1.

Introduction

A turbo generator is a precision piece of equipment designed to operate in conjunction with a turbine in a
modern plant with minimum manual control to generate power.
Alternator is a rotating electrical machine which converts the mechanical energy of the prime mover into
the electrical energy in the form of alternating voltage, current and power. This is the common method for
generating electrical power because it is easy to generate, transmit and utilise the AC electrical energy.
Generator is the prime source of power which caters to the varied power requirements of industry,
commercial establishment, domestic consumption, agriculture etc.
A generator can be viewed to comprise primarily of the following
(i) A stationary stator
(ii) A rotating rotor
The stator has winding called the stator winding through which the generated AC power is delivered, which
is distributed as per the requirement through a transmission & distribution network.
The rotor also has rotor winding which is used to excite the stator through a D.C source.
The D.C excitation to the rotor winding is provided by another equipment called the exciter. The exciter
provides the DC to the winding by rectifying A.C to D.C through a rectifier bridge. The A.C is taken from a
suitable reliable source as per the type of the exciter used.
Flow of current generates heat in the winding of the generator. Prolonged use may lead to the
deterioration of the thermal characteristics of the generator & may even lead to insulation failure. To
obtain optimum efficiency, proper cooling and lubrication system is used to dissipate the heat generated in
the winding.
The capital cost of the generator being very high it is necessary to safeguard it against any possible faults
either within the generator or in the system. Hence protective relays are employed to detect various
abnormal conditions & isolating the generator from the fault.
Therefore a generator can be studied by understanding :
i) Stator
ii) Rotor
iii) Exciter
iv) Cooling & Lubrication
v) Protection
The topics are dealt with in detail in the subsequent chapters.
1.1

Definitions :

Rating - The rating of an electrical machine is a statement of the operating limitations assigned to it by
the maker, and comprises output, voltage, current, frequency, power factor etc., as marked on the name
plate .
Continuous Rating - The rating corresponding to the load which can be sustained continuously when all
the appropriate requirements of these specifications are satisfied.
Short Time Rating - The rating corresponding to the load which can be sustained for a specific time
when all the appropriate requirements of these specifications are satisfied.
Rated Output -

a.
b.
c.

For D.C generators it is expressed in watt, kilowatt or megawatt.

For A.C generators the apparent electric power at the terminals is
expressed in volt-ampere, kilovolt-ampere or mega volt-ampere.
For motors the mechanical power available at the shaft, expressed in
watt, kilowatt or megawatt.

Duty - The schedule of the loads on a machine taking account of their duration and sequence .
Periodic Duty - Operation in a series of identical cycles, each composed of a product of operation at
rated load followed by a rest period during which the machine is completely stopped. The periods are
insufficient for thermal equilibrium to be attained.
Continuous Duty with Intermittent Load (CIR ) - Operation in a series of identical cycles , each
composed of a period of operation at no load followed by a period of operation at load . The periods are
insufficient for thermal equilibrium to be attained.
Ratings - Four classes are recognised:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Continuous rating
Short time rating : Standard periods for this class of rating are 10, 30
60, 90 minutes.
Rating for periodic duty : Standard values of load factor are 15,25,
40,60 % .
Rating for CIR : Standard values of load factor are 25, 40,60 %.

Load Factor - The ratio of time of operation at rated load to the duration of cycle.
1.2

Basic Principle of a Generator :

If a single turn rectangular copper coil is rotated about its own axis in a magnetic field, provided either by
permanent magnets or electromagnet, then voltage induced in the coil can convey current to the external
load.
Voltage generated is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and the speed of rotation.
1.3

Working :

Imagine the coil is rotated in clockwise direction as shown in fig. 1. As the coil assumes successive
positions in the magnetic field ,the flux linked with it changes. Hence an EMF is induced in it which is
proportional to the rate of change flux linkages.
When the plane of the coil is at right angles to the lines of flux, then the flux linked with the coil is
maximum but the rate of change of flux linkages is minimum.
Similarly, when the plane of the coil is parallel to the lines of flux ,then the flux linked with the coil is
minimum but the rate of change of flux linkages is maximum.

Fig. 1 Basic Principle

Hence, by continuous rotation of the coil, the current which is obtained from a simple generator reverses
its direction after every half revolution. Such a current undergoing periodical reversals is known as
alternating current.
The stator consists of a cast iron frame, which supports the armature core, having slots on its inner
periphery for housing the armature conductors. The rotor is like a flywheel having alternate N and S poles
fixed to its outer rim. The magnetic poles are excited from direct current supplied by a D.C source.
The A.C Generators or alternators can be differentiated from D.C generators in terms of construction as
well as operation. In D.C generators , the armature rotates and the field system is stationary whereas in
A.C generators the arrangement is reverse. The armature winding in alternators is mounted on a
stationary element called Stator and the field windings on a rotating element called Rotor.
1.4

Terminology :

Active Power (kW) - It is that component of power which has an average value of VI cosf . It is the
useful power being transmitted. It is measured in kW.
Reactive Power (kVAR) -It is that component of power which has an average value of zero. This power
travels back & forth on line without doing any useful work. It is measured in kVAR.
Apparent Power (kVA) - It is the product of rms voltage & current. It is measured in kVA.
kVA2 = kW2 + kVAR2
kVA = (kW2 + kVAR2)

Power factor (cos ) - It is cosine of angle between voltage and current phasor . It can also be defined
as
P.F.= ACTIVE POWER / APPARENT POWER
Load angle () - The angle between rotor magnetic field axis and stator magnetic field axis of a
synchronous machine is called load angle .In an inter connected system power flows from machine which
has higher load angle to a machine which has lower load angle.
Magnetic flux () -Streamlines or flow lines in a magnetic field are known as lines of magnetic flux,
denoted by symbol F .Its unit is Weber.
Reluctance - It is component of magnetic impedance analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit
except that reluctance is not an energy loss component.

