Space Weather Effects On Space Missions

SPACE SAFETY & SUSTAINAIBILITY
WORKING GROUP
IN SUPPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS PROGRAMME ON SPACE APPLICATIONS
SPACE WEATHER
EFFECTS ON SPACE MISSIONS
2012 | SSS EDUCATIONAL SERIES
SSS Educational Series 2012
2012 | SPACE GENERATION ADVISORY COUNCIL
SPACE WEATHER EFFECTS ON

SPACE MISSIONS
Contributors:
Chijioke (CJ) Nwosa

Ekaterina Rezugina
Romy Seth
Nigeria
Russia
Canada
Schwarzenbergplatz 6
Vienna A-1030
A
AUSTRIA
info@spacegeneration.org
www.spacegeneration.org
+43 1 718 11 18 30 Fax: +43 1 718 11 18 99
Acknowledgments
The SSS Working Group would like to thank SSS members for their collaboration and
contribution to the Space Weather Effects on Space Missions Educational Series
document. In addition, we would like to express our gratitude to the SSS Advisory Team;
Ronald Kohl, Shannon Ryan, Maite Trujillo and Brian Weeden for their expertise and
guidance that have been critical to the completion of the project. Further
acknowledgement goes to Ariane Cornell and Marc Cornwall for their review comments
and formatting advice.
Regards,
Minoo Rathnasabapathy, Chijioke (CJ) Nwosa
SSS Co-leads
Proud Partners
Partners of SSS Working Group:
Table of Contents
Section I: Residual Atmosphere Effects ................................................................................ 1
1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................... ............1
2.
Earths Atmosphere ............................................................................................... .......1
3.
Atmospheric Effects ................................................................................................ ......2

3.1 Drag .............................................................................................................................. 2
3.2 Outgassing and Contamination .................................................................................. 4
3.3 Glow ............................................................................................................................. 4
3.4 Surface Degradation/Erosion ...................................................................................... 4
3.5 Aerodynamic Heating .................................................................................................. 5
4.
Representative Cases ................................................................................................ ....5

4.1 Skylab ........................................................................................................................... 5
4.2 Hubble Space Telescope ............................................................................................. 6
4.3 International Space Station ......................................................................................... 6
4.4 Long Duration Exposure Facility ................................................................................. 6
5.
Mitigation of Atmospheric Effects ................................................................................ 6
6.
References .................................................................................................................... 7
Section II: Radiation Effects .................................................................................................. 8

1.
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 8
2.
Radiation Sources in Space ........................................................................................... 8

2.1 Radiation Belts ............................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Cosmic Rays ................................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Solar Particles............................................................................................................. 10
2.4. Atmospheric Secondaries......................................................................................... 10
3.
Particle Radiation Effects ............................................................................................ 11

3.1 Ionising Radiation ...................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Plasma ........................................................................................................................ 14
3.3 Non-Ionising Dose/Non-Ionising Energy Loss (NIEL) .............................................. 15
4.
Examples of Effects..................................................................................................... 16
4.1 Satellites ..................................................................................................................... 16
4.2 Space Launch Vehicles ............................................................................................... 17
4.3 Humans....................................................................................................................... 17
5.
Representative Cases .................................................................................................. 18
6.
Mitigation of Radiation Effects ................................................................................... 18
7.
References .................................................................................................................. 19
Section III: Thermal Effects.................................................................................................. 22

1.
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 22
2.
Thermal Sources in Space ........................................................................................... 22

2.1 Electromagnetic Radiation from the Sun .................................................................. 22
2.2 Solar Wind Heating .................................................................................................... 23
3.
Thermal Effects ........................................................................................................... 24

3.1 Governance of Thermal Output from the Sun ......................................................... 24
4.
Examples of Thermal Effects....................................................................................... 25

4.1 Satellites ..................................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Launch Vehicles .......................................................................................................... 25
4.3 Humans....................................................................................................................... 25
5.
Mitigation of Thermal Effects...................................................................................... 26

5.1 Satellites ..................................................................................................................... 26
5.2 Launch Vehicles .......................................................................................................... 27
5.3 Humans....................................................................................................................... 28
6.
References .................................................................................................................. 30
Section I: Residual Atmosphere Effects

1. Introduction
The saying that outer space is a vacuum does not apply to all regions of space.
Spacecraft in LEO, especially those below 550 km, are still within the reach of the
Earths atmosphere and have to carry out their operations successfully while
subjected to the effects of the atomic and/or molecular atmospheric constituents. In
this section, the components of the Earths atmosphere which spacecraft are
exposed to and the different interactions are outlined.
2. Earths
Earths Atmosphere
Atmosphere
The neutral thermosphere is the region of the Earth's atmosphere containing neutral
gases like Hydrogen, Helium, Atomic Oxygen (AO),1 and Nitrogen extending from 90
km to 600 km [1]. In this region, the absorption of EUV leads to a rapid increase in
temperature. Solar activity strongly influences temperature in the thermosphere.
Figure 1: Layers of the Earths atmosphere (Source: NASA).
Due to photo-dissociation, oxygen exists predominantly in atomic form.

This is the part of the atmosphere that most low altitude spacecraft are exposed to.
Above 150 km, AO is the main constituent, with 66% at 200 km and 90% at 500 km.
The density of the constituent gases varies with altitude and solar activity (due to
heating caused by the absorption of solar EUV radiation). Since AO is lighter than the
other constituents, its abundance decreases less rapidly with altitude. Figure 2 shows
the number density of the various constituents at different altitudes. It shows that,
typically, AO is the constituent of concern in LEO (MAX refers to solar maximum and
MIN to solar minimum). The effects of residual atmosphere on spacecraft include;
drag, outgassing, contamination, glow, surface degradation/erosion, aerodynamic
heating.
Figure 2:: Number density of the different atmospheric constituents as a function of

altitude (Source: NASA).
3. Atmospheric Effects
3.1 Drag
Spacecraft in LEO pass through relatively dense neutral particles. At relative
velocities of 8 km/s, there is a considerable exchange of impulse and energy
between ambient atmosphere and spacecraft causing an applied drag on the
spacecraft. Aerodynamic drag
drag causes orbit decay and induced torques in spacecraft
leading to tracking problems. In the long-run,
long run, if not compensated for, drag causes
spacecraft to slow, lose altitude, and finally re-enter.
re enter. This aerodynamic drag is
dependent on the spacecraft ballistic
ballist coefficient2 (the mass-to-area
area ratio), as shown
in
The ballistic coefficient of a body is a measure of its ability to overcome air resistance.

Figure 3, drag coefficient, Cd, the velocity of the spacecraft relative to the ambient
3
atmosphere, and the atmospheric density (which is a function of altitude).
Figure 3: Orbital lifetime as a function of altitude (Source: NASA).

