THE PASSIVE ; MIDDLE FORMATION

THE PASSIVE
Complex linguistic phenomenon, which manifests itself at three levels of linguistic
analysis:
a) the morphological level the auxiliaries be and get and the past participle of the verb
b) the syntactic level a change in position and status of the active Subject and Object
c) the semantic level a change in the relation between the underlying role-structure of the
sentence and its organization. The agent (subject) no longer appears in the subject position in the
sentence, while the patient (the object) appears in subject position.
Stylistically speaking, the Passive makes the discourse more objective, what is important
is not the agent anymore, but the event denoted by the verb itself.
The Passive Morphology be + the past participle. Passive verbs behave like
unaccusative verbs. The external theta role of the verb that undergoes passivization is
absorbed by the passive morphology, namely the past participle of the verb. The verb is
generated from the Lexicon as passive, that is as an unaccusative that only has an internal
argument which has to move to [Spec, IP] in order to be assigned case and also to satisfy
the Extended Projection Principle. Being an unaccusative verb it does not theta-mark an
external argument so it cannot assign Accusative case. The internal argument moves to
[Spec, IP] and leaves behind a trace that forms a chain with the moved constituent <DP i ,
ti > The external argument of the original active verb can be recovered in the passive
sentence as a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition BY which assigns it the
theta role Agent as well as case or it can be implicit.
Eg. The professor was invited.
IP
DP

I
I0

VP

V0

VP

-ed

BE

V
V0
Invited

DP
the professor

Conditions on the Passive the adjacency constraint (the double object construction; the
dative verbs) (even with non-arguments of the verb)
Eg. (1) She gave a book to me. / A book was given to me. / *I was given a book to.
She gave me a book. / I was given a book. / *A book was given me.
(1)She wore her pullover thin.
Her pullover was worn thin.
(2)He shouted us into silence.
We were shouted into silence
- no reflexives and reciprocals (He watched himself. / *Himself was watched by him)
- no idiomatic IT ( This argument eats it. / *IT is eaten by this argument.)

The Domain of the Passive

Transitive verbs eg. The newcomer solved the puzzle.
The puzzle was solved by a new comer.
- the position of the Adverbials of manner
eg. He wrote the letter rapidly.
The letter was rapidly written.
NO Passive:
reciprocal verbs resemble, marry
eg. Music resembles poetry.
*Poetry is resembled by music
state verbs (verbs of possession) have, possess, own
eg. He owns a house.
*The house is owned by him.
Stative verbs (verbs of feelings) love, hate, loathe, abhor
Eg. He loves Mary.
*Mary is loved by him.
Reflexives
Eg. Mary admired herself in the mirror.
*Herself was admired by Mary in the mirror.
Ditransitive verbs ( change of possession, the Indirect Object is a beneficiary; both
objects may undergo Passivization )
Eg. He gave the flowers to Mary
The flowers were given to Mary.
Mary was given the flowers.
NO Passive
Ditransitives (no change of possession, the Indirect Object is not a beneficiary, but an
Experiencer)
Eg. He gave me a push,
I was given a push.
*A push was given to me.
Unergatives with a prepositional object
Eg. He insisted upon the invitation. / The invitation was insisted upon.
They talked about the movie. /The movie was talked about.
NO Passive
Intranstitives with quantifier phrases cost , weigh, stretch, last
Eg. The two tickets cost $100.
*$100 are cost by the tickets.
Relational intransitives belong to, pertain to,
Eg. The book belongs to me.
*I am belonged to by the book
Intransitives with Locative and directional Adverbial Phrases
Eg. The house stands by the hill.
*The hill is stood by the house
Inherently reflexive intransitive
Eg. He availed himself of the opportunity.
*Himself was availed of the opportunity.

