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Introduction
In April 2007, on the back of a rising rupee, the Indian economy became a trillion
dollar5-economy, moving the country into an elite group of nations (Refer Exhibit I
for the List of Trillion Dollar Economies). By August 31, 2007, the Indian currency
was trading at 40.96 against the dollar, as compared to 46.55 on August 31, 2006, an
appreciation of around 12 percent (Refer Exhibit II for Rupee-Dollar Exchange
Rate Movement from August 2006 to August 2007).
The rise in the value of the rupee was a result of the general weakening of the dollar in
international markets, plus Indias growing attractiveness to foreign investors. In
2006-07, India attracted huge capital inflows in terms of foreign direct investment
(FDI),6 and foreign institutional investment (FII).7 External commercial borrowings
4
5
6
249
International Business
(ECB)8 and non-resident Indian (NRI) deposits and remittances also contributed to the
dollar inflow.
Exhibit I
Trillion Dollar Economies as of 2006
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Country
United States
Japan
Germany
China
United Kingdom
France
Italy
Canada
Spain
Brazil
GDP*
(in million USD)
13,201,819
4,340,133
2,906,681
2,668,071
2,345,015
2,230,721
1,844,749
1,251,463
1,223,988
1,067,962
of India (SEBI) to participate in the market. There are limits on the ownership by foreign
institutional investors in Indian companies.
ECBs include bank loans, suppliers and buyers credits, fixed and floating rate bonds
(without convertibility) and borrowings from private sector windows of multilateral
financial institutions such as International Finance Corporation. (Source:
www.banknetindia.com)
The RBI was established on April 1, 1935. Initially a shareholders bank, the RBIs
functions included regulating the issue of currency notes, maintaining reserves to ensure
monetary stability, and operating the credit and currency system of the country.
250
Exhibit II
Indian Rupee-US Dollar Foreign Exchange Rate:
August 2006-August 2007
2006
2007
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
Exchange rate
(As on last day of the month)
46.55
45.96
45.02
44.76
44.23
44.17
44.31
43.59
41.29
40.73
40.75
40.44
40.96
Source: www.rbi.org.in.
On the other hand, the rupees appreciation against the dollar was a welcome
development for Indian importers, who were happy to pay less for their imports in
terms of rupees. Sectors which were neither net exporters nor net importers were
unaffected.
Analysts were divided in their opinion on the long-term effects of the rupees
appreciation against the dollar on the Indian economy. Some believed that as exports
as a percent of GDP are low in India, the rupees appreciation against the dollar,
though sure to impact exports, would not significantly affect the economy as a whole.
They were also confident that Indian exports would gradually regain competitiveness.
However, others were not so optimistic and were in favor of the RBI intervening in
the foreign exchange market.
In July-August 2007, the government of India announced measures to counter the
negative impact of the rupees appreciation on Indias exports. The RBI also started
buying dollars from the market to absorb the oversupply of dollars, indicating that the
rupee-dollar rate had crossed the comfort zone of the central bank.
Background Note
In India, the RBI had always played an active role in the foreign exchange market.
However, since the country faced a severe balance of payments (BOP) 10 crisis in the
10
The balance of payments (BOP) measures the payments that flow between any individual
country and all other countries. It is used to summarize all international economic
transactions for that country during a specific time period, usually a year. The BOP is
determined by the countrys exports and imports of goods, services, and financial capital, as
well as financial transfers. It reflects all payments and liabilities to foreigners (debits) and
all payments and obligations received from foreigners (credits).
251
International Business
early 1990s, there was a greater understanding of the importance of the rupee-dollar
exchange rate on the economy. With reserves down to only around $ 1 billion in mid1991, caused partly due to a fall in exports and also due to a decline in remittances
(following the Gulf war), the country was close to defaulting on its debt repayments.
The Indian government then negotiated with the IMF 11 for SDR12 of around $ 2 billion
to stave off any external debt crisis. 13 However, when the crisis deepened, the country
had to mortgage a part of its gold reserves with the Bank of England. In June 1991,
the rupee (Refer Exhibit III for some background information on the rupee) was
officially devalued by around 20 percent. In 1991, as part of its agreement with the
IMF, India liberalized its economy and following this, BOP stability was more or less
restored in the period, with foreign exchange reserves increasing to $ 9.2 billion by
end March 1992.