Air gap - The separation between the rotor and stator is called air gap . In machine the air gap varies as
the distance between the stator and the rotor cylindrical machines it is constant whereas in salient pole is
not constant due to the salient or protruding poles.
Synchronous Reactance( XS ) - This is steady state reactance used in analysis of machine with
cylindrical rotor. It is equal to the sum of a mutual reactance term based upon the fundamental flux
produced by balanced polyphase winding and the leakage reactance.
Transient Reactance ( X ) - Reactance during transient condition due to change in flux path caused by
induced current in main field winding.
Sub-Transient Reactance ( X ) - Reactance during the transient condition due to change in flux path
caused by induced currents in damper windings.
Positive Sequence Reactance - The reactance based on condition that main field and armature
magnetic field are rotating in synchronism and in same direction. All the above-described reactance are
positive sequence reactance.
Negative Sequence Reactance - The reactance calculated or measured for condition when main field
and armature magnetic field are rotating in opposite directions.
Direct Axis - The axis along the main field magnetic axis is called direct axis.
Quadrature Axis - The axis perpendicular to the main field magnetic axis is called quadrature axis.
Armature Reaction - The current in armature conductors produces MMF, which has same number of
poles as the field structure and rotates at synchronous speed. This MMF may add or subtract from field
MMF depending upon angular displacement from pole axis. This reaction is called armature reaction.
Corona Loss - The over voltage occurring at a phase conductor or shield wire establishes an extremely
high voltage gradient perpendicular to the conductor . This gradient when exceeds air breakdown voltage
gradient level , generates electric discharge which electrifies air surrounding conductor. This phenomenon
is known as corona.
1.5

Standard Specifications :

The following are the recommendations made by International Electrotechnical Commission (Publication
34-3) for a 3000 rpm, 3 phase, 50 Hz. Air cooled generators:
Output - Rated output of air cooled generators shall be as given in the table below.
MW

10

12

16

25

40

50

MVA

12.5

15

20

31.25

50

62.5

Power Factor - The rated power factor at the generator terminals shall be 0.8 lagging.
Voltage - The manufacturer shall assign a rated voltage.
Voltage Range - The voltage range at the generator terminals shall be 5% of the rated voltage
assigned by the manufacturer .
Speed - For 50 Hz. Machines, the speed shall be 3000 rpm. .
Short Circuit Ratio

- The short circuit at rated MVA and at rated voltage shall be 0.55. The permitted tolerance is 0.05.
Sub-transient Reactance - Sub-transient reactance as proved by a sudden three phase short circuit test
at rated voltage at no load at the generator terminals , shall have a maximum value of 10 percent.
Stator Winding - The stator windings shall be arranged for star connection with all six terminals brought
out of the generator .
Generator insulation - Class B insulation to shall be used.
Temperature Rise - Limits of temperature rise shall be in accordance with I.E.C. Publication 34-1.
Cooling air temperature - The generators shall be suitable for a maximum cooling-air temperature of
40 C, measured at the inlet to the machine.
Excitation voltage - The manufacturer shall declare the excitation voltage at the slip rings at rated MVA
and power factor.
Generator Cooling - The system of ventilation shall be closed air circuit system.
Over-speed - Generator rotors shall be tested at 20% overspeed for 2 minutes.
Main exciter - The rated current shall be 110 % of the excitation current at the rated output of the
generator.
Exciter insulation - Exciter insulation may either be class A or class B.
The modern day generators are supplied with superior class F insulation, an improvement over the class B
insulation as prescribed by I.E.C.(Refer item 9).

2.0

Theory

Generators, motors form a part of an electro-mechanical energy network. They convert one form of
energy to another as governed by some laws. A generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
as defined by Faraday?s law of induction.
2.1

Faraday's Law of Induction :

According to Faraday's law, in any closed linear path in space, when the magnetic flux surrounded by the
path, varies with time, a voltage is induced around the path equal to the negative of rate of change of flux
in Webers/sec.
V = - d / dT volts.
where,
V - EMF in volts & - Flux in webers
-ve sign denotes that the direction of induced voltage is such as to produce a current opposing the flux.
If the coil contains ?N? turns, then the equation can be written as
V = -N(d/dt) volts (phase to phase)
The essentials for the production of the electromotive force (EMF.) hence, are a relative motion between
the flux and the coil. This may be achieved in three ways.

i.
ii.
iii.

Supposing the flux constant ; the coil may move through it.
Supposing the coil stationary with respect to the flux ; the flux may
vary in magnitude.
Both changes may occur together ; the coil may move through a time
varying flux.

