land use, natural vegetation or settlements.
Aesthetic environment
There will be marked decline in the aesthetics of the area subjected to clay mining. The
valleys blanketed by paddy fields are naturally set in within thickly vegetated hillocks. Ugly
scars within paddy fields due to random clay mining are aesthetically unacceptable and
prdouce a negative impact.
Hazards
Many deaths by drowning have been reported from the area, the culprits being the pits left
after clay mining. Further, casualties to labourers at site due to collapse of over-hanging
earth are also common in the area. Incidences of caving / slumping of the walls of the
mines are also reported from some locations.
Environmental Management Plans / Suggestions
Indiscriminate mining of tile and brick clays from Chalakudy basin for meeting the raw
material demands of the numerous brick kilns and tile factories causes severe socio-economic
102
and environmental problems in the area. Excessive removal of clays either creates vast
areas of fallow lands unsuitable for any agricultural activities due to the loss of soil cover
or extensive water-logging. Mining of clays several meters below the prescribed levels,
pumping out of water from the pits for further mining etc. cause lowering of water table
and water shortage problems near mining areas. The revenue from clay mining is meagre,
but at the same time, the additional expenditure incurred to meet the fresh water requirements
of the people living in areas adjacent to mining sites is increasing year after year. In short,
indiscriminate clay mining, unscientific planning and developments, insufficient guidelines,
inadequate enforcing mechanisms, and lack of awareness of environmental and economic
issues involved are the major challenges in clay mining and clay-based industrial sectors of
the Chalakudy basin.
Taking all these into consideration the following management plans are suggested.
1.
Quantify the tile and brick clay resources of the State should be grade-wise. The State
Mining and Geology Department should be pursuaded to undertake this work.
2.
Limit the extraction of tile and brick clays to meet indigenous demands with a view to
save the prime agricultural land and to increase the rice production in the area.
3.
Use the raw clays for the manufacture of value added products like potteries,
flowerpots and other articles of indoor and out-door decoration.
4.
Encourage institutions like Regional Research Laboraory, Thiruvananthapuram to

undertake research activities to evolve new building blocks that consume only low
quantities of floodplain clays.
5.
Regulate random mining and allow only location-specific extraction of the clay resource
under well laid up guidelines.
6.
Prohibit mining below the level of water table depth (with reference to the water table
condition of summer season) of adjacent areas.
7.
Convert the mined and abandoned areas into fish farm ponds or irrigation ponds. The
possibility of fresh water pisciculturemay be explored through R&D activities.
8.
Create awareness among the public to use laterite blocks or other alternatives to clay
bricks for construction purposes. Consider recycling of building materials to the
maximum possible extent.
103
10. Summary and Recommendations