Exhibit III
The Indian Rupee: Background
The history of currency in India dates back to the 6 th Century B.C., when first
merchant guilds and later kings and chieftains issued silver coins as a medium of
exchange to facilitate trade. The rupee derived its name from the word
rupyakam meaning silver coin in the Sanskrit language. The forerunner to the
modern Indian rupee was introduced by Sher Shah Suri, a sixteenth century ruler.
The rupee, a silver coin weighing about 11.34 grams, was to remain the chief
currency of India till the early 20th century. One rupee was divided into 16 annas
and each anna was in turn divided into 4 paisa.
In the 1770s, private and semi-government banks issued the first currency notes in
India. Till 1835, the value of rupee varied from one state to another. With the
passage of Coinage Act in 1835, the value of the rupee became more uniform
across the country. Beginning in 1835, the East India Company started issuing a
series of coins. After 1857, the British crown took over the issue of currency.
In the 19th century, with the discovery of large silver mines in the US and parts of
Europe, the value of silver declined radically in comparison to gold. The rupee, as it
was defined in terms of silver, saw its value, vis--vis currencies that were pegged
to gold, decline. In 1898, the rupee was pegged to the British pound, with 15 rupees
making one pound. In 1920, the value of the rupee was increased, with 10 rupees
now equaling one pound. Again in 1927, the rupee value was brought down to 13.5
for one pound, which was to remain the exchange rate of the rupee till 1966.
After India achieved independence on August 15, 1947, the rupee was adopted as
the sole currency of the country. In January 1949, the Reserve Bank of India was
nationalized. That year, the rupee was devalued by 30.5 percent following the
devaluation of other currencies pegged to the pound. In 1957, the rupee shifted to
the decimal system, with one rupee now equaling 100 paisa.14
11
12
13
14
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that oversees the
global financial system by observing exchange rates and balance of payments, as well as
offering financial and technical assistance when requested.
The SDR or the Special Drawing Right is an international reserve asset created by the IMF
in 1969 to supplement the existing official reserves of member countries. Value of SDRs is
based on a basket of key international currencies. SDRs are allocated to member countries
in proportion to their IMF quotas. (Source: www.imf.org)
India joined the IMF on December 27, 1945 as one of IMFs original members.
The Indian rupee follows the Indian numbering system. The ancient system groups numbers
by two decimal places rather then three decimal places as is done in the western system. For
example, three hundred thousand (300,000) would be three lakhs (3,00,000), thirty million
252
15
16
17
(30,000,000) would be three crores (3,00,00,000), and three billion (3,000,000,000) would
be three arabs (3,00,00,00,000).
In a dual exchange rate system, both fixed and floating exchange rates are applied in the
market. The fixed rate is applied only to certain segments of the market such as imports and
exports, and/or current account transactions, and a market-driven (floating) exchange rate is
applied to capital account transactions. (Source: www.investopedia.com)
Managed float regime is the current international financial environment in which exchange
rates fluctuate from day to day, but central banks attempt to influence their countries
exchange rates by buying and selling currencies. It is also known as a dirty float. (Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org)
Harish Damodaran, Forex Reserves: From Penury to Plenty, www.blonnet.com,
November 29, 2002.
253
International Business
Export earnings from the software sector increased from practically zero in 1992-93 to
$ 7.17 billion in 2001-02. Foreign capital inflows in the form of FII and FDI also
contributed to the growth in foreign exchange reserves.
Between January 2003 and March 2004, the rupee began to steadily appreciate against
the dollar. In 2004, the period between March and November was marked by
fluctuations in the exchange rate. From December 2004 to September 2005, the
exchange rate remained at more or less the same levels. The next year was again a
period of fluctuating exchange rates. From September 2006, the rupee again began to
appreciate against the dollar (Refer Exhibit IV for rupee-dollar exchange rate from
1998 to July 2006).
