Landslide

Landslide
This article is about the geological phenomenon. For other uses, see Landslide (disambiguation).
A landslide, also known as a landslip
(see also mudslide), is a geological
phenomenon which includes a wide
range of ground movements, such as
rockfalls, deep failure of slopes and
shallow debris flows, which can occur
in offshore, coastal and onshore
environments. Although the action of
gravity is the primary driving force for
a landslide to occur, there are other
contributing factors affecting the
original slope stability. Typically,
pre-conditional factors build up
specific sub-surface conditions that
make the area/slope prone to failure,
whereas the actual landslide often
requires a trigger before being
released.

Causes
Main article: Causes of landslides

Computer simulation of a "slump" landslide in San Mateo County, California (USA) in

January 1997

Landslides occur when the stability of the slope changes from a stable
to an unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be
caused by a number of factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes
of landslides include:
groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope
Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and
soil structure (e.g. after a wildfire - a fire in forests lasting for 34
days)
erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers
melting, or heavy rains
earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope

The Mameyes Landslide, in the Mameyes

neighborhood of barrio Portugus Urbano in
Ponce, Puerto Rico, which buried more than 100
homes, was caused by extensive accumulation of
rains and, according to some sources, lightning.

earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes

volcanic eruptions
Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as
deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes.
vibrations from machinery or traffic
blasting
earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on an existing slope

Landslide
in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock
Construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change the amount of water which infiltrates the
soil.

Types
Main article: Landslide classification

Debris flow
Slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a
debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud may
pick up trees, houses and cars, thus blocking bridges and tributaries
causing flooding along its path.
Debris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely
different processes.
Muddy-debris flows in alpine areas cause severe damage to structures
and infrastructure and often claim human lives. Muddy-debris flows
can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can
dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the
impoundments fail, a "domino effect" may be created, with a
remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up
the debris in the stream channel. The solid-liquid mixture can reach
densities of up to 2tons/m and velocities of up to 14m/s (Chiarle and
Luino, 1998; Arattano, 2003). These processes normally cause the first
severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits accumulated on the
road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in
Amboori debris flow, occurred on 9 November
some cases to the complete removal of bridges or roadways or railways
2001 in Kerala, India. The event killed 39 people.
crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a common
underestimation of mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for
example, bridges are frequently destroyed by the impact force of the flow because their span is usually calculated
only for a water discharge. For a small basin in the Italian Alps (area = 1.76km) affected by a debris flow, Chiarle
and Luino (1998)Wikipedia:Citation needed estimated a peak discharge of 750 m3/s for a section located in the
middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the maximum foreseeable water discharge (by
HEC-1), was 19 m/s, a value about 40 times lower than that calculated for the debris flow that occurred.

Landslide

Earthflows
Earthflows are downslope, viscous flows of saturated, fine-grained
materials, which move at any speed from slow to fast. Typically, they
can move at speeds from 0.17 to 20km/h (0.1 to 12.4mph). Though
these are a lot like mudflows, overall they are slower moving and are
covered with solid material carried along by flow from within. They
are different from fluid flows in that they are more rapid. Clay, fine
sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic material are all susceptible
to earthflows. The velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how
much water content is in the flow itself: if there is more water content
in the flow, the higher the velocity will be.
These flows usually begin when the pore pressures in a fine-grained
mass increase until enough of the weight of the material is supported
by pore water to significantly decrease the internal shearing strength of
the material. This thereby creates a bulging lobe which advances with a
slow, rolling motion. As these lobes spread out, drainage of the mass
A rock slide in Guerrero, Mexico
increases and the margins dry out, thereby lowering the overall
velocity of the flow. This process causes the flow to thicken. The
bulbous variety of earthflows are not that spectacular, but they are much more common than their rapid counterparts.
They develop a sag at their heads and are usually derived from the slumping at the source.
Earthflows occur much more during periods of high precipitation, which saturates the ground and adds water to the
slope content. Fissures develop during the movement of clay-like material which creates the intrusion of water into
the earthflows. Water then increases the pore-water pressure and reduces the shearing strength of the material.