 Intransitive with particle and preposition

Eg. They did away with that law.
That law was done away with.
Intransitives with two prepositional objects
Eg, talk to smb about smth; lecture; speak; apologize; appeal
They never spoke to her about her late husband.
She was never spoken to about her late husband.
Her late husband was never spoken about (in her presence).
Idiomatic phrases
Eg. Take strong exception to smth; make an example of smth; foist all ones problems on
smth; pin ones faith on smth; make too much of smth; keep close tabs on smth; take
advantage of smth.; etc
Eg. They made an example of his behaviour.
His behaviour was made an example of.
Some Prepositional Phrases showing location
They have sat on the chair.
That chair has been sat on.
NO Passives
Content phrases (with)
Eg. Teem with, swarm with, be crawling with, buzz with, drip with, ooze with, dace with
Eg. The town was dancing with light and shadow.
*Light and shadow were being danced with.
Fill a freezer with, load a truck with,
Eg. The filled the freezer with fish / The freezer was filled with fish.
*Fish were filled the freezer with by them,
The Get Passive
. more dynamic, may have a detrimental meaning, may imply that the Agent has some
responsibility for a detrimental action
eg. His leg got broken.
How did the window get open?
- focuses on the event and on its effects on the Theme/Patient
- the implied agent has full control over the action denoted by the verb
(*He got killed with great care. / He got shot he did something because he
wanted to get shot)
- it involves the speakers attitude, his emotional involvement
Eg. He got caught, the silly fool!
- it is associated with more punctual events.
Eg. He got arrested.
Middles
Eg. The poem reads easily. / Tennis balls sell best in summer. / The play reads better than it acts./
This fabric washes easily. / Cotton shirts iron well. / These figures add easily.
Properties of the English Middles

 they are one argument verbs, the agent is not overt in the sentence. It may be understood
as one or people in general, although it may be specific at times.
Eg. The car handles smoothly when John drives it.
Unaccusatives do not have an external argument, not even an implicit one, so they can
co-occur with all by itself, in the sense that something happens without external aid,
agentlessly, unlike middles.
Eg. The boat sank all by itself.
*The play acts well all by itself.
The meaning contribution of the subject of a middle sentence is different from the
meaning contribution of the subject in a passive sentence, as the theta roles assigned to
the subjects of a middle sentence are very different.
Eg. The book reads easily. [Theme]
Children scare easily. [Experiencer]
The truck loads easily. [Location]
Eg. The book reads easily. (It can be paraphrased as the book has the necessary properties that
allow it to read easily. Somehow the subject is responsible for the action denoted by the verb.)
The book was easily read.
In an unaccusative sentence the subject cannot be interpreted as responsible because it refers to a
concrete entity.
Eg. The door opens with difficulty.
So, the subject of a middle sentence is an entity, a non-Agent which is responsible for the action
denoted by the verb, in the sense that it has the necessary properties which make the situation
denoted by the verb possible.
Middles are generic sentences that do not describe particular events in time. They are
seen as stative, atelic predicates, like individual level predicates. They are compatible
with always and incompatible with the progressive. When they occur in the progressive
they denote a change between successive stages. They do not occur in the imperative.
Eg. This book always reads easily.
The manuscript is reading better and better.
*Handle smoothly, car!
Middles generally occur with obligatory modifications. It can be a Manner Adverbial, a
Locative Adverbial, a clausal modifier (non-purpose), a negative operator or an overt
modal verb. The role of the modifier is to stativize the predicate.
Eg. This book translates easily. (Manner)
Make sure the address reads through window. (Place)
Officials bribe before reaching high office. (Adverbial clause of time)
This text does not translate. (Negation)
This text will not translate. (overt modal and negation)
Agent oriented adverbs are not allowed in middle sentences.

Eg. *Officials bribe evidently.

Middle Formation
Only transitive verbs that have an affected argument enter Middle Formation. Effected
objects cannot occur in a middle sentence
Eg. *A dress makes easily.
Only activities and accomplishments occur in middle sentences, stative verbs and
achievements do not allow middle formation.
Eg. The car drives well.
The book reads easily.
*The answer knows easily.
*Such mistakes notice fast.
Only causatives that have an Instrument/Manner component enter middle formation
Eg. Bread cuts easily.
Syntax
(Stroik)
This fabric washes well.
IP
DP

I
I0

VP

T
-s

PP
By PRO
V
AvP
easily

V
V0
Wash

DP
the fabric