Among these, the most important parameter is the atmospheric density which varies
with solar activity.
The height of the top of the thermosphere (the thermopause) lies at about 500 km
during solar minimum and climbs to about 1,000 km during solar maximum, as the
thermosphere expands due to increased absorption of solar ultra-violet radiation.
The heating and expansion of the thermosphere causes drag at higher altitudes.
Many spacecraft orbit within the thermosphere (including the ISS and the space
shuttle), hence this varying drag must be taken into account when calculating or
predicting orbits.
Spacecraft in LEO experience much lower drag, and thus slower orbital decay,
during solar minimum, and higher drag and faster decay during solar maximum. In
addition, spacecraft with low ballistic coefficient (low mass-to-area ratio) will respond
quickly to the atmosphere and decay relatively faster, while those with high ballistic
coefficients will survive a larger number of solar cycles and decay more slowly [1].
Periods of high solar activity are accompanied by sudden perturbations in the orbits
of LEO which could lead to changes in the location of tracked objects (Figure 4).
Abrupt changes in the solar activity (from geomagnetic storms, solar flares, etc.) can
cause short-term changes in the atmospheric density and hence vary the drag on
spacecraft. This can affect spacecrafts predicted orbital lifetime and therefore the
3
Generally, atmospheric density decreases with increasing altitude.

fuel budget for station keeping (or orbit maintenance). Moreso, since drag is one of
the most significant perturbation considered during orbit propagation calculations
especially for conjunction analysis, sudden changes in the solar activity (and hence
drag) could render all collision predictions based on previous density values invalid.
Figure 4: Number of tracked objects lost after a large magnetic storm in 1989
(Source: NASA/GSF). This decay process can be modelled in a bid to predict when
LEO spacecraft systems will re-enter the atmosphere. This is a crucial task because
uncontrolled re-entries can be potentially very dangerous for larger spacecrafts that
may not fully burn up. The LTIME (lifetime) tool developed by NASA can be used to
model the effect of drag on spacecraft.
3.2 Outgassing and Contamination

Contamination
In vacuum, most spacecraft organic materials will outgas the production spurious
particles which could contaminate other surfaces. Atmospheric gas particles in LEO
sometimes collide with the gases emitted by spacecraft resulting in contamination of
spacecraft surfaces. Dust can be a source of contamination.
3.3 Glow
Chemical reactions involving AO could produce radiatively active, excited
constituents which emit significant amounts of background radiation creating a dim
light which could interfere with optical measurements [2].
3.4 Surface Degradation/Erosion

Degradation/Erosion
AO impinging on the spacecraft surfaces can have mechanically or chemically
corrosive effects. It could react with and degrade thin organic films, advanced

composites, and metallised surfaces. This erosion of the spacecraft surfaces affects
4
its thermal, electrical, mechanical, and optical properties.
Under AO exposure:
Silver contacts form silver oxide layers which are porous to AO and flake off due
to stresses generated from thermal cycling. Hence AO is able to penetrate and
react with the underlying fresh silver.
In the same way, silicon based materials form silicone dioxide layers which affect
optical transparency of solar cells, optical cover glasses etc.
Most metals like aluminium produce protective oxide layers that are impervious
to AO and hence resistant to further attack.
The ATOMOX (Atomic Oxygen) tool developed by ESA can be used to calculate
the AO fluence (atoms/m2) on spacecraft surfaces. Moreso, a number of
atmospheric and ionospheric models are available:
- Mass-Spectrometer-Incoherent-Scatter (NRLMSISE-00) [7]
- Marshall Engineering Thermosphere (MET-V 2.0) [8]
- Drag Temperature Model (DTMB78)
- Horizontal Wind Model (HWM93) [9]
- International Reference Ionosphere (IRI2001) [10]
- NeQuick Ionosphere Electron Density Model (NeQuick v2.0) [11]
3.5 Aerodynamic Heating

Most spacecraft orbit in LEO with a minimum orbital period of 87.5 minutes
corresponding to an altitude of 150 km. Spacecraft in LEO get heated by forced
convection as they pass through the ambient atmosphere. The magnitude of this
aerodynamic heating at 150 km altitude is that of the solar constant. From here, it
decreases with increasing altitude. This is a huge concern especially for spacecraft in
highly elliptical orbits (e.g. Molniya orbits) with perigees lower than 150 km. In some
cases, depending on the ballistic coefficient, spacecraft systems could completely
burn up in the atmosphere during re-entry due to aerodynamic heating.
4. Representative Cases
Cases
4.1 Skylab
On July 11, 1979, Skylab fell back to Earth earlier than planned due to increased
drag in the neutral thermosphere [3].
These effects are aggravated by simultaneous exposure to solar UV radiation,

micrometeoroid impact damage, sputtering, and contamination.

4.2 Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) drops about 10 - 15 km per year and has been
periodically re-boosted by the shuttle.
4.3 International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) requires re-boosting several times a year due to
a drag induced average orbit decay of 83 m per day. In addition, the retrieved
silicone oxide coated retroreflectors mounted on the e., trapped protons cease to
exist at the poles, but high energy trapped protons continue to feature in the SAA.
External surfaces of the ISS showed AO erosion of the unprotected areas.
4.4 Long Duration Exposure Facility

In June 1984, Aluminised polyimide Kapton insulation samples on the leading edge
of recovered surfaces of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) experienced
significant erosion due to AO. This led to degradation of the underlying spacecraft
materials [4].
5. Mitigation of Atmospheric Effects
Routine orbit reboost and manoeuvres correct for spacecraft orbit decay from
drag effects.5
Various coatings are used to protect against AO effects:
- Silicone dioxide, fluoropolymer filled silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide and
germanium can be sputter deposited on polymers. For example, the large
solar array blankets of the ISS have been coated with silicone dioxide for AO
protection.
- Vapour deposited gold used on silver electrical contacts.
- Silverised or aluminised perfluorinated ethylenepropylene film due to its low
sensitivity to AO erosion6 [5].
- AOR (Atomic Oxygen Resistant) Kapton, a polydimethyl silioxane-polyimide
mixture [6].
Not all spacecraft have this ability, particularly nanosats and cubesats due to weight and
size constraints, as an inbuilt propulsion system is required.
6
Aluminized perfluorinated ethylenepropylene film is regularly used for insulation purposes
because of its thermo-optical properties, low solar absorptance, and high thermal
emmittance.
6. References
[1] The Upper Atmosphere. The Space Environment and Survivability. Walterscheid,
R. L. 1999, Space Mission Analysis and Design, pp. 207-212.
[2] Hastings, D. and Garret, H. Spacecraft Environment Interactions. s.l. : Cambridge
University Press., 2004.
[3] Spacecraft Interactions with the Space Environment. Tribble, A. C. Reno. : AIAA
33rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit., 1995.
[4] Atomic Oxygen Undercutting of Long Duration Exposure Facility AluminisedKapton Multilayer Insulation. De Groh, et al. 4, s.l. : Journal of Spacecraft and
Rockets., 1994, Vol. 31, pp. 656-664.
[5] Preliminary Investigations into UHCRE Thermal Control Materials. Levadou, F. M.
et al.. 1992.
[6] The Effect of Atomic Oxygen on Altered and Coated Kapton Surfaces for
Spacecraft Applications in Low Earth Orbit. Rutledge, S. and Mihelcic, J. 1990.
[7] Hedin, A. E. Extension of the MSIS Thermosphere Model into the Middle and
Lower Atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research. Vol. 96, pp 1159. 1991.
[8] Owens, J. K. NASA Marshall Engineering Thermosphere Model-Version 2.0.
NASA/TM2002-211786. 2002.
[9] Hedin, A. E. et al. Revised Global Model of Thermosphere Winds Using Satellite
and Ground-Based Observations. Journal of Geophysical Research. Vol. 96, pp
7657-7688. 1991.
[10] Bilitza, D. International Reference Ionosphere 2000. Radio Science. Vol. 36, pp
261-275. 2001.
[11] Nava, B. et al. A new version of the NeQuick ionosphere electron density model.
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics. Vol. 70, pp 1856-1862, 2008.
Section II: Radiation Effects