Debris landslide
A debris slide is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement
of rocks soil and debris mixed with water or ice (or both). They are
usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which
results in an incoherent mixture of broken timber, smaller vegetation
and other debris. Debris avalanches differ from debris slides because
their movement is much more rapid. This is usually a result of lower
cohesion or higher water content and commonly steeper slopes.
Steep coastal cliffs can be caused by catastrophic debris avalanches.
These have been common on the submerged flanks of ocean island
volcanos such as the Hawaiian Islands and the Cape Verde Islands.
Another slip of this type was Storegga landslide.

Goodell Creek Debris Avalanche, Washington

Movement: Debris slides generally start with big rocks that start at the top of the slide and begin to break apart as
they slide towards the bottom. This is much slower than a debris avalanche. Debris avalanches are very fast and the
entire mass seems to liquefy as it slides down the slope. This is caused by a combination of saturated material, and
steep slopes. As the debris moves down the slope it generally follows stream channels leaving a v-shaped scar as it
moves down the hill. This differs from the more U-shaped scar of a slump. Debris avalanches can also travel well
past the foot of the slope due to their tremendous speed.[1]

Landslide

Sturzstrom
A sturzstrom is a rare, poorly understood type of landslide, typically
with a long run-out. Often very large, these slides are unusually
mobile, flowing very far over a low angle, flat, or even slightly uphill
terrain.
See also: Slump (geology)

Blockade of Hunza river

Shallow landslide
Landslide in which the sliding surface is located within the soil mantle
or weathered bedrock (typically to a depth from few decimetres to
some metres)is called a shallow landslide. They usually include debris
slides, debris flow, and failures of road cut-slopes. Landslides
occurring as single large blocks of rock moving slowly down slope are
sometimes called block glides.
Shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high
permeable soils on top of low permeable bottom soils. The low
Hotel Limone at the Lake Garda. Part of a hill of
permeable, bottom soils trap the water in the shallower, high
Devonian shale was removed to make the road,
forming a dip-slope. The upper block detached
permeable soils creating high water pressure in the top soils. As the top
along a bedding plane and is sliding down the
soils are filled with water and become heavy, slopes can become very
hill, forming a jumbled pile of rock at the toe of
unstable and slide over the low permeable bottom soils. Say there is a
the slide.
slope with silt and sand as its top soil and bedrock as its bottom soil.
During an intense rainstorm, the bedrock will keep the rain trapped in the top soils of silt and sand. As the topsoil
becomes saturated and heavy, it can start to slide over the bedrock and become a shallow landslide. R. H. Campbell
did a study on shallow landslides on Santa Cruz Island California. He notes that if permeability decreases with depth,
a perched water table may develop in soils at intense precipitation. When pore water pressures are sufficient to
reduce effective normal stress to a critical level, failure occurs.

Landslide

Deep-seated landslide
Landslides in which the sliding surface is mostly deeply located below
the maximum rooting depth of trees (typically to depths greater than
ten meters). Deep-seated landslides usually involve deep regolith,
weathered rock, and/or bedrock and include large slope failure
associated with translational, rotational, or complex movement. These
typically move slowly, only several meters per year, but occasionally
move faster. They tend to be larger than shallow landslides and form
along a plane of weakness such as a fault or bedding plane. They can
be visually identified by concave scarps at the top and steep areas at
the toe.

Causing tsunamis

Deep-seated landslide on mountain in Sehara,

Kih, beside of Kumano river between
Wakayama and Mie Japan caused by torrential
rain of Tropical Storm Talas (2011)

See also: Tsunami Tsunami generated by landslides

Landslides that occur undersea, or have impact into water, can generate
tsunamis. Massive landslides can also generate megatsunamis, which
are usually hundreds of meters high. In 1958, one such tsunami
occurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska.[2]

Related phenomena
An avalanche, similar in mechanism to a landslide, involves a large
amount of ice, snow and rock falling quickly down the side of a
mountain.

Landslide of soil and regolith in Pakistan

A pyroclastic flow is caused by a collapsing cloud of hot ash, gas and rocks from a volcanic explosion that moves
rapidly down an erupting volcano.