Exhibit IV
Indian Rupee-US Dollar Foreign Exchange Rate*: 1998-2006
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
January
39.39
42.55
43.59
46.61
48.35
47.96
45.46
43.62
44.20
February
39.01
42.53
43.65
46.56
48.72
47.75
45.27
43.58
44.23
March
39.57
42.52
43.64
46.65
48.77
47.68
44.97
43.59
44.34
April
39.70
42.80
43.68
46.79
48.94
47.39
43.89
43.64
44.82
May
40.47
42.86
44.08
46.95
49.02
47.11
45.18
43.41
45.20
June
42.37
43.21
44.76
47.04
48.98
46.70
45.50
43.52
45.89
July
42.61
43.36
44.84
47.18
48.79
46.22
46.06
43.43
46.37
August
42.84
43.50
45.77
47.17
48.62
45.96
46.32
43.55
September
42.58
43.60
45.97
47.75
48.46
45.85
46.05
43.85
October
42.39
43.55
46.43
48.05
48.39
45.40
45.74
44.76
November
42.43
43.46
46.82
48.04
48.29
45.55
45.03
45.63
December
42.59
43.52
46.78
47.93
48.15
45.57
43.85
45.56
Exhibit V
Indias Foreign Exchange Reserves between 1990-91 and 2005-06
19
20
21
Global depositary receipt or GDR is a bank certificate issued in more than one country for
shares in a foreign company. The shares are held by a foreign branch of an international
bank. The shares trade as domestic shares, but are offered for sale globally through the
various bank branches. (Source: www.investopedia.com)
American Depositary Receipt or ADR is the ownership in the shares of a foreign company
trading on US financial markets.
Indias External Debt as at the End of June 2007, http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in, September 28,
2007.
Indias External Debt as at the End of June 2007, http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in, September 28,
2007.
255
International Business
Exhibit VI
Remittances to India in Billions of US Dollars, 1990-1991 to 2005-2006
Exhibit VII
Source Regions of Remittance Flows to India in November 2007
North America
Europe
East Asia
Others
Africa
Gulf countries
South America
23
24
257
International Business
rates. And the increase in interest rates attracted more capital inflows from abroad,
with the RBI forced to repeat the sterilization process. This unending process was
another reason why the RBI decided to stop intervening in the foreign exchange
market.
Exhibit VIII
Inflation Rates in India
Year
Month
2006
October
5.09
November
5.30
December
5.58
January
6.58
February
6.10
March
5.74
April
5.66
May
4.85
June
4.27
July
4.45
August
3.52
2007
In India, the retail price of petrol and diesel is determined by the government. Owing to
political compulsions, the government had more or less frozen petrol and diesel prices. With
258
26
27
28
29
30
31
increase in the international price of crude oil, the losses incurred by the public sector oil
companies were mounting.
Richa Mishra, Oil Cos: Rupee Gain Softens Impact of Crude Prices,
www.thehindubusinessline.com, May 23, 2007.
Shubhra Tandon, Re Appreciation a Boon for Outbound Tourism,
www.thehindubusinessline.com, September 22, 2007.
Indian exports and imports in euros accounted for 8 percent and 7 percent respectively of all
exports and imports.
The term Dutch Disease was coined by The Economist in 1977 to describe the decline of the
manufacturing sector in the Netherlands after the discovery of natural gas in the 1960s. The
economic model describing Dutch disease was later developed by W. Max Corden and J.
Peter Neary in 1982. The model describes Dutch Disease as the adverse effect on any
sector(s) of an economy caused by large inflow of foreign currency in to the economy and
appreciation of the domestic currency.
The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM) was
established in 1920 by promoter chambers representing all regions of India. It is Indias
premier apex chamber with membership of over 100,000 companies and professionals
across the country. (Source: www.assocham.org)
Rupee Appreciation to Result $15 bln Fall in Exports in 2007-08, www.indiantaxsolutions.com,
July 7, 2007.
259
International Business
As a high percentage of revenues in most IT and some pharmaceutical companies
were in dollar terms, any appreciation of the rupee affected their revenue realization
and consequently their profit margins. V Balakrishnan, Chief Financial Officer of
Infosys Technologies Ltd (Infosys),32 said, In spite of taking forward cover and
hedging $ 373 million during the quarter under review, the rupee appreciated to Rs
44.53 from Rs 46.29 and impacted our operating margins by 200 base points (two
percent) and led to a revenue loss of Rs 1.45 billion. 33
According to US Department of Commerce data, Indias textile and apparel exports to
the US declined by 0.21 percent in the first half of 2007, even when USs total textile
imports increased by 5.70 percent in the same period. China was able to increase its
textile exports to the US by 33.78 percent, Vietnam, by 21 percent, Cambodia, by 18.5
percent, Indonesia, by 16.5 percent, and Bangladesh, by 13.6 percent 34 (Refer Exhibit
IX for the exchange rate of dollar against currencies of some of Indias
competitors).