Degradation of river basins consequent on mining of red burning type of clays concentrated
in floodplain or over-bank areas of river basins for the production of bricks, tiles and other
clay articles is one of the major environmental problems of Kerala that need immediate
attention and corrective measures. Among the environmental problems, fall in agricultural
production, loss of fertile soil, lowering of water table in wells adjacent to mining sites,
especially during summer season and creation of fallow lands / water logged areas are the
most prominent. The mining activity is of considerable importance in a State like Kerala
having high population density and low per-capita land and mineral resource availability.
Mining of clays and the production of clay articles bring benefit to a considerable section
of people in the State. Thousands of labourers in construction sector also depend for their
livelihood on the clay products.
In the above circumstances, the KRPLLD selected the Chalakudy basin, located in Central
Kerala, as a model basin for examining the environmental and economic aspects of the
various kinds of anthropogenic activities taking place, including that of the massive scooping
of top soil / sediment in the wetland systems, especially for tile and brick making. The
present study addresses the major issues related to the tile and brick clay mining and
related environmental problems of the basin and also analyses the origin and occurrence of
these deposits.
Chalakudy basin, with a catchment area of 1448 sq. km, is drained by the 130 km long
Chalakudy River. The river originates from the Anamalai hills of the Western Ghats and
flows through areas of highly varied geologic and geomorphic features. The river merges
with Periyar near Elanthikara before debouching into the Vembanad Lake. The basin is
composed of terrain systems like scarp slope / rock cliff, isolated hills, undulating and
rolling terrains, river terraces and coastal plains. A major part of the basin falls within the
slope category of 25-55%. The slope decreases generally to less than 15 percent and
reaches to level nearly level surface towards the river confluence zone near Elanthikara.
This slope category is blanketed with attractive depots of tile and brick clays. The basin
receives an average annual rainfall of 3250mm. The temperature varies from 23.5C to
31.6C (av.27.6C). The maximum temperature is experienced during the month of March
and minimum during December.
A systematic field work was carried out in the entire study area for the collection of
relevant primary and secondary data and of sediment and water samples for laboratory
analysis. Detailed land use mapping was performed in the entire paddy lands of Chalakudy
basin. The geological analysis of sediments and hydro-chemical as well as bacteriological
analysis of water samples (surface and well waters) from clay mining and non-clay mining
areas were also done systematically to generate data base for a holistic evaluation. Advanced
analytical procedures like XRD, C14 dating, etc. were also attempted wherever required.
Standard formats were used to collect socio-economic information on the clay mining
104
activity. The positive and negative impacts of clay mining activity of the basin were
evaluated in accordance with standard / widely accepted EIA procedures.
Tile and brick clay mining from wetlands is a neglected area in the studies related to
surface mining. No reserve estimates exist on the occurrence of this deposit. So a Rapid
Reserve Estimation (RRE) was performed with the available borehole data of the present
study. Based on this, it is computed that Chalakudy basin accounts for about 296 million
m of tile and brick clays. However, even in any situation, the entire reserve cannot be
permitted to be extracted as the future generations have a stake in it. Scooping of a part
(minor amount) of this resource itself causes irreparable / irreversible ecological and socioeconomic damages in the region.
Detailed micro level land use mapping revealed that, of the 73.94 sq. km paddy lands in the
Chalakudy basin, 11.84 sq.km area has been utilised for agricultural activities and / or
building constructions. Another 2.92 sq. km is found to be abandoned mine area. Active
mining is reported from 0.96 sq. km area. The clay mines are widespread in the midland
and lowland regions of Chalakudy basin. The present study revealed that those at 1) Annallur,
2) Valur - Erayankudipadam areas, 3) Eravathur and 4) Kuzhur-Mundakappadam areas are
in a critical condition from an environmental perspective. Indiscriminate clay mining activities
without adequate depth control has affected the local hydrological condition. The farmers
have changed their cropping pattern because of this and are forced to experiment with
newer crops. These clay mining hotspots need immediate attention of the concerned
authorities. Corrective measures are to be applied on a war-footing to restore the
environmental equilibrium of respective regions.
The sand, silt and clay contents of the tile and brick clay samples vary from 10.82% to
70.93% (av.31.1%), 12.11 to 41.64% (av.23.98%) and 17.16% to 62.21% (av.36.93%),
respectively. The samples fall mainly within silty clay, sandy mud and silty mud facies. A
few samples fall in clayey sand and silty sand facies which are to be conditioned with clay
/ mud dominant sediments for the production of clay articles. The borehole sample analysis
reveals that the clays suitable for tile and brick manufacturing occur up to a depth of 5 6m from ground surface. The organic carbon content of the samples varies from 0.19%
to 4.08% (av.1.56%). The average concentrations of N, P and K are: 1.115 mg/g (0.607
mg/g -1.59 mg/g) 0.528 mg/g (0.176 mg/g - 1.17 mg/g) respectively. The concentration
of Fe varies from 2.38% to 7.42% (av.5.11%). The trace metals Cu, Pb and Cd averages
33 ppm, 38 ppm and 2.7 ppm, respectively. The analysis of nutrient elements in the core
samples revealed that the top layer is with high nutrients content than middle and bottom
layers. Mineralogical analysis of clay fraction showed the presence of kaolinite as the
major mineral and gibbsite as the minor mineral.
Hydro-chemical analysis of the samples from mining and non-mining regions exhibited
marked differences in pH, ammonia, Si and NO3 concentrations. All these parameters
were higher in the mining area than the non-mining area (i.e. control site). Both well water
and surface water samples showed remarkable variations in the concentration of chemical
105
constituents between monsoon and non-monsoon periods. Well water of monsoon period
showed higher values of pH, NO3, NH3, Si dissolved Fe and suspended solids than tha of
non-monsoon period. Most of the water samples in the mining areas and control site are
contaminated with pathogenic Faecal Coliforms (FC). During non-monsoon period, the
FC bacterial population varied between 4 CFU/ml and 15 CFU/ml, while during monsoon
period the population was between 5 CFU/ml and 25 CFU/ml. The presence of pathogenic
FC in large numbers in wells suggested that those who consume ground water that has not
been disinfected are more exposed to the risk of infection and disease from pathogenic
micro-organisms.
Nine local bodies, including Chalakudy municipality are engaged in clay mining and processing
of clay into tiles, bricks, potteries, etc. A total of 102 clay-based industrial units were
located in the basin. Of this 3 are found to be closed. More than 80 percent of the
industrial units are spread over Annammanada, Kuzhur, Kadukutti and Mala grama
panchayats. The clay based industrial units together use about 135975 tonnes of raw clay
a year. The number of labourers engaged in clay mining and processing is 2293 and each
of them earns Rs.100-150 per day. Many women labourers are also employed in claybased industrial sector of Chalakudy basin. The study revealed that the number of claybased industrial units had been increasing year after year. However, the number of new
industries registering for entry every year is found to be declining. At the same time, the
ordinary and wire cut brick manufacturing is to the rise consequent on to the rise in the
demand of construction blocks. It shows that the number of other traditional industries
such as those engaged in tile making is rapidly declining.
The tile and brick clay blanketed zones of Chalakudy basin have evolved to the present
state through several episodes of geological events. The tile and brick clays are a part of
the Quaternary deposit, which is underlined by 40-55m thick Tertiary deposits and then by
Precambrian crystallines. The surface of the Tertiary is often lateritised at many places.
Two types of clays are seen in the area - yellowish brown to brownish red type and
greyish black to black type. The former is with appreciable amount of sand and silt, and
is used for ordinary brick manufacturing. The latter is clay rich and used for tile and wire
cut brick manufacturing. The black clays collected from Valur reveal the presence of
mangrove spores of Rhizophoraceae in it, indicating a swampy environment during earlymiddle Holocene. The C14 date of the carbonaceous clays underlying the reddish brown
clays yielded age date between 7050140 ybp and 3390110 ybp. The red earth type of
material found above these carbonaceous clays might be slightly younger in age and may
be of floodplain origin. In short, the deposition of the tile and brick clay in Kerala is related
to the evolution of fluvial drainage systems and monsoonal activities coupled with sea level
oscillations during Holocene.
A preliminary Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the clay mining activities of
Chalakudy basin reveals that the negative impacts dominate over positive impacts. The
short-term benefits the activity provides are rated as positive impacts. The excessive
removal of clays leaves vast areas of fallow lands unsuitable for any agricultural activity.
106
Mining of clays several metres below the ground surface may create land stability problems
in addition to disturbing the hydrological regime of the affected regions.
The following are some of the recommendations for improving the environmental scenario
of the clay mining areas of the Chalakudy basin.
1.
Limit the extraction of tile and brick clays to meet indigenous demand only. This is to
save the prime agricultural land and also to increase the rice production in the area.
2.
Regulate random mining and allow only location-specific extraction of the clay resource
under well conceived guidelines.
3.
Prohibit mining below the level of water table depth reference (with respect to the
water table condition of summer season) of adjacent areas.
4.
Measures are to be taken to regenerate the natural ground water table using the stored
water in the excavated pits / artificial ponds for irrigating the agricultural crops of the
hinterland areas. This will enhance the net agricultural productivity of the area in
addition to saturating the aquifer systems of the hinterlands.
5.
A continuous water quality monitoring system should be established in the areas where
tile and brick clay mining activities are carried out at rapid rates. This is of utmost
importance since indiscriminate mining to deeper levels may expose new subsurface
geological formations evolved under different geochemical setups, which in turn, impart
marked changes in the water quality conditions of the area and adjoining wells in
future.
6.
Create awareness among the public to substitute laterite blocks or alternatives to clay
bricks for construction purposes. Recycling of building materials should also be
considered in order to reduce mining of tile and brick clays.
7.
Use the raw clays for the manufacture of value added products. Manufacturing of
potteries, flowerpots and other articles of indoor and out-door decoration would be
more value enhancing than building blocks.
8.
Institutions like Regional Research Laboratory, Thiruvananthapuram could undertake