Landslide prediction mapping

Landslide hazard analysis and mapping can provide useful information for catastrophic loss reduction, and assist in
the development of guidelines for sustainable land use planning. The analysis is used to identify the factors that are
related to landslides, estimate the relative contribution of factors causing slope failures, establish a relation between
the factors and landslides, and to predict the landslide hazard in the future based on such a relationship. The factors
that have been used for landslide hazard analysis can usually be grouped into geomorphology, geology, land use/land
cover, and hydrogeology. Since many factors are considered for landslide hazard mapping, GIS is an appropriate tool
because it has functions of collection, storage, manipulation, display, and analysis of large amounts of spatially
referenced data which can be handled fast and effectively. Remote sensing techniques are also highly employed for
landslide hazard assessment and analysis. Before and after aerial photographs and satellite imagery are used to gather
landslide characteristics, like distribution and classification, and factors like slope, lithology, and land use/land cover
to be used to help predict future events. Before and after imagery also helps to reveal how the landscape changed
after an event, what may have triggered the landslide, and shows the process of regeneration and recovery.
Using satellite imagery in combination with GIS and on-the-ground studies, it is possible to generate maps of likely
occurrences of future landslides. Such maps should show the locations of previous events as well as clearly indicate
the probable locations of future events. In general, to predict landslides, one must assume that their occurrence is
determined by certain geologic factors, and that future landslides will occur under the same conditions as past events.

Landslide

Therefore, it is necessary to establish a relationship between the geomorphologic conditions in which the past events
took place and the expected future conditions.
Natural disasters are a dramatic example of people living in conflict with the environment. Early predictions and
warnings are essential for the reduction of property damage and loss of life. Because landslides occur frequently and
can represent some of the most destructive forces on earth, it is imperative to have a good understanding as to what
causes them and how people can either help prevent them from occurring or simply avoid them when they do occur.
Sustainable land management and development is an essential key to reducing the negative impacts felt by
landslides.
GIS offers a superior method for landslide analysis because it allows one to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, and
display large amounts of data quickly and effectively. Because so many variables are involved, it is important to be
able to overlay the many layers of data to develop a full and accurate portrayal of what is taking place on the Earth's
surface. Researchers need to know which variables are the most important factors that trigger landslides in any given
location. Using GIS, extremely detailed maps can be generated to show past events and likely future events which
have the potential to save lives, property, and money.

Global landslide risks

Ferguson Slide on California State

Route 140 in June 2006

Trackside rock slide detector on the

UPRR Sierra grade near Colfax, CA

Prehistoric landslides
Landslide which moved Heart Mountain to its current location, the
largest ever discovered on land. In the 48 million years since the
slide occurred, erosion has removed most of the portion of the slide.
Flims Rockslide, ca. 12km3 (2.9cumi), Switzerland, some 10000
years ago in post-glacial Pleistocene/Holocene, the largest so far
described in the alps and on dry land that can be easily identified in
a modestly eroded state.[3]
The landslide around 200BC which formed Lake Waikaremoana on
the North Island of New Zealand, where a large block of the
Ngamoko Range slid and dammed a gorge of Waikaretaheke River,
forming a natural reservoir up to 248 metres deep.

Rhine cutting through Flims Rockslide debris,

Switzerland

Cheekye Fan, British Columbia, Canada, ca. 25km2 (9.7sqmi), Late Pleistocene in age.

Landslide

Prehistoric submarine landslides

The Storegga Slide, Norway, ca. 3,500km3 (840cumi), ca. 8,000 years ago, a catastrophic impact on the
contemporary coastal Mesolithic population
The Agulhas slide, ca. 20,000km3 (4,800cumi), off South Africa, post-Pliocene in age, the largest so far
described
The Ruatoria Debris Avalanche, off North Island New Zealand, ca. 3,000km in volume, 170,000 years ago.[4]
Catastrophic debris avalanches have been common on the submerged flanks of ocean island volcanos such as the
Hawaiian Islands and the Cape Verde Islands.