A generator achieves the relative motion by providing a rotating, rotor mounted field against the
stationary armature coils.
When a DC field current If flows in the rotor field winding, a MMF (magneto motive force) is set up which
causes the formation of a rotor based field flux. In a salient - pole generator the pole faces are tapered,
resulting in a maximum flux density along the ?d? axis diminishing to zero in the ?q? direction. By proper
tapering one creates, in actuality, a sinusoidal flux distribution along the air gap periphery.
In case of a turbogenerator the magnetic flux distribution has a staircase look, where each step is due to
added MMF contributed by the field current in the discrete rotor slots. However the fundamental sinusoidal
space wave is dominating over the harmonics.
If the rotor spins at a constant synchronous speed, the stator conductors will experience a travelling "flux
wave".
When a magnetic flux of density ?B? cuts a perpendicular conductor at a relative speed ?s? an ?EMF?
(electromotive force) is induced in the conductor, the instantaneous magnitude ?E? of which follows the
formula
E = B.s V/m
where,
B = magnetic flux in Tesla
S = relative speed in metres/sec.
As the flux distribution is assumed sinusoidal so will be the EMF distribution. The stator will thus
experience an "EMF wave" or " E wave" of the same speed as the flux wave.
The two waves consist of P/2 full cycles around the full periphery. Thus if the rotor speed is ?n? rev./min.,
each stator conductor will experience an AC EMF of frequency
= (P / 2) . (n / 60)= (P. n / 120) Hz
where,
P = no. of poles and n = speed
For e.g. a two-pole machine, when rotating at 3000 rev./min. will generate a 50 Hz EMF. When the rotor
turns one mechanical degree, the stator EMF completes P/2 electrical degrees. In a two-pole machine
electrical & mechanical degrees are identical. Due to their winding locations the EMFs' induced in phase b
& c will lag that in phase a by 120 & 240 electrical degrees respectively.
The generated EMFs?, thus, will constitute a symmetrical three-phase set.
2.2

Efficiency & Losses in a Generator :

It is more accurate to determine the efficiency of a generator by determination of its losses rather than by
direct load test in which the input & output are required to be measured. In large & medium size
machines, it is not practically possible to arrange for the actual loading of the machine. Once the losses
have been determined, the machine efficiency can be determined as :

 = Output / (O/P + losses)

The study of losses is essential for design purposes because
a.

Losses directly influence the economy of operation of the machine.

b.

The rating of the machine depends on the maximum temperature that

the insulation can withstand, which in turn is dictated by the heat
developed in the core & conductors by the losses.

Constant losses : A machine is normally designed to run at constant

voltage & at a substantially constant speed. As a result some of the
losses remain nearly constant in the working range of the machine &
are therefore named constant losses. The constant losses can be
further classified as:

No load core(Iron) losses : This loss consists of hysteresis & eddy

current loss caused by changing flux densities in the iron core of the
machine when only the main winding is excited. The core loss is
largely confined to the armature of a synchronous machine. Additional
hysteresis & eddy current loss called pulsation loss also occurs on
account of high-frequency flux density variations caused by slotting of
the stator/rotor or both.

Mechanical losses : This comprises brush friction, bearing friction,

windage & ventilation system losses. Mechanical losses may be
relatively large in a machine of large diameter & high speed. The no
load core losses & mechanical loss together are together represented
as no load rotational losses.

Variable Losses : These losses vary with the loads supplied by the
machine and hence called variable losses. They can be further
classified as

Copper losses (I2R) : All windings have some resistance & hence
there are copper losses associated with current flow in them. The
copper losses can again be sub-divided into stator copper loss, rotor
copper loss & brush contact loss. The stator & the rotor copper losses
are proportional to the current squared & are computed with DC
resistance of the winding at 75oC.

Stray load loss : Apart from the variable losses, there are some
additional losses that vary with load but cannot be related to current in
simple manner. These losses are known as stray load losses & occur
both in the winding & the core.
Copper stray loss occurs in the conductors due to due to non-uniform
distribution of alternating currents, which increase the effective
resistance of the conductors, & is known as skin effect.

Core stray load loss : Due to the flow of load current in a machine,
the flux pattern in teeth & core gets distorted. The flux density
decreases at one end of the flux density wave & increases at the other
& as a consequence there is a net increase in the core loss,
predominantly in the teeth, known as stray load loss in the core.
The stray-load loss is difficult to calculate accurately & therefore it is
taken as 1% of the output for a DC machine and 0.5 % of the output
for both synchronous and induction machine.

2.3

Open Circuit Characteristics :

The open circuit characteristic of a generator is the relation between

the field excitation (If) and the EMF developed (E) when the machine is
driven at rated speed with its terminals on open circuit (Refer fig. 2).
The machine is run mechanically at synchronous speed to generate
voltage at the rated frequency, while the armature terminals are open
circuited . The readings of the open circuit line-to-line armature
voltage are taken for various values of If, the rotor field current. I f is
representative of the net MMF/pole acting on the magnetic circuit of
the machine. These data are plotted as OCC & is the magnetization
characteristic, i.e. & the relation between the space fundamental
component of the air gap flux & the net MMF/pole acting on the
magnetic circuit.
The OCC exhibits the saturation phenomenon of the iron in machine.
At low value of If, when iron is in the unsaturated state, the OCC is
almost linear & the MMF applied is mainly consumed in establishing
flux in the air gap, the reluctance of the iron path being almost
negligible. The straight line part of the OCC is called the air gap line &
would indeed be the OCC if iron did not get saturated.
The open circuit test conducted at rated voltage gives the constant
loss of the synchronous machine comprising no load core loss &
mechanical loss due to windage & friction. The power corresponding to
these losses is drawn from the prime mover running the machine.
Running the machine at synchronous speed under an unexcited state
easily carries out their separation into the two components.
2.4