1. Introduction
Space systems (satellites, launchers and the ISS) and human beings in space are
vulnerable to Space Weather through its influence on energetic charged particle and
plasma populations, which produce a variety of effects, including total dose, lattice
displacement damage, Single Event Effects (SEE), noise in sensors and electrostatic
charging. In addition aircraft electronics and aircrew are subjected to atmospheric
secondary radiation produced by cosmic rays and solar particle events.
2. Radiation Sources
Sources in Space
2.1 Radiation Belts
B elts
The Earth's magnetic field creates a geomagnetic cavity known as the
magnetosphere [1]. The magnetic field lines trap low-energy charged particles. These
trapped particles consist primarily of electrons and protons, although some heavy
ions are also trapped. The trapped particles gyrate spirally around the magnetic field
lines and are reflected back and forth between the poles where the fields are
confined [2]. Charged particles gyrate along the magnetic field lines, see Figure 5.
Figure 5. Trapped Particle motion (Source: ESA).

Radiation belts are divided into two belts, an inner belt extending to 2.5 Earth radii
and comprising energetic protons up to 600 MeV together with electrons up to
several MeV, and an outer belt comprising mainly electrons extending to 10 Earth
radii. The trapped proton distribution exists primarily in regions one and two that
extend from slightly above 1 Earth radius to 3.8 Earth radii [2].

Standard models of the radiation belts are AP8 for protons and AE8 for electrons [3,
4], see Figure 6, but these take little account of Space Weather variations apart from
having different versions for solar maximum and minimum.
Figure 6. Invariant coordinate map of the AE-8 MAX integral electron flux > 1 MeV
(Source: NASA)
Other radiation belt models include:
Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite Electron and Proton models
(CR- RESELE and CRRESPRO)
Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer Proton/Electron
Telescope model (SAMPEX/PET)
International Geostationary Electron model (IGE-2006)
Particle ONERA-LANL Environment model (POLE)
Because of the displacement of the dipole term in the geomagnetic field away from
the Earths centre, there is a region in the South Atlantic where the trapped radiation
is found at lower altitudes. This is called the South Atlantic or Brazilian Anomaly
(SAA) and dominates the radiation received by low Earth orbits. In addition, highly
inclined low Earth orbits intersect the outer belt electrons at high latitudes in the socalled horn regions. For more please see [2].
2.2 Cosmic Rays

Cosmic rays originate from two sources, the sun (solar) and sources outside our solar
system (galactic). Galactic cosmic rays are always present. In the absence of solar
activity, cosmic radiation is composed entirely of galactic radiation. Outside of our
solar system, the spectrum of galactic cosmic rays is believed to be uniform. It
consists mostly of protons (85%) and alpha particles (helium nuclei) (14%). Less than

1% of the galactic cosmic ray spectrum is composed of high-energy heavy ions.
Heavy ions deposit more energy per unit depth in a material than protons [2]. From
the point of view of space systems it is particles in the energy range 1-20 GeV per
nucleon which have most influence, because it is hard to shield against them and it is
not possible to predict a coming impact. An important quantity is the rigidity of a
cosmic ray which measures its resistance to bending in a magnetic field and is
defined as the momentum-to-charge ratio for which typical units are GV. The
influence of Space Weather is to provide a modulation in antiphase with the sunspot
cycle and with a phase lag which is dependent on energy [5], for more please see Ref
[2].
2.3 Solar Particles

In the years around solar maximum the sun is an additional sporadic source of lower
energy particles accelerated during certain solar flares and in the subsequent coronal
mass ejections. These solar particle events last for several days at a time and
comprise both protons and heavier ions with variable composition from event to
event. Energies typically range up to several hundred MeV and have most influence
on high inclination or high altitude systems. Occasional events produce particles of
several GeV in energy and these can reach equatorial latitudes [5].
Solar proton models include:
The King model [28]
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) model [29]
The Rosenqvist et al. model [30]
The Emission of Solar Protons (ESP) model [31]
For solar heavy ions, the PSYCHIC model (Prediction of Solar Particle Yields for
Characterising Integrated Circuits) is available.
2.4. Atmospheric Secondaries

The primary cosmic rays interact with air nuclei to generate a cascade of secondary
particles comprising protons, neutrons, mesons, electrons, photons and nuclear
fragments. The intensity of radiation builds up to a maximum at 60 000 feet (the
Pfotzer maximum) and then slowly drops off to sea level. At normal aircraft cruising
altitudes the radiation is several hundred times the ground level intensity and at
60 000 feet a factor three higher again. Solar particles are less penetrating and only a
few events in each cycle can reach aircraft altitudes or ground level [5].
10
3. Particle Radiation Effects

3.1 Ionising Radiation
3 .1.1 Total Dose Effects
E ffects
Dose is used to quantify the effects of charge liberation by ionisation and is defined
as the energy deposited as ionisation and excitation per unit mass of material (note
that the material should be specified). SI units are J/kg or grays (1 gray = 100 rads,
where 1 rad is 100 ergs/g). The majority of effects depend on rate of delivery and so
dose-rate information is required. Figure 7 is a plot of TID in krads of silicon as a
function of aluminium shield thickness for various orbits around the Earth.
Figure 7. TID depth curves for various orbits around the Earth (Source: NASA).
In general, issues which are important for total dose effects are:
Dependence on bias during irradiation (irradiation whilst the device is biased is
usually worst case).
Annealing effects (trapped charge reduces after irradiation, while interface traps
tend to build-up).
Dependence on dose rate (mainly because of annealing effects).
Dependence on package and burn-in (especially for some types of plastic
package).
Variability from batch to batch and device to device (especially for commercial
off- the-shelf devices).
In linear devices with junction isolated bipolar transistors there is a pronounced
"enhanced low dose rate sensitivity" (ELDRS) effect where the damage is greater
at low dose rates.
11