Historical landslides
Main article: List of landslides

The Goldau on September 2, 1806

The Cap Diamant Qubec rockslide on September 19, 1889
Frank Slide, Turtle Mountain, Alberta, Canada, on 29 April 1903
Khait landslide, Khait, Tajikistan, Soviet Union, on July 10, 1949

Monte Toc landslide (260 millions cubic metres) falling into the Vajont Dam basin in Italy, causing a
megatsunami and about 2000 deaths, on October 9, 1963
Hope Slide landslide (46 million cubic metres) near Hope, British Columbia on January 9, 1965.
The 1966 Aberfan disaster
Tuve landslide in Gothenburg, Sweden on November 30, 1977.
The 1979 Abbotsford landslip, Dunedin, New Zealand on August 8, 1979.
Val Pola landslide during Valtellina disaster (1987) Italy
Thredbo landslide, Australia on 30 July 1997, destroyed hostel.
Vargas mudslides, due to heavy rains in Vargas State, Venezuela, on December, 1999, causing tens of thousands
of deaths.
2007 Chittagong mudslide, in Chittagong, Bangladesh, on June 11, 2007.
2008 Cairo landslide on September 6, 2008.
The 2010 Uganda landslide caused over 100 deaths following heavy rain in Bududa region.
Zhouqu county mudslide in Gansu, China on August 8, 2010.
Devil's Slide, an ongoing landslide in San Mateo County, California
2011 Rio de Janeiro landslide in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on January 11, 2011, causing 610 deaths.

Landslide

Extraterrestrial landslides
Evidence of past landslides has been detected on many bodies in the
solar system, but since most observations are made by probes that only
observe for a limited time and most bodies in the solar system appear
to be geologically inactive not many landslides are known to have
happened in recent times. Both Venus and Mars have been subject to
long-term mapping by orbiting satellites, and examples of landslides
have been observed on both.

References
[1] Schuster, R.L. & Krizek, R.J. (1978). Landslides: Analysis and Control.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.
[2] Mitchell, N. (2003) Susceptibility of mid-ocean ridge volcanic islands and
seamounts to large scale landsliding. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, 1-23.
[3] Weitere Erkenntnisse und weitere Fragen zum Flimser Bergsturz (http:/ / www.
angewandte-geologie. ch/ Archiv/ Volumes/ vol112. htm) A.v. Poschinger,
Angewandte Geologie, Vol. 11/2, 2006

Before and after radar images of a landslide on

Venus. In the center of the image on the right, the
new landslide, a bright, flow-like area, can be
seen extending to the left of a bright fracture.
1990 image.

[4] The giant Ruatoria debris avalanche on the northern Hikurangi margin, New
Zealand: Result of oblique seamount subduction (http:/ / www. agu. org/ pubs/
crossref/ 2001/ 2001JB900004. shtml). Agu.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.

External links
United States Geological Survey site (http://landslides.usgs.gov/)
British Geological Survey landslides site (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/
landslides/)

Landslide in progress on Mars, 2008-02-19

British Geological Survey National Landslide Database (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/landslides/NLD.html)

European Soil Portal, Landslides (http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/LandSlides/)
British Columbia government landslide information (http://www.em.gov.bc.ca/Mining/Geolsurv/Surficial/
landslid/)
Slide! (http://www.knowledgenetwork.ca/slide/splash.html), a program on B.C.'s Knowledge Network, with
video clips
Pictures of Slope Failure (http://www.foundationengineering.info/photo_galleries/17/slopes/)
JTC1 Joint International Technical Committee on Natural Slopes and Landslides (http://www.webforum.com/
jtc1/)
Landslide blog written by Professor David Petley, Wilson Professor, Department of Geography, Durham
University, UK (http://blogs.agu.org/landslideblog/)
European Landslide Susceptibility Map (http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/Landslides/index.
html#ELSUS). This newly available raster map, called ELSUS1000, shows levels of spatial probability of
landslide occurrence in EU member states and neighbouring countries at 1 km resolution. The map has been
derived through spatial multicriteria evaluation based modelling using pan-European datasets on slope angle,
lithology, and land cover, along with over 100,000 landslide locations. It has been produced jointly by BGR, JRC,
CNRS-EOST and CNR-IRPI, and is freely available from the European Soil Portal together with a number of
ancillary spatial datasets.