Short Circuit Characteristics :

The short circuit characteristic of a generator is the relation between

the field excitation (If) and armature current (I) when the machine is
running at the rated speed with its terminals short-circuited (Refer fig.
2). While the rotor is run at synchronous speed, the rotor field is kept
unexcited to begin with. The field excitation is then gradually increased
till the armature current equals about 150% of its rated value. Under
the short circuit conditions with the armature current as high as 150%
of the rated value, the machine is operating under the unsaturated
magnetization condition so that the SCC (ISC Vs If ) is linear & therefore
only one short circuit reading is necessary for complete determination
of SCC.
Since under the short circuit condition the machine is highly
underexcited, the losses as drawn in from the mechanical shaft drive
comprise mechanical loss & copper loss in the resistance of the
armature, the iron loss being negligible.

Field Current

Fig. 2 OCC & SCC

2.5

Concept of Synchronous Reactance :

In describing the behaviour of synchronous machines it is necessary to

take due account of the effects produced by the currents flowing in the
armature windings. The rotating armature MMF produces a set of
revolving MMF poles rotating at synchronous speed. This is referred to
as armature reaction. The armature reaction produces, what is
referred to as, an armature reaction flux. This flux induces a voltage
(Ea) which is placed 90 0 behind the armature reaction flux. Hence the
armature flux voltage is replaced by a reaction drop that involves the
armature current. This is termed as armature reaction reactance. ( X a).
Ea = -j Ia * Xa
where,
Ea = EMF due to armature reaction
Ia = Armature current
Xa = Armature reaction reactance
When the synchronous generator operates at a field current F the
associated excitation voltage must contain a component equal &
opposite to that specified by the equation.
Thus the complete phasor diagram of the effect of armature MMF
treated in terms of its equivalent reactance drop can be developed.
The armature leakage reactance( XL) drop can also be added to give a
resultant voltage.
The leakage reactance drop & the armature reaction reactance drop
add along the same line, both being perpendicular to armature
current. The two quantities are added algebraically, which leads to a
total reactance called the synchronous reactance (XS)
XS = XA + XL
Where,

XL = Leakage reactance
XA = Armature reaction reactance
Synchronous reactance is a fictitious quantity that replaces the effect
of the armature winding leakage flux and the armature winding
rotating MMF.
The synchronous reactance can be obtained from the OCC & SCC as
XS = E 1 / I 1
where,
E1 = Open circuit voltage
I1 = Short circuit current
It is defined as the ratio of the open circuit voltage to the short circuit
current at a constant field current.
2.6

Generator on Load :

As the load on the generator is increased the terminal voltage varies

because of the following reasons
i) Voltage drop due to armature resistance (Ra)
ii) Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance (Xl)
iii) Voltage drop due to armature reaction.
2.6.1

Armature Resistance :

The armature resistance Ra causes a voltage drop which is in phase

with the armature current I . This voltage drop is negligible.
2.6.2

Armature Leakage Reactance :

The flux due to armature current that does not cross the air gap but
takes different paths is called leakage flux. The leakage flux sets up an
EMF of self-inductance which is known as reactance EMF and which is
ahead of I by 90 degrees. Hence, armature winding is assumed to
possess leakage reactance Xl . Thus a part of generated EMF is used
up in overcoming this reactance EMF.
2.6.3

Armature Reaction :

The armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field
flux. In the case of alternators, the power factor of the load has
considerable effect on the armature reaction. The following are the
characteristics of the armature MMF
i) The armature MMF remains constant with time.
ii) It is 90 space degrees behind the main field MMF, so that it is only
distortional in nature.

iii) It rotates synchronously round the armature the armature i.e. the
stator.
The effect of armature reaction due to different power factor loading is
as follows:
a) Unity Power Factor :
In this case the armature flux is cross-magnetizing in nature. The
result is that flux at the leading tips of poles is reduced while it is
increased at the trailing tips . The armature reaction for unity power
factor is distortional in nature.
b) Zero Power Factor Lagging :
For a lagging load of zero p.f., all currents would be delayed in time
900 with respect to the poles. Armature MMF would demagnetise the
poles & is in direct opposition to the main flux. Hence the main flux is
decreased and less EMF is generated. To keep the value of generated
EMF the same, field excitation will have to be increased to compensate
for this weakening.
c) Zero power factor leading :
For leading loads of zero p.f., the armature MMF is advanced 90 0 with
respect to the poles & the armature flux aids the main flux. Thus the
armature reaction is magnetising in nature, which results in greater
induced EMF. To keep the value of generated EMF constant, field
excitation will have to be reduced.
The phasor diagrams of the generator for different power factor loads
are drawn below :

Fig. 3 - Unity p.f.

Fig. 4 -Lagging p.f.