Exhibit IX
The Exchange Rate of Dollar against Currencies of some of Indias
Export Competitors: August 2006-August 2007
Country
Currency
August 2007
Appreciation in %
Pakistan
Pakistan Rupee
60.310
60.642
(-0.55)
Bangladesh
Taka
69.110
68.775
0.48
China
Renminbi Yuan
7.958
7.547
5.16
Sri Lanka
102.51
113.01
(-10.24)
Vietnam
Dong
16,010
16,236
(-1.41)
Indonesia
Rupiah
9101
9389.6
(-3.17)
Malaysia
Ringgit
3.680
3.501
4.86
34
35
36
260
38
39
40
41
42
43
India: Apparel Exporters Reel under Severe Order Crunch, CIAe, www.fibre2fashion.com,
October 11, 2007.
Coffee, Tea Exporters Feeling Rupee Rise Heat, www.livemint.com, September 27, 2007.
The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) was founded in 1895. It is a non-government,
not-for-profit, industry led and industry managed organization. It has direct membership of
over 6,500 organizations from the private as well as public sectors, including SMEs and
MNCs, and an indirect membership of over 90,000 companies from around 350 national and
regional sectoral associations. (Source: www.ciionline.org)
India: Rupee Appreciation Unable to Stem MSME Export, www.fibre2fashion.com,
October 2, 2007.
Mahendra Kumar Singh, Strong Re May Shave off USD 13b Exports,
www.timesofindiaindiatimes. com, July 26, 2007.
SITA Inbound is one of the largest Indian companies in the tourism industry. It operates
inbound tours to India from all over the world, with tour operations and marketing activities
centralized at their head office in New Delhi. (Source: www.sitaindia.com)
Shobha Kannan, Strong Re, Overpricing Likely to Hurt Inbound Tourism,
www.thehindubusinessline. com, October 9, 2007.
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International Business
Some Perspectives
The trilemma or the impossible trinity as economists sometimes called the
management of exchange rate, interest rate, and inflation rate, has always posed
problems for central banks the world over; and the RBI was not an exception. The
central bank of any country has to ensure that the interest rates keep inflation in check,
but at the same time do not stifle investment; the exchange rate promotes exports, not
stifle them; and lastly the exchange rate and the interest rate manage capital inflows
without restricting them. This was a challenge for the central banks of even the highly
developed economies of western countries. However, analysts were of the view that,
largely, the RBI had been managing the trinity quite well for the last few years, at
least until inflation levels started rising in early 2007.
Most analysts were of the view that the RBIs first priority should be to rein in
inflation and they supported RBIs policy of non-intervention in the foreign exchange
market. However, some were of the view that the RBI should have let the rupee
appreciate gradually rather than leave the rupee to the mercy of market forces. Citing
the example of China, analysts explained that though that country attracted far more in
foreign investment than India, its currency appreciated only by around 2% (between
March and July 2007).
Some analysts were of the view that the rupees appreciation was positive as it would
put pressure on exporters to improve, update, and modernize. They cited the example
of the Japanese export industry in the 1990s, when it faced an appreciating yen, from
nearly 230 yen to a dollar to around 130. The Japanese export industry responded by
improving its productivity and introducing product innovations. Indian exporters, they
said, too should view the rupees appreciation as a challenge. They however agreed
that the government had a significant part to play and should invest in infrastructure as
well as in education and training of human resources. Kamal Nath (Nath), Minister of
Commerce & Industry, while agreeing with exporters that the appreciation of the
rupee against the dollar was a major concern, asked them to make efforts to improve
efficiency. He said, Rupee rise is no doubt a problem, but it is also an opportunity for
all of you to move towards greater efficiency, reducing costs and enhancing
competitiveness.44 However, in July 2007, he announced some measures to offset the
negative impact of rupees appreciation on Indias exports (Refer Exhibit X for the
recommendations of the Ministry of Commerce).