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

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Akcentloveforeva, Alex.tan, Altamel, Amogeologiam, Anamica24x7, Anclation, Andonic, AndrewKeenanRichardson, Andycjp, AnonGuy, Antandrus, Argyriou, Asleep at the Wheel, Attilios,
Awickert, BD2412, Ballista, Basar, Baseballhedges, Bearcat, Becquerel, Benhen1997, Blanchardb, BlueCanoe, BlueSalo, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Bpmullins, Brian0918, Brianga, Bryan Derksen,
Bwinner13, Calliopejen1, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanOfWorms, Cannolis, Capricorn42, Carcharoth, CaribDigita, Caumasee, Celarnor, Centpacrr, Chenzw,
Chri$topher, Chris the speller, Chrislk02, Chupa verga, Closedmouth, Colonies Chris, Commander Keane, Cremepuff222, Cst17, Cstarknyc, Currymuncher2000, Cvlpennington, DARTH
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DoubleBlue, Dragonboy703, Droll, ESkog, Edcolins, Editore99, Edward, Egil, Elmergruon, Emijrp, Emperorbma, Epbr123, Eras-mus, Eric-Wester, Espoo, Etrigan, Excirial, Fastily,
Fatslicedude, Ferkelparade, Fgnievinski, Fieldday-sunday, Fossiliferous, Fraggle81, Fredbauder, FreplySpang, G310Luke, G310cody, GM Pink Elephant, Gareth Griffith-Jones,
GaryColemanFan, Geof, Geoffrey, Geopersona, Gfarrand, Gilgamesh, Glenn, Gnfnrf, Gogandantes34, Gonzalo84, Graham87, Grahamec, Grovemeister, Grubber, Grutness, Gursimrat Singh,
Gutworth, Guy M, Halaster, Harshit arora, Hayabusa future, Hellno2, HenryLi, Heqs, Hike395, Hmains, Hmrox, HolgerK, Hopeee1234567543543, Howcheng, Hu12, Hurricanehink, Hydrogen
Iodide, I Grave Rob, Ian mckenzie, Iflipninja, Imveracious, Ipoellet, Ishu ranghi, J.delanoy, JALockhart, JNW, JaGa, JamesBWatson, Jamyskis, Jarble, Jauerback, Jauhienij, Jcklees, Jedi ys, Jeff
G., Jefh, Jholman, Jianhui67, Jj137, Jmundo, Joe5009, Johnclow13, Jonkerz, Jonouser, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joyous!, Jstuby, Julius Sahara, Just James, Kam Solusar, Kingpin13, Kku,
Knulclunk, Kpjas, Ktr101, Kurtdouglas, Kwiki, Kyle1996, Landwikigirl, Latics, Laudak, LaurentianShield, Lee666, LeslieSt, Lethe, Levineps, Lifung, Lightmouse, Loissullivan, Looserheart,
Lord Pistachio, Lotje, Lou1986, Luna Santin, Lupin, MER-C, Mannerheim, Marcoseduardo, Mark Arsten, Martpol, Materialscientist, Maxis ftw, Mboverload, Mdhowe, Mean as custard,
Mentisock, Mercy11, Michael Hardy, Michael Snow, MikeLynch, Mikeewen101, Mikenorton, Moabdave, Mogism, Morleya05, Mr.glavin, MrBell, Mtmelendez, Muckapedia, Mukitil,
Mvanneste, N5iln, Namazu-tron, Narutolovehinata5, Nascar1996, Neitiznot, Neumeier, Nick C, Nick Levine, Nick Number, Not home, Nunquam Dormio, Ohnoitsjamie, Oikos-team,
OrenBochman, Originalwana, Oshwah, Ozzie425er, P s public, PBP, Paleorthid, Patrick, Penmachine, Pfly, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Possum, Prashanthns, Pretzelpaws,
Quuxplusone, RA0808, RL0919, Radhakrishnansk, Ragib, Ranger1524, RazorICE, Reaper Eternal, Reatlas, Recognizance, Resident Mario, Riana, Rjwilmsi, Rlsheehan, Robin.r, RobynRenee,
RockMagnetist, Roisterdoister, Rory096, Rror, RunOrDie, Ruodyssey, Rxnd, Ryguasu, Sahara4u, Saintdevil, Sasateam, SciCorrector, Sciwatcher, Shakeelgilgity, Shanes, Shaun, Shustov,
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File:LS-usgs.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LS-usgs.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: USGS
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Zimbres
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