Of relevance to potential work under this project is the problem of doseenhancement under electron or bremsstrahlung radiation where there are
boundaries between materials of widely differing atomic number [6].
3 .1.2 Displacement Damage
D amage
Energetic particles such as neutrons, protons, electrons, a-particles and heavy ions
can create damage in semiconductor materials by displacing atoms in the crystal
lattice. Secondary electrons produced by high-energy photons will also produce
displacement effects. The result is that stable defect states are created within the
band gap that can give rise to any of the five effects depending on the temperature,
carrier concentration and the location at which the defect resides [7]:
Generation of electron-hole pairs (leading to thermal dark current in detectors);

Recombination of electron-hole pairs (leading to reduction of minority carrier
lifetime and effects in LEDs and laser diodes);
Trapping of carriers, leading to loss in charge transfer efficiency in CCDs
(minority carrier trapping) or carrier removal (majority carrier trapping);
Compensation of donors or acceptors, also leading to carrier removal in some
devices (for example the resistance in a lightly doped collector in a bipolar
transistor can increase);
Tunneling of carriers, leading to increased current in reverse biased junctions particularly for small bandgap materials and high electric fields.
It is now well established that the amount of formation of defect clusters depends on
the particle type. Electron irradiation gives primary knock-on atoms (PKAs) with low
recoil energies and hence leads to almost exclusive production of point defects;
whereas neutrons give a flat PKA spectrum and a much greater proportion of cluster
formation. For protons the situation is in between [6].
3 .1.3 Single Event Effects
E ffects
Single event effects arise from the interaction of single particles (e.g. protons,
neutrons or heavy ions), see Figure 8 (a), with the semiconductor causing either
transient or permanent effects:
Single dark current generation centers (spikes) and single electron traps in
imagers (permanent) due to individual lattice defects such as vacancyphosphorous complexes and divacancies.
Single event upset in memories (i.e. bit-flips leading to change of stored
information.
Single event transients in imagers or linear circuits (i.e. a current transient which
can be interpreted as a false signal or be propagated to cause an output error in
combinational logic).
12
Single event latch-up

up in CMOS circuits (a potentially destructive triggering of a
parasitic p-n-p-n
n thyristor structure in the device).
Single event burnout in power transistors (a destructive triggering of a vertical nn
channel transistor accompanied by regenerative feedback).
f
Single event snapback in NMOS devices, particularly in SOI devices (a destructive
triggering of a lateral n-p-n
n n transistor accompanied by regenerative feedback).
Single event functional interrupt in control circuitry, e.g. in processors or ADCs,
(transient corruption of a control path).
Single event gate rupture (destructive rupture of gate dielectric due to high field
generated by high current) [6].
Both the recoiling nucleus and secondary particles can trigger SEEs as shown in
Figure 8 (b).
Figure 8.. SEE in an electronic device (Source: NASA JPL)

For cosmic rays the density of charge deposition by ionisation is proportional to the
square of the atomic number so that the heavier species can deposit enough charge
in a small volume of silicon to change the state of a memory cell, a one becoming a
zero and vice versa [5].
3 .1.4
.1.4 Biological Effects
E ffects
The radiation effects on human beings are similar to the effects on electronics
(catalogue McNully). Ionisation produces free hydroxyl radicals which may lead to
base damage in DNA. In addition individual particles can break chemical bonds
leading to loss of bases or rupturing of the sugar phosphate backbone of DNA. The
latter is analogous to single event effects in electronics and can result in single or
double-strand
strand breaks that may not repair successfully resulting in the possibility of
cancer. As with SEE,
EE, the charge deposition can be by direct ionisation or by nuclear
interactions [6].
13

Effects are divided into stochastic (e.g. cancer induction) where probability is a
function of dose and non-stochastic (e.g. eye cataracts) which definitely occur
beyond a threshold dose. Individual highly ionising particles can give light flashes in
the retina.
Currently human exposure is limited to Space Shuttle and International Space Station
orbits for which trapped protons in the SAA are a major concern. Heavy ions in
cosmic rays and occasional solar particle events are also of concern, while electrons
can be important for extravehicular activity. In large space structures, secondary
neutrons become very significant and can provide a third of the dose equivalent for
certain missions [8, 9]. For interplanetary travel, cosmic-ray ions and solar particle
events are most significant and very large solar events could provide debilitating
doses if inadequate shielding is provided.
Important issues include:
Determination of quality factors;

Microdosimetric calculations at the cell nucleus level, both for heavy ions (track
structure important) and for nuclear interactions by neutrons and protons;
Accurate shielding calculations to account for fragmentation of heavy ions and
production of secondary neutrons.
A review of this area has been given by Reitz et al [10].
3 .1.5 Background Noise

N oise
Spurious counts are produced in many detector systems and these depend on the
size distribution of individual depositions and can occur from both prompt ionisation
and delayed depositions due to induced radioactivity [5].
3.2 Plasma
Plasma is ionised gas in which electron and ion densities are approximately equal.
The solar wind particles (positively charged ions and free electrons) ejected from the
Sun could be so hot that they are homogenised into a dilute plasma. The electrically
neutral plasma streams radially outwards from the Sun with temperatures up to
hundreds of keV. The energy density of the plasma (about 1 to 30 particles/cm3)
exceeds that of its magnetic field so that the solar magnetic field lines are frozen into
the plasma. In the geosynchronous environment, about 100% of the charged
particles are ionised. This fraction reduces to about 1% at 300 km altitude.
14

3 .2.1 Electrostatic
Electrostatic (Spacecraft) Charging
Charging
Surface charging can occur when spacecraft are bathed in energetic plasmas (several
keV electron temperature) without the presence of neutralising cold plasma. This can
occur in the geomagnetic tail region during geomagnetic storms and the subsequent
discharges can couple into spacecraft systems. Internal charging, or deep dielectric
charging as it is commonly called, can occur during energetic (several MeV) electron
enhancements. Electrons penetrating the thin skin can be trapped in dielectric
materials near the surface and sufficient build-up can occur over a few days to result
in a damaging electron caused electromagnetic pulse (ECEMP) and electrostatic
arcing [5].
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) from such arcs could lead to operational
anomalies in spacecraft ranging from minor irritations to the fatally catastrophic. This
could be in the form of increased surface contamination and physical surface damage
by ion sputtering, biasing of spacecraft instrument readings, and upsets to sensitive
electronics. Some models used to analyse the effects of spacecraft charging are:
NASA Charging Analyser Programme for Low-Earth Orbit (NASCAP/LEO)

NASA Charging Analyser Programme for Geosynchronous Orbit (NASCAP/GEO)
Potentials of Large spacecraft in Auroral Regions (POLAR)
3.3 NonNon-Ionising Dose/NonDose/Non-Ionising Energy Loss (NIEL)