Some analysts advised exporters to decrease their dependence on dollars, asking them
to shift their invoicing to more stable and balanced currencies like the British pound
(Refer Exhibit XI for the exchange rate of the rupee with some major currencies
between January 2007 and August 2007). Others felt that exporters should reduce
their dependence on the US market. Commenting on a possible way out for textile
exports, D K Nair, Secretary General of Confederation of Indian Textile Industry
(CITI)45, said, It is evident that the textile industry has to cope up with the rupee
appreciation and for that defocusing of the US market and currency is one strategy
that the industry will have to adopt. Few industry players are already looking for other
44
45
262
Exhibit X
The Recommendations of the Ministry of Commerce in July, 2007
1. Duty Entitlement Pass Book (DEPB) and Duty Drawback rates may be
enhanced by 5%.
2. Rate of interest on pre-shipment and post-shipment credit be reduced for
exporters to 6% (at present, the rate of interest charged is in the range of 9 to
11%).
3. Exchange Earners Foreign Currency (EEFC) Accounts may be made interest
bearing. (As on date, EEFC Account deposited is stated as current account and
interest on it discontinued since 2000).
4. Scheduled Commercial Banks may be mandated to meet 15% export credit
disbursement target.
5. Notify the Service Tax Exemption / Refunds for exports announced in the
Foreign Trade Policy 2007 without further delay.
6. All arrears of TED (Terminal Excise Duty) & CST (Central Sales Tax)
reimbursement would be cleared by 30th June, 2007 and the Ministry of
Finance will be requested to provide additional funds, if necessary.
7. Export Credit & Guarantee Corporation (ECGC) will reduce its premium rates
by upto 10% to make exports more competitive.
8. A Committee is also being set up to assess job losses due to rupee appreciation
and loss of export orders.
Source: Kamal Nath Announces Package To Counter Impact Of Rising Rupee On
Exports-Assures Exporters Of All To Reach Export Target Of US $ 160 Billion,
www.commerce.nic.in, June 13, 2007.
With the rupees appreciation, considering its overall trade deficit (imports of $ 190
billion against exports of $ 126 billion in 2007), Indian economy was a net gainer.
Analysts saw this as a benefit of currency appreciation. However, others were of the
view that this was a short term gain and continuous appreciation of the rupee was
detrimental for the economy as there would be considerable job losses.
Some analysts were in favor of the rupees appreciation. They were opposed to giving
too much importance to exports. They added that as India itself was a huge market,
with exporters of other countries looking at Indian markets with interest, Indian
exporters should make efforts to develop the domestic market. Domestic
consumption, according to them, would obviate the need to depend on exports for job
creation.
46
47
48
263
International Business
Exhibit XI
The Exchange Rate of Rupee against some Major Currencies
between January 2007 and August 2007
Currency
Exchange rate
Appreciation
January 2007
August 2007
Pound
86.594
82.005
5.29
Euro
57.450
55.419
3.53
Yen (100)
365.234
350.673
3.98
Australian Dollar
34.166
33.110
3.09
Canadian Dollar
37.473
38.432
(-2.55)
Outlook
In June, 2007, the Economist Intelligence Unit 49 estimated that for the year 2007, the
rupees average annual exchange rate against the dollar would be 41.3 (a 13.5 percent
real appreciation year on year), and for the year 2008, it would be 40 (6 percent). 50
In the third week of September, 2007, the US Federal Reserve cut interest rates. This
saw FIIs flock to emerging markets, including the Indian market. Between midSeptember and mid-October 2007, over $ 6.6 billion was injected into the Indian
market.51
In September, 2007, in an effort to placate exporters, the government reimbursed
service tax paid by exporters for port, road transport and rail services (Refer Exhibit
XII for the measures taken by the government). However, exporters were not
satisfied with the announcement, saying it was too little too late. Ganesh K. Gupta,
President of FIEO, said, The packages announced by the government [have] not been
able to offset our losses. The way the rupee is rising, it would be negating not only the
exports but wipe them out. I think now it is time the Prime Minister intervenes and
takes up the matter seriously.52
49
50
51
52
The Economist Intelligence Unit, founded in 1946, is a leading research and advisory firm,
with more than 40 offices worldwide.
India Finance: Rupee Dilemma, www.viewswire.com, June 26, 2007.
2007 FII Inflows Hit $16 Billion, www.indianexpress.com, October 12, 2007.
Steps Soon to Address Rupee Appreciation: Kamal Nath, www.andhracafe.com,
September 20, 2007.
264
Exhibit XII
The Measures taken by the Government
1.