research activities to evolve new building blocks that consume only low quantities of
floodplain clays.
9.
Convert the already mined areas left behind as fallow lands or water logged areas to
fish farm ponds or irrigation ponds. The possibility of fresh water pisciculture may
also be explored through R&D activities.
107
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Tile and Brick Clay Mining and Related Environmental

Problems in the Chalakudy Basin, Central Kerala

Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development

Tile and Brick Clay Mining and Related Environmental

ISBN No: 81-87621-99-0

Chalakudy Basin: A general profile

Materials and Methods

Clay mining from Chalakudy Basin

Characterisation and Nutrient Loading

Water Quality in Areas Adjoining Tile

and Brick Clay Mines

Tile and Brick Clay Based Industrial Units

Origin and Occurrence of Tile and Brick Clays

Impact Assessment of Clay Mining

10. Summary and Recommendations

Tile and Brick Clay Mining and Related Environmental

D. Padmalal, K. Maya, K. Narendra Babu, S. R. Mini

Tile and brick clays are concentrated in the

Ball clays are sedimentary plastic clays with fine

Fire clays are refractory clays which have a fusion

China clay, also called kaolin, falls under the

These clays are used for the production of a

The main utility of the ball clays is attributed to

The fire clays are generally used in the

Over 60% of the china clay produced in the

Mapping of ongoing and abandoned clay mines in Chalakudy basin,

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of clay mining and suggestion of

CLAY MINING AREAS

Tile and brick clay

Particle size, C-org,

Clay based industrial units

Surface and ground water

Environmental Management Plan

2. Chalakudy Basin: A general profile

Fig. 2.3 Geology of the Chalakudy basin (after GSI, 1995)

Climate and rainfall

3. Materials and Methods

Fig. 3.2 Water sampling locations of Chalakudy basin

Table 3.1 Various methods employed for the sedi

Titrimetric wet oxidation

Table 3.2 Details of the hydrochemical and microbio

Measured using a por

Measured using a por

Winkler method with t

Unseeded dilution tec

Titration with standard

Precipitation with bari

Complexation with 4-a

Converted all organic

EDTA titration using E

EDTA titration using a

EDTA titration [Total

Complexation with 1the orange red compl

Filtration through 0.4

Drying and weighing

4. Clay mining from Chalakudy Basin

1. Continuance of paddy cultivation itself has become problematic due to indiscriminate

Annallur and surrounding areas

Fig. 4.3 Spatial distribution of various landuse categories identified

Table 4a: Detailed land use categories within the wet

Land use category

Unaffected paddy land

Reclaimed paddy land