Energetic charged particles may collide with the atomic nuclei of materials they
impinge on thereby displacing the atom from its crystal lattice site. The energetic
displaced atom may subsequently collide with other atoms of the material. The
displacement defects reduce the minority carrier lifetimes and diffusion lengths
thereby decreasing efficiency of solar cells, photodetectors, optical lenses and light
emitting diodes. The total absorbed non-ionising dose is referred to as displacement
damage dose (Dd) expressed in units of MeVg-1. Figure 9 shows the Solar and
Heliospheric Observatory's (SOHO) solar array degradation between December
1995 and November 2009. Abrupt drops in the efficiency of the solar panels coincide
with solar events.
15
Figure 9. SOHO Solar Array Degradation (Source: NASA).
4. Examples of Effects
4.1 Satellites
The rapid ageing of solar cells as seen on GOES during the large storm in March
1991 (see Allen and Wilkinson, 1993) is due to atom displacements inside the cell
caused by high energy particles. Due to the cover glass which is superimposed on
the cell, the particles must have an energy sufficient to pass through the coating (but
not too high to pass through the whole cell) leaving a part of their energy in it and
inducing permanent damage. Atom displacements can also be induced by lowenergy particles near the surface. The effect is instantaneous [11].
In photon detectors an increase in background noise can be due to various particles,
e.g., direct impact of protons or heavy ions on the detector. It can also be related to
bremsstrahlung, which results from the interaction between incident electrons and
surrounding materials, and other secondary processes (Bourrieau et al., 1996). The
radiation can interact either directly with the sensor or through other parts of the
system (glasses, pre-amplifiers, etc.). It is also an instantaneous space weather effect
[11].
Charging effects result in a differential potential that may occur on satellites when
surfaces are non-conductive because different surface materials are used (thermal
coatings, antennas, solar cells) and the exposure to the space environment is
16

different for different surfaces (shadow, non-isotropic particle fluxes), especially
when surfaces are made of dielectric materials.
The external layer thickness of a satellite being usually around 500 microns, electrons
with energies below 300 keV and protons below 8 MeV will generally be stopped in
the protecting material. For surface charging, the time scales depend on the material
or structure and the differential current [11].
The clearest examples of displacement effect arise from observations of
degradations in solar-array efficiency where sharp drops can occur during solar
particle events. For example, drops in efficiency of 4% in GEO [12] and 2% in LEO
[13].
For SEEs in electronics or computer devices, the particles responsible must pass
through the shielding of the satellite (thermal coating and structural materials) and
the cover and insulating materials of the electronics, so they must have a sufficiently
high energy.
More examples of Single Event Effects observed in spacecraft components can be
found in Ref [6].
4.2 Space Launch Vehicles

Space launch vehicles, as they move higher out of the atmosphere are subject to
nearly all other space weather effects (surface charging, global drag, SEEs by
energetic particles from radiation belt as well as solar energetic particles and cosmic
rays, internal charging). Nevertheless, normally these effects do not have enough
time to perturb the launcher, excepted during solar energetic particle events or
when crossing during a long period of time the radiation belts (near the South
Atlantic Anomaly), which is the case for Ariane V launches to GTO or interplanetary
orbits [11, 14]. The exception is upper stages that have to do additional
manoeuvres to place satellites in deep space orbits. This can sometimes take weeks
or months.
Single Event Upsets were recorded during an Ariane V launch without any solar
energetic particle event in progress [11]. The number of SEUs can increase during
such an event. Nevertheless, the redundancy of computers on board this launcher
makes fatal error unlikely [11].
4.3 Humans
During Extra Vehicular Activities (EVAs), nearly all effects similar to spacecraft are
possible, the suit being similar to the satellite and the shielding being smaller
(around 0.5 mm). Charging effects and energetic particles (protons from the
17

radiation belts and ions from the cosmic rays or SEPEs) occur on low-altitude stations
(ISS, MIR) and lower than 400 km where the inner Van Allen radiation belts effectively
confine human orbital spaceflight around Earth to lower than 400 km (the lowest
point of the South Atlantic Anomaly). However, charging effects can appear
especially when astronauts cross the boundary between sunlight and shadow.
During the potential future interplanetary missions, or missions to the Moon,
astronauts are not protected by the magnetospheric shielding and the fluxes are
much higher [11, 15].
5. Representative Cases
Anik E2 On January 20, 1994, Telesat's Anik E2 lost attitude control due to a
malfunction of the primary momentum wheel. The redundant unit failed almost
immediately and the satellite was not recoverable through the backup system.
Consequently, the solar arrays on the spinning satellite were no longer sunpointing; and output was reduced to 25% of its nominal value [16]. This failure
was attributed to an electrostatic discharge event on the control circuitry of the
momentum wheels [17] after a period of increased solar activity between the 13th
and 21st of the same month [18].
GOES-5 In 1989, NOAA's Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 5
(GOES-5) experienced ten SEU's in its central telemetry unit, six of which were
associated with solar fares. More so, a major solar _are on October 19, 1989
degraded the solar arrays [19].
ETS-6 In September 1994, Japan's Engineering Test Satellite (ETS-6) failed to
reach geostationary orbit due to a failure in its apogee kick motor. This occurred
after high radiation levels from the Van Allen belts plunged the efficiency of the
solar panels. Predictions pointed to a 50% decrease in power output within a
year of deployment - insufficient for intended experiments [20].
6. Mitigation of Radiation Effects

Generally, particle radiation effects on spacecraft can be mitigated by:
Shielding:
- Placing the most sensitive instruments inside the spacecraft in such a
way that they are protected by the structure. In practice, however,
some instruments need to be directly exposed to the environment or
may not fit into a more protected area [21]
- covering the spacecraft structure with light, largely tested,
inexpensive metals like aluminium or lighter composites like graphite
polycyanate [22]
18

Glass, though more fragile, is often used to shield solar panels and
optical devices
- Employing shutters to close during times of exposure to high levels of
particles while on orbit
Selection of radiation hardened electronic parts and materials
Using silicon dioxide as a surface passivation coating for silicon devices
Pre-launch irradiation tests (TID, SEE tests)
Redundancy
Implementation of Error Detection, Analysis and Correction (EDAC) and
Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) algorithms
Spacecraft charging is, in addition to the above, mitigated by;
Using materials with low resistivity and that are not susceptible to secondary
emissions [23]
Proper grounding techniques. Electromagnetic Radiation Environment and its
effects on spacecraft
-
7. References
[1] E.G. Stassinopoulos and J. P. Raymond, "The Space Radiation Environment for
Electronics," Prec. of the IEEE 76, 1423, 1988.
[2] James R. Schwank, Basic Mechanisms of Radiation Effects in the Natural Space
Radiation Environment, Sandia National Laboratories Albuquerque, NM 87185-1083
[3] J I Vette, The NASA/National Space Science Data Center Trapped Radiation
Environment Model Program (TREMP) (1964-1991), NSSDC/WDC-A-R&S 91-29,
NASA/GSFC, Nov 1991.
[4] J I Vette, The AE-8 Trapped Electron Model Environment, NSSDC/WDC-A-R&S
91-24, NASA/GSFC, Nov 1991.
[5] C. Dyer, Radiation Effects on Spacecraft & Aircraft, Space Department, QinetiQ
Limited 2001
[6] S. Dyer and Gordon R. Hopkinson, Space Radiation Effects For Future
Technologies and Missions, QINETIQ/KI/SPACE/TR010690/1.1, QinetiQ Limited
[7] P W Marshall and C J Marshall, "Proton effects and test issues for satellite
designers," IEEE NSREC Short Course Notes, Norfolk, VA, 1999.
[8] C Dyer, "Space Radiation Environment Dosimetry," 1998 IEEE NSREC Short
Course Notes, Ch. I, Newport Beach, CA, USA, 1998.
19