Fig. 5 - Leading p.f.

where,
E0 = No load voltage
XL = Leakage reactance
E = Voltage on load
Xs = Synchronous reactance
Ra = Armature resistance
Zs = Synchronous impedance
Xa = Armature reactance
V = Terminal voltage
2.7

Voltage Regulation of Generators :

When the load on the generator is changed, there is a change in the

terminal voltage as well. The magnitude of this change depends not
only on the load but also on the load power factor.
Voltage regulation is defined as the rise of voltage , expressed in
percent of rated voltage, when the load on the generator is reduced to
zero, the field excitation and the frequency remaining constant.
% Regulation = (Eo - V) / V 100
2.8

Synchronous Impedance & % Regulation :

(Calculation of Synchronous Impedance & % Regulation from OCC &

SCC )
The Open circuit & Short circuit characteristics of the generator are
plotted on a graph as shown in the figure. Both these curves are drawn
on the common field base.
Consider a field current ?I ? . The open circuit voltage corresponding
to this field current is E1( Refer Fig. 2). Under short circuit conditions it
may be assumed that the whole of this voltage E1 is being used to
circulate the armature short circuit current I1 against the synchronous
impedance Zs.
E1 = I1 Zs Zs = E1 / I1
Hence synchronous impedance can be defined as the ratio of the open
circuit voltage to the short circuit current for a certain field excitation
current.

Xs = (Zs

RA2 )1/2

where,
XS = Synchronous reactance
ZS = Synchronous impedance
RA = Armature resistance
The value of ?Ra? is known. Considering the following phasor diagram

Fig. 6 Phasor Diagram of a Generator

E

= OB2 + BD2
Eo = [(V cos + I Ra)2 + (V sin + I Xs)2 ]1/2

Substituting the value of ?Eo? in the equation the value of % Reg. is

derived
% Regulation = [(E V) V 100
where,
EO = No load voltage
V = Voltage at load
2.8.1

Direct and Quadrature Axis Reactance :

In contrast to the cylindrical pole synchronous, which has a uniform air

gap, the salient pole machine has a highly non-uniform air gap
because of use of a protruding pole structure.
A flux path that includes two protruding poles has two small gaps to
cross .This path is called the direct axis(d-axis). It is the path of

minimum reluctance. On the other hand the path that involves two
large air gaps and is the path of maximum reluctance. This is called
the quadrature axis(q-axis) .
Two MMF ?s act on the d-axis of a salient poles synchronous machine,
i.e. field MMF and armature (stator) MMF whereas only one MMF acts
on the q-axis, i.e. armature MMF. Field MMF has no component on the
q-axis. The above facts form the basis of the two reaction theory
proposed by Blondel according to which :
a.

Armature current Ia can be resolved into two components,

i.e. Id perpendicular to Eo and Iq along Eo (Excitation
voltage).
Armature reactance has two components, i.e. d-axis armature
reactance; Xad associated with Id and q-axis armature
reactance linked with Iq.

b.

Since reluctance on the q-axis is higher, owing to the larger air gap ,
hence
Xd > Xq.
2.9

Generator Stability :

The load on system may change gradually or suddenly. Sudden

changes in load may be due to quick switching operations or sudden
faults, followed by tripping of line and the load . The study of whether
or not the system will behave well and continue to supply load and
keep the various synchronous machines in step under various
conditions is known as System stability. There are two kinds of system
stability:
a) Steady state stability
b) Transient stability
2. 9.1

Steady State Stability :

The steady state stability limit of a generator is defined as the

maximum power that can be transmitted for a change in load which
occurs slowly enough to allow for a similar change in excitation to
bring the terminal voltage back to normal.
The steady state stability characteristics of the generator are
important from the point of view of design. Short circuit ratio (SCR) of
a synchronous generator is defined as follows:
SCR = Excitation for normal voltage on open circuit saturation
Excitation for full load current on short circuit
2.9.1.1

Significance of SCR :

Short circuit ratio is used as a measure of generator stability.

The stator phase voltage is proportional to the product of the effective
gap flux m & the turns per phase N1. A large flux requires a bigger
core area but less conductor material. By contrast, with more turns a
smaller core area is needed but the conductors must be deeper & have
more correctional area. A fundamental limit is the MMF rating of the

rotor. Part of rotor MMF opposes stator MMF; part provides the gap flux
magnetisation. With fewer stator turns, stator MMF is reduced & the
gap length may be extended: with more stator turns the gap length
must be reduced, & for a given load the load angle is greater & the
machine is less ?stiff? & therefore less stable. The relative flux/turns
proportionality is embodied in the short circuit ratio.
2.9.1.2

Effect of SCR on Machine Performance :

a) Voltage Regulation :
A low value of SCR means that the synchronous reactance has a very
large value. Synchronous machines with low value of SCR thus have
greater changes in voltage under fluctuation of load i.e. the inherent
regulation of the machine is poor.
b) Stability
A machine with low value of SCR (and thus high value of Xd) has a
lower stability limit as the maximum power output of the machine is
inversely proportional to Xd.
c) Parallel Operation
Machines with low value of SCR are also difficult to operate in parallel
because a high value of Xd gives a small synchronising power. This
power is responsible for keeping the machine in synchronism. The
parallel operation of machines with high value of Xd becomes more
difficult if they are interconnected through a transmission line. This is
because the impedance of the line between the generators adds
directly to the sum of the impedances of the machine. This increase in
impedances acts to reduce the synchronising power so that they are
weakly held in synchronism. They become more sensitive to torque &
voltage disturbances.
d) Short Circuit Current
A small value of SCR indicates a smaller value of current under short
circuit conditions owing to large value of synchronous reactance. But
this is not a problem because the short circuit currents can be limited
& thus the synchronous generators need not be designed with low
values of SCR.
e) Self Excitation
Machines feeding long transmission lines should not be designed with a
small SCR as this would lead to large voltages on open circuit
produced by self excitation owing to large capacitive currents drawn by
the transmission line.
Modern turbo-generators normally have a SCR between 0.5 & 0.6, but
this must be raised to 1.0-1.5 if the loading is likely to be capacitive.
The range 1.0-1.5 is also common for low speed generators.
2.9.2

Transient Stability

The factors which affect the transient performance of synchronous

machines are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Occurrence, type and location of short circuits.