The list was expanded to include three new services general insurance service,
technical testing and analysis service, technical inspection and certification service.
Exporting community was to be exempted from paying service tax for these
services.
2.
Rs 3 billion more for Vishesh Krishi and Gram Udyog Yojana (VKGUY).
265
International Business
address their problems, the government would think of coming up with a more
suitable package. However, he advised exporters to learn to hedge and reprice their
export contracts.
In August 2007, the RBI again began to intervene in the foreign exchange market by
purchasing dollars. The RBI also made it more difficult for Indian firms to borrow in
foreign currency. In an effort to check capital inflows, the RBI introduced new rules
concerning ECBs. Henceforth, companies wishing to go in for ECBs (to be used as
rupee expenditure) were required to take prior approval from the RBI. The RBI also
placed a limit of $ 20 million per company per financial year. While ECBs of up to $
20 million per company to be used as foreign currency expenditure for specified enduses was to come under the automatic route, ECBs of more than $ 20 million was to
require special RBI approval. In either case, the proceeds would have to be parked
abroad. The RBI also increased the annual limit on the amount of remittances from
India from $ 50,000 to $ 100,000.54 The RBI also increased the sterilization bond limit
by Rs 400 billion to Rs 1.5 trillion.55
In September 2007, the Finance Minister, while addressing a gathering in Washington
D.C. said that the rupee-dollar exchange rate was market-determined and that the RBI
would do the needful to control volatility. The rupees real and nominal effective
exchange levels are way beyond comfort levels at the moment, but that is something
we have to learn to live with. This is market-determined and it will be marketdetermined; but if there is volatility or any disorderly movement I suppose the central
bank will intervene using whatever instrument it has. The government does nothing on
that behalf, said Chidambaram. 56
In October, 2007, the RBI increased the limit for bond issuance under the market
stabilization scheme (MSS)57 from Rs 1.5 trillion to Rs 2 trillion for the fiscal year
2007-08.
In October 2007, the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) carried out a
survey to study the actual impact of the rupee appreciation on industries. The
Directorate, which came under the Union Commerce Ministry, was to assess the
problems faced by the industries, including falling profitability, and job losses due to
the rupees appreciation and submit its report to the central government.
While Nath had said in September 2007 that there would be no change in the 2007-08
export target, in October 2007, Commerce Secretary Gopal K. Pillai said, It looks
unlikely that the $ 160 billion export target would be achieved for the current fiscal.
We would be quite pleased if it reached even $ 140 billion, estimating that the local
currency appreciates to 38 a dollar.58
Some international institutions estimated that the RBI would not allow the rupee to
appreciate further. Subir Gokarn, chief economist for Asia Pacific, Standard and
Poors59, said, We expect the Reserve Bank of India to resist appreciation beyond
current levels and the rupee will end the year at around 40.50 per dollar. 60
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Ila Patnaik, Get Real about the Impossible Trinity, www.financialexpress.com, May 24,
2007.
Market Stabilisation Scheme: Revision of Ceiling, www.rbi.org.in, August 08, 2007.
Rapid Rupee Appreciation Is A Matter Of Serious Concern: FM, www.newindpress.com,
September 27, 2007.
The market stabilization scheme was introduced by the government and RBI in early 2004
to tackle strong capital inflows.
India Unlikely to Meet Export Target, www.tradeindia.com, October 10, 2007.
Standard and Poor is a leading credit ratings, investment research, risk evaluation, and
policy advisory company.
Rupee Hits 9-1/2 Yr High, Stocks Support, www.livemit.com, October 10, 2007.
266
India: Apparel Exporters Reel under Severe Order Crunch, CIAe, www.fibre2fashion.
com, October 11, 2007.
2.
3.
Anoop Agrawal, Indian Rupee Rises as Stocks at Record Lure More Global Funds,
www.bloomberg.com, October 10, 2007.
4.
Rupee Hits 9-1/2 Yr High, Stocks Support, www.livemit.com, October 10, 2007.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Deepak Bansal, Appreciating INR: Industry Should Charge the Consumer Less,
www.merinews.com, October 7, 2007.
9.
Hina Mahgul Rind, Rupee Stands Firm against Dollar, www.thenews.com, October 7, 2007.
10.
Gayatri
Nayak,
Dollar
Inflows
Put
www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, October 6, 2007.
11.