[9] G D Badwar, Editor Proceedings of Workshop on "Predictions and measurements
of secondary neutrons in space," NASA/Johnson Space Center, September 1998.
[10] G Reitz, R Facius, H Sandler, "Radiation protection in space," Acta Astronautica,
vol 35, No 4/5, pp 313-338, 1995.
[11] H. Koskinen, E. Tanskanen, R. Pirjola, A. Pulkkinen, C. Dyer, D. Rodgers, P.
Cannon, J.-C. Mandeville, D.Boscher, Space Weather Effects Catalogue, ESA Space
Weather Study (ESWS), ESWS-FMI-RP-0001, Issue 2.2 January 2, 2001
[12] L J Goldhammer, Recent Solar Flare Activity and Its Effects On In-Orbit Solar
Arrays, IEEE 21st PVSC, Vol II, 1241-1248, 1990.
[13] A Jalinat, G Picart, E Rapp, P Samson, In-Orbit Behaviour of SPOT 1,2 and 3
Solar Arrays, ESA SP-416, 627-631, Sept 1998.
[14] Bourdarie, S., and J. Bourrieau, Evaluation des taux dvnements singuliers
induits par les protons pigs- Tirs AR5 - XMM, CELESTRI et GTO+, RF/473900
ONERA/DESP, 1999.
[15] Bourrieau, J., Les radiations dans lespace, in L'homme dans l'espace, ed. A.
Esterle, PUF, Paris, F, 1993.
[16] Burlton, B. The Rescue of Anik E2. Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal. 41.
1995.
[17] Telesat Starts Anik E2 Rescue. Aviation Week & Space Technology. 140, 6. pg
58. 1994.
[18] NOAA. GOES Space Environment Monitor. [cited 20 Jan., 2011.]
http://goes.ngdc.noaa.gov/data/
[19] Elsen, W. G. Orbital Anomalies in Goddard Spacecraft for CY 1989. Office of
Flight Assurance, Goddard Space Flight Centre. 1989.
[20] Garret, H. and Whittlesey. Environment Induced Anomalies on the TDRSS and
the Role of Spacecraft Charging. 28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Nevada. 1995.
[21] Miller, J. et al. Benchmark Studies of the Effectiveness of Structural and Internal
Materials as Radiation Shielding for the International Space Station. Radiation
Research. 159. pg 381-390. 2003
[22] Tsetlin, V. Vitreous Radioelectrets: Materials for Shielding Spacecraft against
Radiation (review). Steklo i Keramika. 6. pg 16-21. 2001.
20

[23] Fennel, J. F. et al. Internal Charging: A preliminary environmental specification
for satellites. IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. 2000.
[24] A H Johnston, G M Swift, T Miyahira, S Guertin and L D Edmonds, "Single-event
upset effects in optocouplers," IEEE Trans Nucl Sci, vol 45, pp 2867-2875, 1997.
[25] C Claeys and E Simoen, Literature study on radiation effects in advanced
semiconductor devices, ESTEC contract report P35284-IM-RP-0013, March 30 2000.
[26] P W Marshall and C J Marshall, "Proton effects and test issues for satellite
designers," IEEE NSREC Short Course Notes, Norfolk, VA, 1999.
[27] A H Johnston, "Optoelectronic devices with complex failure modes," IEEE
NSREC Short Course Notes, Reno, Na, 2000.
[28] King, J. H. Solar Proton Fluences for 1977-1983 Space Missions. Journal of
Spacecraft and Rockets. Vol. 11, No. 401. 1974.
[29] Feynman, J. et al. New Interplanetary Proton Fluence Model. Journal of
Spacecraft and Rockets. Vol. 27, No. 403. 1990.
[30] Rosenqvist, L. et al. Toolkit for Updating Interplanetary Proton-Cumulated
Fluence Models. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. Vol. 24, No. 6. 2005.
[31] Xapsos, M. A. et al. Probability Model for Cumulative Solar Proton Event
Fluences. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science. Vol. 47, pp 486-490. 2000.
21
Section III: Thermal Effects

1. Introduction
Thermal effects can adversely affect both humans in space and space systems, which
include
ude satellites, probes and the International Space Station.
Station. The predominant
source of thermal effects within our solar system is the sun. The sun plays a vital role
in renewable energy production
productio on Earth and for powering satellites in Earth
E
orbit;
however,
ever, it can also have adverse effects
effects to both space systems and humans.
2. Thermal Sources in Space

2.1 Electromagnetic Radiation from the Sun
The sun is a G2V star designated as a yellow dwarf and is located in the center of our
solar system
m about 150 million kilometres away from the Earth.
arth. It is composed of
74% hydrogen, 24% helium and the remainder is a mix of oxygen, carbon, iron, neon,
nitrogen, magnesium, silicon and sulphur [1].. The sun is approximately 109 times the
size of the Earth
arth and it accounts for 99% of the
the mass within our solar system [1].
There are 9 different regions within the sun, which are [1, 2]:: the 1) Core, 2) Radiative
Zone, 3) Convective Zone, 4) Photosphere, 5) Chromosphere, 6) Corona, 7) Sunspot,
8) Granules and 9) Prominences (Figure 10).
Figure 10. The Sun has 9 different regions which include: 1) Core
Corewhere nuclear
fusion occurs, 2) Radiative Zonesolar
Zone solar energy is transferred outwards via thermal
radiation (also generates a magnetic dynamo which creates the suns magnetic field),
3) Convective Zonethermal
hermal columns carry hot material to the surface
(photosphere) by convection, 4) Photospherethe
Photosphere the visible surface of the sun,
22