Response of the system to sudden changes in current and
voltage.
Speed of circuit breakers and relays.
Response of excitation systems and governors of synchronous
machines.

Under transient conditions, there is a tendency for synchronous

machine to swing or oscillate around the relative angular
displacement.
2.10
Synchronous
Reactance

High-speed

Typical Values of Reactances (In Per Unit) :

Lowspeed

Synchronous
HydroTurbine
capacitors Generators Generator

Xd

0.80

1.10

1.60

1.00

1.15

Xq

0.65

0.80

1.00

0.65

1.00

Xd?

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.30

0.15

Xd??

0.18

0.20

0.25

0.20

0.10

0.19

0.35

0.25

0.20

0.13

X0

0.05

0.07

0.08

0.07

0.04

Where,
Xd = Direct axis reactance
Xq =Quadrature axis reactance
Xd?= Direct axis transient reactance
Xd??= Direct axis sub-transient reactance
X = Reactance
X0 = Zero sequence reactance

3.0

Construction

An alternating current generator consists principally of a magnetic circuit, DC field winding and mechanical
structure, including cooling & lubricating system.
Broadly the alternator parts can be classified as
i) Stationary part - comprising the stator & stator winding.
ii) Rotating part - comprising the rotor , rotor winding & rotor fan.
Main parts of a generator are described below
3.1

Stator Frame :

The stator frame with core & stator winding is the heaviest component of the entire generator. The stator
frame is used for holding the armature stampings and windings in position. It is built up of steel plates,
which are electrically welded together, instead of the more expensive cast-steel frames formerly used.
Ventilating ducts are provided in the radial ribs for passage of cooling medium. The stator end covers are
attached to the end flanges of the stator frame & also rest on foundation frame. The end covers are
aluminium alloy castings.
The armature core is made up of sheet-steel punching about 0.014 in. thick which are rigidly keyed to the
frame. The core is laminated to minimise loss due to eddy currents. The laminations are stamped out in
complete rings(for smaller machines)or in segments (for larger machines).The laminations are insulated
from each other & have spaces between them for allowing the cooling air to pass through. The slots for
housing the armature conductors lie along the inner periphery of the core & are stamped out at the same
time when laminations are formed.
3.2

Stator Core :

The stator core is stacked from insulated electrical sheet steel lamination with a low loss index and
suspended in the stator frame from insulated dove tailed guide bars. Axial compression of the stator core
is obtained by clamping fingers, clamping plates, and non magnetic through type clamping bolts, which
are insulated from the core . The clamping fingers ensure a uniform clamping pressure, especially within
the range of the teeth, and provide for uniform , intensive cooling of the stator core ends.
In order to minimise hysteresis and eddy current losses of the rotating magnetic flux, which interacts with
the core, the entire core is built up of thin laminations. Each lamination is made up from a number of
individual segments. The segments are punched in one operation from electrical sheet steel lamination
having a high silicon content and then carefully de-burred. The stator frame is turned on end while the
core is stacked with lamination segments in individual layers . The segments are staggered from layer to
layer so that a core of high mechanical rigidity and uniform permeability to magnetic flux is obtained. On
the outer circumference, the segments are stacked on insulated trapezoidal guide bars which hold them in
position. One of the guide bar is not insulated to provide for grounding of the laminated core. Stacking
guides inserted into the winding slots during stacking provide smooth slot walls.
To obtain the optimum compression and eliminate under-setting during operation, the laminations are
hydraulically compressed and heated during the stacking when certain heights of stacks are reached. The
complete stack is kept under pressure and located in the frame by means of camping bolts and camping
plates.
The clamping bolts running through the core are made of non-magnetic steel and are insulated from the
core and the clamping plates to prevent the clamping bolts from short circuiting the laminations and
allowing the flow of eddy currents. The pressure is transmitted from the clamping plates to the core by
clamping finger. The clamping fingers extend to the ends of the teeth, thus ensuring a firm compression in
the area of the teeth. The stepped arrangement of the lamination at the core ends provide for an efficient
support of the tooth portion and , in , addition contributes to a reduction of eddy current losses and local
heating in the area. The clamping fingers are made of nonmagnetic steel to reduce eddy current losses.
To remove the heat, spacer segments placed at intervals along the core length divide the core into various
sections to provide radial passages wide enough for the cooling air to flow. In the core end portion the
cooling air ducts are spaced more closely to take care of he higher losses and to ensure more intensive
cooling of the narrow core section.

Fig. 1

Stator Core in Stator Frame

3.3

Stator Winding :

The stator winding or the armature winding in generators have open circuit winding unlike DC machines
which have closed circuit winding. There is no closed path for the armature current in the winding itself.
One end of the winding is joined to the neutral point & the other end is brought out(for a star connected
armature).Each conductor consists of large number of separately insulated strands to reduce the skin
effect losses. The high voltage insulation is provided with thermosetting system to prevent corona
discharge. A coat of conducting varnish is applied to the surface of all the Bars. A final wrapping of glass
fabric impregnated with epoxy resin serves as surface protection. The output leads consist of flat mica
insulation. The output leads are brought out through insulating plates to prevent eddy current losses &
unwanted temperature rise.
The beginnings & ends of the three phase windings are solidly bolted to the output leads with flexibles.
There are two types of armature windings most commonly used for a three phase generator.
i)Single layer winding.
ii) Double layer winding.