RBI
Intervention
Pulls
Re
Down
www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, October 6, 2007.
12.
India
Wont
Miss
$60-B
Software
www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, October 6, 2007.
13.
14.
15.
16.
TB
Kapali,
Rupee
Appreciation
Upsets
www.thehindubusinessline. com, October 4, 2007.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Prabhakar Sinha, Stronger Rupee Saves You from Jitters of Global Gold Price Rise,
www.timesofindiaindiatimes.com, September 29, 2007.
with
Govt
Rupee
in
From
Bind,
9-Yr
High,
Export
Export
Appreciation
Target,
Arithmetic,
CITI,
267
International Business
28.
Anil Varma, Indias Rupee Heads for Biggest Monthly Advance Since April,
www.bloomberg.com, September 28, 2007.
29.
30.
31.
Indias External Debt as at the End of June 2007, http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in, September 28,
2007.
32.
of
Serious
Concern:
FM,
33.
Thats It, They Just Cant Agree! www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, September 27, 2007.
34.
Coffee, Tea Exporters Feeling Rupee Rise Heat, www.livemint.com, September 27,
2007.
35.
Deepshikha Monga & Gaurie Mishra, Rising Re Pulls Down Stocks of US-Listed
Indian IT, BPO Cos, www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, September 26, 2007.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Gary Singh, RBI has been Struggling to Work out a Way, www.nriinternet.com,
September 3, 2007.
41.
42.
Rapid Rupee Appreciation a Challenge, Says Infosys CEO, www.hindu.com, August 30,
2007.
43.
Sanjeev Choudhary, Rise in Rupee, Sluggish Sales Take Toll on Apparel Exports to
US, www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, August 27, 2007.
44.
45.
Deepshikha Sikarwar, Ratna Bhushan & Ashish Agarwal, Industry Must Show Import
Gains on Rising Re, www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, August 3, 2007.
46.
Rupee
Appreciation
Dents
Export
Growth
www.thehindubusinessline.com, August 2, 2007.
47.
Mahendra Kumar Singh, Strong Re May Shave off USD 13b Exports,
www.timesofindiaindiatimes.com, July 26, 2007.
48.
49.
Mitu
Jayashankar,
No
Model
Can
Sustain
www.economictimes.indiatimes. com, July 20, 2007.
50.
Ratna
Ganguli,
Exports
Sops
Elude
www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, July 17, 2007.
51.
52.
Rajeev Malik, Indias Handling of Rupee Remains a Riddle, www.rediff.com, July 14, 2007.
53.
268
bn
Fall
for
in
Outbound
to
Tackle
Re
Sharply
9%
in
Re
Herbal
Exports
Tourism,
Rise,
June,
Rise,
Products,
in
2007-08,
55.
Alok
Ray,
Rising
Rupee:
The
www.thehindubusinessline.com, June 15, 2007.
56.
Kamal Nath Announces Package to Counter Impact of Rising Rupee on ExportsAssures Exporters of All to Reach Export Target of US$ 160 Billion,
www.commerce.nic.in,
June 13, 2007.
57.
John
Rebeiro,
Indian
Outsourcers
www.networkworld.com, June 7, 2007.
58.
59.
60.
Ila Patnaik, Get Real about the Impossible Trinity, www.financialexpress.com, May 24, 2007.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
Radhika Bhalla & Rajeev Jayaswal, Finmin Backs RBI in Rupee Tone-Up,
www.economictimes.indiatimes.com, April 24, 2007.
66.
67.
Gargi
Shah,
Rupees
Rise
against
www.thehindubusinessline.com, January 30, 2007.
68.
A Record Appreciation of the Indian Rupee in the Forex Market by 3.8 Percent
Dampening IT Outsourcing Margins, www.indiadaily.com, January 11, 2007.
69.
70.
71.
72.
Devika Johra and Mark Miller, Devaluation of the Rupee: Tale of Two Years, 1966
and 1991, www.ccsindia.org.
73.
www.fieo.org.
74.
www.ciionline.org.
75.
www.assocham.org.
76.
www.investopedia.com.
77.
http://en.wikipedia.org.
78.
www.rbi.org.n.
79.
www.economagic.com.
80.
www.banknetindia.com.
Causes
Hit
by
Dollar
and
Consequences,
Rupee
Appreciation,
Tempers
Gold,
269