composed of granules 5) Chromospherelayer above the photosphere 6) Corona
composed of ionised gas (plasma), 7) Sunspotcreated by magnetic activity that
inhibits convection, 8) Granulesconvection cells of gas and 9) Prominencesloop
of plasma that extend from the suns surface to the corona, which serve as a
precursor to coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (Source: NASA).
The intense energy that is given off by the sun is fuelled through a fusion reaction in
the core of the sun, which reaches temperatures of up to 13.6 million Kelvin (K) [2].
The fusion reaction that occurs in the core is driven by a proton-proton chain in
which hydrogen is converted into helium (two fused hydrogen atoms) [3]. The mass
of the fused atom is less than the sum of the two individual hydrogen atoms and this
missing mass is converted to energy through Einsteins theory of mass-energy
equivalence [3]. The excess energy then diffuses through the successive layers of the
sun to reach the solar photosphere where it escapes as electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic (EM) radiation exhibits a wave-like characteristic when travelling
through space and consists of electric and magnetic components, which oscillate in
phase perpendicular to each other. EM radiation includes waves of different energies
such as radiowaves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, X-rays and gamma rays, the latter three being the most harmful to humans
[4].
26
The solar energy output from the sun at any given time is 3.846*10 W (luminosity)
2
of which we receive approximately 1366 W/m in the outer Earths atmosphere [5].
The change in energy output is governed by an 11 year solar cycle, which causes
cyclic changes in total solar irradiance resulting in a variance of 1.3W/m2 [4]. Another
phenomenon known as the Milankovitch cycle plays a more important role in which
the energy variance perceived by the Earth is dependent on Earths position,
whether it is at the perihelion or the aphelion. This variation in the orbit results in a
change of approximately 25% in the energy that is received in certain areas on Earth
[6, 7]. Thus, satellites and the ISS, which are in low Earth orbit (LEO) feel a
perceptible change as a result of the solar and Milankovitch cycles.
2.2 Solar Wind Heating

Solar wind heating is another source of thermal energy throughout the solar system.
The solar wind has a slow component and fast component. The slow solar wind
originates from the suns equatorial region; it has a temperature of 1,500,000 K and
travels at 400 km/s [8]. The composition of the slow solar wind resembles that of the
corona, which predominantly contains ionised gas [8]. On the other hand, the fast
solar wind travels an order of speed faster, its composition is similar to that of the
photosphere (convection cells) and the solar material is released from coronal holes
[8].
23

Although, the sun releases a stream of electrons and protons that escape due to
their high kinetic energy, these particles are not the primary source of thermal
energy of the solar wind. Overtime, as the high-energy particles released from the
sun mix with one another in space, this causes turbulence and the generation of
thermal energy [9]. The stirring of the solar wind produces swirls and eddies which
breakdown overtime and the thermal energy is dissipated as result of the mixing
process [9, 10].
3. Thermal Effects
3.1
3. 1 Governance of Thermal Output from the Sun
Thermal radiation from the sun occurs through the release of visible light and
infrared radiation [11]. This occurs through fusion reactions from the ionised mixture
of hydrogen and helium gas in the suns core [11]. As the gas in the suns core is at
very high temperatures, thermal collisions between atoms will ionise them resulting
in the ejection of electrons that will co-exist with atomic ions [11]. The thermal
conductivity of the sun is dependent on the degree of ionisation of the atoms.
Ionisation can be determined using the Saha ionisation equation [12], however this
equation is ideally applied in cases when the system is in equilibrium. As the sun is
not entirely in equilibrium since the solar chromosphere, corona and prominences are
not in radiative equilibrium (the heat generated from fusion is entirely transferred as
electromagnetic radiation from the sun into space), the ionisation capacity alone is
not enough to describe the thermal conductivity of the sun [13]. An improved
method to describe the conductivity of the sun takes into account the density of the
various particles, the temperature and the ionisation energy of the atoms [13].
Furthermore, in the presence of a strong magnetic field, heat conduction by charged
particles across lines of force is greatly reduced and as a result the thermal
conductivity is determined mainly by the remaining neutral particles (unionised form
of He and H) [13]. In addition, heat conduction by neutral atoms plays a key role
when the system deviates from thermodynamic equilibrium in solar prominences and
the chromosphere. In these regions the electron temperature can exceed the local
radiation temperature and as result ionisation is greatly reduced [13].
The thermal conductivity is determined as follows [13]:
Figure 11. Thermal Conductivity from the Sun. Where 1=thermal conductivity,
1=conductivity of neutral particles, T=temperature, N=electron density,
2=conductivity of positively charged particles, 3=conductivity of negatively
charged particles
24

The thermal conductivity is determined using the equation in Figure 1, which
requires conductivity of neutral and charged particles, in addition to the temperature
of the chromosphere, electron density and the strength of the suns magnetic field.
As the sun has a large magnetic field, the conductivity of the neutral atoms is
primarily what governs the thermal conductivity of the sun since the term that
accounts for the conductivity of positively and negatively charged atoms approaches
24
2
2
zero, {(8.82*10 ) * (TN2 /H ) * (2 +3) = 0}.
4. Examples of Thermal Effects

4.1 Satellites
The ISS and all other satellites in space make use of the abundant solar energy from
the sun. However, during the release of solar flares and coronal mass ejections, there
is an abundant amount of thermal energy that is released and a milieu of energetic
particles that adversely affect the ISS and its inhabitants.
A study by Bekhti et al. showed that the battery system on board a nano-satellite
operating for about two years was sub-nominal until the satellite was yawed 180,
resulting in a change of the battery pack position in the satellite reference frame
(and relative to the sun). This caused the temperature to be restored to the nominal
level and the cell performance increased appreciably as determined through the
charging/discharging process [14].
The ISS is also affected by thermal energy from the sun resulting in increased cabin
temperatures [15].
4.2 Launch Vehicles

Spacecrafts are subjected to extreme temperatures as a result of direct sunlight or
shade and to regulate these extreme temperatures, a thermal protection system
(TPS) is required.
4.3 Humans
During extra-vehicular activity, humans in space are exposed to extreme
temperatures as a result of the sun and as such also require a protective thermal
system.
25
5. Mitigation of Thermal Effects