Fig. 2
3.3.1

Stator Winding

Conductors Construction :

Each bar consists of a large number of separately insulated strands to reduce the skin effect losses. In the
straight slot portion the strands are transposed by 360` .The transposition provides for a mutual
neutralisation of the voltage induced in the individual strands due to the slot cross filled and ensures that
no or only small circulating current exists in the bra interior. The current flowing through the bar is thus
uniformly distributed over the entire cross section and losses will be reduced.
3.3.2

Insulation of Bars :

The high voltage insulation is provided ,with thermosetting system. This system is void free and has
excellent electrical ,mechanical and thermal Properties .All bars are provided with an end corona
protection from the slots to the end winding portion and to prevent the formation of the crepage sparks.
3.3.3

Corona Protection :

To prevent potential difference and possible corona discharges between the insulation and the slot wall
,the slot section of the bars are provided with the outer corona protection .This corona protection consists
of a wear resistance, highly flexible coating of alkyd varnish containing graphite.
At the transition from the slot of the end-winding portion of the stator bars, a semi-conductive coating is
applied. On the top of it, several layer of semi-conductive end corona protection is applied. This ensures
uniform control of electric field and prevents the formation of corona discharge during operation and
during performance of high voltage tests. A final wrapping of glass fabric tapes impregnated with epoxy
resin serves as surface protection.
3.3.4

Location of Bar :

For protection of the stator winding against the effect of current forces in the slot section and for ensuring
a firm seating , a number , a constructional measures are implemented .To ensure tight seating of the bar
at the slot bottom , a slot bottom equaliser strip is inserted. Below the slot wedge a top ripple spring is
arranged between two compression pressure on the bars .The measures prevent vibrations. The specified
pre-loading is checked at each slot wedge.
Outside the slot section the bars are shaped so that the winding placed in the slots , cone shaped winding
is obtained. In order to reduce the stray losses a small cone shaped small cone taper of 13 - 20` is used.
In the end winding the involute shaped individual bars are arranged in parallel and with uniform spacing.
On the wide sides of the bars, spacers of insulating material are inserted at the regular intervals, the bars
being firmly braced at these points by tying sleeves. Due to this the bottom and top form a cone-shaped
layer ensuring mutual support of the bars. The two bar layers are firmly braced to each other and to the
winding supports by tying sleeves. Each end winding thus forms a self supporting and short circuit proof
arch.
3.4
3.4.1

Electrical Connection of Bars & Phase Connectors :

Electrical Connection of Bars :

Electrical connection between the top and bottom bar is made by brazing, one top bar being brazed to the
associated bottom bar. The coil connections are wrapped with tapes applied half over lap. The thickness of
the wrapper depends upon machine voltage. After taping, an insulating gap between the individual coil
connections being sufficiently large, no additional insulation is required.
3.4.2

Phase Connectors :

The phase connectors consist of flat copper sections, the cross section of which results in the low specific
current loading. The connections to the stator winding are or riveted and soldered type. The phase
connectors are wrapped with mica resin tape applied half overlap, which contain the full quantity of
synthetic resin having good quantity of penetrating properties .Then a wrapper of shrinking tape is applied
.The phase connection is then cured at a certain temperature to obtain a void free insulation.
3.4.3

Output Lead :

The beginning and end of the 3-phase winding is solidly bolted to the output leads with flexible. The
output leads consists of fat copper sections with mica insulation. To prevent eddy current losses and
unwarranted temperature rise , the output leads are brought through insulating plates.

Fig. 3
3.5

Rotor :

The rotor shaft is forged from a vacuum cast steel ingot. The high mechanical stresses resulting from the
centrifugal forces & short circuit torque call for high quality heat-treated steel. Comprehensive tests are
done to ensure adherence to the specified mechanical & magnetic properties as well as homogeneous
forging.
The rotor consists of an electrically active portion & two shaft ends. Approximately, 60% of the rotor body
circumference has longitudinal slots, which hold the field winding. Slot pitch is selected so that the two
poles are displaced by 180 degree. The rotor wedges act as damper winding within the range of the
winding slots.
The rotor teeth at the end of the rotor body are provided with axial & radial holes, enabling the cooling
gas to be discharged into the air gap after intensive cooling of the end windings.
3.5.1

Cooling of Rotor :

Each turn is subdivided into four parallel cooling zones. One cooling zone includes the slot from the centre
to the end of the rotor body , while other covers the half the end winding to the centre of the rotor body.
The cooling of Air for the slot portion is admitted into the slot bottom ducts below the winding . The hot
gases at the end of the rotor body is then discharged into the air gap between the rotor body and stator
core through radial opening in the rotor slots wedges .

The cooling air for the end winding is drawn from below the rotor-retaining ring. It rises radially along the
air gap via axial and radial slots in the end portions of the rotor teeth.
3.5.2

Types of Rotor :

There are two types of rotors used in generators.

3.5.3

a.