5.1 Satellites
In order to regulate the temperature of satellites, optical solar reflectors are
commonly used which are composed of quartz or Teflon followed by a metal layer
(silver). The two layers together create a cold material that allows solar light to
freely pass through the quartz outer layer and then reflect off of the metal layer
resulting in decreased absorption by critical components on the satellite [16]. As
space is a vacuum, cooling satellites can be a difficult task as many of the cooling
systems we use on Earth utilise convection, which would necessitate the use of
airflow. If the satellite undergoes large temperature fluctuations as it could be
exposed to direct sunlight or shade, these successive changes in temperature cause
the protective coatings on the satellite to breakdown. Overtime, the satellite can
then lose its capacity to ensure optimal power generation and thus it is important to
consider the orientation of the satellite prior to orbit insertion. By changing the
pitch, yaw or roll of the satellite, this alters the angle of incidence at which the
sunlight hits the satellite and in the long term it would have a large effect on the
power generation capacity [14]. As a result, orientation changes that are expected to
occur throughout the satellites lifetime should be rigorously assessed and modelled
prior to orbit insertion to minimise any insidious thermal effects.
On the ISS, there is a thermal control system (TCS), which is used to regulate heat
fluctuations [15, 17-19]. The TCS is responsible for: 1) collecting, distributing and
rejecting heat, 2) meeting intra/extra-vehicular touch temperatures, 3) precluding
condensation and 4) maintaining structural interface temperatures [15]. There are
two parts to the TCS, which include the Internal Active Thermal Control System
(IACTS)a water based system that works with the External Active Control System
(EACTS), which is an ammonia based system [17]. The TCS system is comprised of
both active and passive conditioning measures for maintaining thermal control. The
passive system works by using thermal coatings, cold-plates and multilayer insulation
to keep hardware within the specified temperature limits [17]. In contrast, the active
system uses: 1) externally mounted water/ammonia heat exchangers, 2) water pumps
for providing moderate and low temperature coolant to racks and cold-plated
hardware, 3) moderate and low temperature cross strapping for failure redundancy
and 4) rack flow control valves to provide additional temperature control at the racks
[17]. In addition, there is also an external thermal control system to cool the
hardware associated with the photovoltaic arrays. This includes the batteries, battery
discharging/charging units, DC converter units and DC switching units [17]. The
implementation of the TCS on the ISS allows for the successful maintenance of
thermal energy fluctuations that occur as a result of exposure or a lack of exposure
to the sun.
26

5.2 Launch Vehicles
The shuttle developed by United States National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and recently retired, had a thermal control system for two
purposes, to protect it from the heat during re-entry and against the large
fluctuations of thermal energy while in orbit. As the shuttles base structure was
o
constructed from aluminium it was not able to withstand temperatures over 175 C
without a thermal protective system (TPS) [20]. The outer skin of the shuttle was
composed of seven different materials that are found on different regions of the
shuttle [21].
On the shuttle the TPS was divided into a tile based and non-tile based system.
There are four different tile types, all of which are very poor conductors in order to
prevent heat transfer [20, 22]. The four tile types include high-temperature reusable
surface insulation (HRSI), fibrous refractory composite insulation tiles (FRCI),
toughened unipiece fibrous insulation (TUFI) and low-temperature reusable surface
insulation (LRSI) [21]. The non-tile materials used on the shuttle as part of the TPS
included flexible insulation blanket (FIB), reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC), Nomex felt
reusable surface insulation (FRSI) and gap fillers [21].
On the shuttle, the HRSI tiles were composed of high purity silica fibers and cover
the under-side which are able to withstand temperatures up to 1260oC [21]. During
subsequent repairs of the shuttle, the HRSI tiles were replaced with either FRCI or
TUFI tiles, both of which provided increased strength, durability and resistance to
cracking. LRSI tiles were originally used on the sides of the craft and the tail wing
which have been retrofitted with flexible insulation blankets (FIB) composed of a
white low density fibrous silica material that requires less maintenance than the
earlier LRSI tiles [21]. The wings of shuttle are lined with reinforced carbon-carbona
composite material made from graphite rayon cloth and impregnated phenolic resin
[21]. These panels along the wing are between 6 to 13 mm thick and can withstand
temperatures up to 1510oC [21]. The upper surface and aft fuselage of the shuttle
were coated with FRSI, a white flexible fabric that could withstand temperatures up
to 371oC [21]. Lastly, the gap fillers, composed of alumina fibers, were placed at
several locations throughout the shuttle (leading edge of foreward fuselage, nose
caps, windshields, side hatch, wings, vertical stabiliser, rudder, speed rake, body
flaps and on the heat shield around the main engines) to minimise heating by
preventing the formation of vortices in areas where surface pressure gradients would
result in a cross-flow of air within the gaps [21].
27
Figure 12. Shuttle Thermal Protection System (Source: NASA).

In addition, at the NASA Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California, there are
additional studies ongoing to develop Ultra High Temperature Ceramics (UHTC) that
can be used on future re-entry vehicles [20].
The Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS) also has a launch vehicle known
as Soyuz-TMA. This Soyuz launch vehicle is a segmented craft consisting of an
forward orbital module (holds crew), a center descent module and an aft service
module (contains instruments and engines) [23, 24]. The exterior thermal protection
on a Soyuz-TMA craft involves service module radiators [25], along with a multi-layer
vacuum-screen thermal insulation [24]. The descent module carries eight thermal
blankets held by the apex and base rings which are released when the modules are
separated for re-entry [25].
5.3 Humans
Due to extreme thermal conditions an astronaut will face during extra-vehicular
activity (EVA), an extravehicular mobility unit is required to withstand the harsh
conditions. The American spacesuitEnhanced Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) is
jointly developed by Hamilton Sundstrand, International Latex Corporation Dover
and NASA [26]. The suit is primarily white, which allows it to reflect a significant
portion of the thermal energy from the sun and is able to sustain temperatures from
-156oC to 121oC [26]. The spacesuit consists of a hard upper torso assembly [27],
28

primary life support system and a lower torso assembly [27]. Astronauts have to wear
a thermal control undergarment and then the liquid cooling and ventilation garment,
the latter of which incorporates tubing through which chilled water is pumped for
temperature regulation and ventilation tubes for waste gas removal [27]. This is then
followed by putting on the lower torso assembly [27]. The enhanced EMU can
support an astronaut for 8.5 hours with a 30-minute reserve in case there is a failure
with the primary system.
Figure 13. The Enhanced Extra-vehicular Mobility Unit (Source: NASA).

The other spacesuit that is commonly used on the ISS and for EVAs is the Russian
Orlan-MK suit developed by NPP Zvezda [28]. It has primary life support time of 7
hours and weighs approximately twice as much as United States EMU. Although, the
weight is twice as much, the Orlan suit is a one-piece semi-rigid model that requires
only 5 minutes of preparation time as it has a rear hatch entry [28]. The Orlan-MK can
also withstand extreme temperatures, radiation and micrometeorites equivalent to
that of the EMU [29].
Figure 14. Orlan-M Spacesuit (Source: Russian Space Federation).
29
6. References
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Available from: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-402/contents.htm.
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[9] Hassler, D.M., et al., Solar wind outflow and the chromospheric magnetic
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[15] Morrison R.H., ISS Internal Active Thermal Control System (IATCS) Coolant
Remediation Project-2006 Update. papers.sae.org, 2006.
[16] Ichino, T. and S. Sasaki, Development of highperformance flexible optical
solar reflectors., and Communications in Japan, 1986.
[17] Reysa, R., The International Space Station ECLS and thermal control systemsOverview., Space Environmental Control Systems, 1997.
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SPACE SAFETY & SUSTAINAIBILITY

IN SUPPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS PROGRAMME ON SPACE APPLICATIONS

2012 | SSS EDUCATIONAL SERIES

SSS Educational Series 2012

2012 | SPACE GENERATION ADVISORY COUNCIL