Salient Pole Type : It is used in low & medium speed (engine driven)
generators. It has a large number of projecting (salient) poles having
their cores bolted or dovetailed onto a heavy magnetic wheel of cast
iron, or steel of good magnetic quality. Such generators are
characterised by their large diameter & short axial lengths. The poles
& pole shoes are laminated to minimise heating due to eddy currents.

b.

Smooth Cylindrical Type : It is used for steam driven generators,

which run at very high speed. The rotor consists of a smooth solid
forged steel cylinder, having a number of slots milled out at intervals
along the periphery & along the shaft for accommodating field coils. To
avoid excessive peripheral velocity, such rotors have very small
diameters. Hence, turbo generators are characterised by small
diameters & long axial (or rotor) lengths. The cylindrical construction
of the rotor gives better balance, quieter operation & also less windage
loss.

Rotor Windings :

The field winding consists of several series connected coils inserted into the longitudinal slots of the rotor
body. The coils are so wound that two poles are obtained. The solid conductors have a rectangular crosssection & are provided with axial slots for radial discharge of cooling gas.
The individual conductors are bent to obtain half turns. After insertion into the rotor slots, these turns are
combined to form full turn of series connected turns of one slot constituting one coil. The individual coils of
the rotor winding are electrically series connected so that one north & one south magnetic pole are
obtained.
3.5.4

Insulation :

The insulation between the individual turns is made of layers of glass fibre laminate. The coils are
insulated from the rotor body with L shaped strips of glass fibre laminate with Nomex interliner. To obtain
the required leakage paths between the coil and the frame, thick top strips of glass fibre laminate are
inserted below the slot wedges. The top strips are provided with axial slots of the same cross section and
the slots of the cross section and the spacing as used on the rotor windings.
3.5.5

Rotor Slot Wedges :

To protect the windings against the effects of the centrifugal forces, the winding is secured in the slots
with wedges. The slot wedges are made from an alloy of high strength & good electrical conductivity, &
are also used as damper winding bars. The slot wedges extended below the shrink seats of the retaining
rings. The rings act as short circuit rings to induced currents in the damper windings.

a.

End Winding Bracing : The space between different coils in the end
coils in the end is filled with insulating members, which prevent coil
movement.

b.

Rotor Retaining Ring : The rotor retaining ring rings withstand the
centrifugal forces of the end windings. One end of each ring is shrunk
on the rotor body , while the other end of the ring overhangs the end
windings without contact on the shaft. This ensures an unrestrained
shaft deflection on the end windings. The shrunk on the free end of the
retaining ring serves to reinforce the retaining ring and secures the

end winding in the axial direction at the same time.

A snap is provided for additional protection against axial displacement
of the retaining ring. The shrink seat of the retaining ring is silverplated, ensuring a low contact resistance for induced currents. To
reduce the stray losses and have high strength , the rings are made up
of non magnetic, cold worked materials.
3.5.6

Field Connections :

The field connection provides the electrical connection between the rotor winding and the exciter.

3.5.7

a.

Terminal Lug : The terminal consists of a copper conductor of

rectangular cross section .One end of the terminal lug is brazed to the
rotor winding, while other end of the is screwed to the radial bolt.

b.

Radial Bolt : The field current lead located in the shaft bore is
connected to the terminal lug through a radial bolt .The radial bolt is
made up of steel and screwed into the field current in the shaft bore.

c.

Field Current Lead in Shaft : The leads are run in the axial direction
from the radial bolt to the end of the rotor. They consist of two
semicircular conductors insulated from each other by an intermediate
plate and from the shaft by a tube.

Rotor Fan :

The generator cooling air is circulated by two axial flow fans located on the rotor shaft one at either end.
To augment the cooling of the rotor winding, the pressure established by the fan works in conjunction with
the air expelled from the discharge ports along the rotor
The blades of the fan have threaded roots for being screwed into the rotor shaft. The blades are
dropforged from an aluminium alloy. Threaded root fastening permits the blade angle to be changed. Each
blade is secured at its root with a threaded pin.
3.5.8

Rotor Grounding System :

Grounding brushes are fitted to the turbine end bearing cover of the generator to remove the static
charges of the shafts.
The brush holders are arranged with 90` displacement which ensures that at least one brush will make
the contact with the rotating shaft journal.
36

Air Cooler :

The closed circuit air cooler is designed on the principal of cross counter flow system , the cooling medium
is being water. The heat generated in the machine due to various losses are carried away by circulating
current and this hot air coolers and re-circulated in the machine.
The elements of the cooler are copper finned brass tubes, steel tube plates and water chambers. The
finned tube plates , side plates and water chambers. The finned tube ends are expanded into tube plates
in order to form water tight joints. Partitions are provided in the water chambers to form and water paths.
The front chambers have water inlet and outlet branches provided.
The air cooler unit is fabricated from steel plates and angles. The individual cooler elements are inserted
horizontally into the cooler unit. Sealing rubber gaskets are provided between both cooler elements and
the cooler unit wall at both ends. The distribution piping serves as an inlet and outlet of cooling water for
individual elements. Flat side valves are fitted in between the inlet distribution and the main piping.
Globe valves for providing the regulating the water flow in between the inlet distribution and the main
piping. The main piping serves as inlet and outlet headers of the water for all the elements of the cooler.

The air is cooled to the required temperature with +1.5?C and the maximum pressure allowed for cooling
water is 6 atg. The cooling water must be suspended from impurities.
3.6.1

Operation of Air Cooler :

The outlet valve is slightly opened so that air from the cooler can escape out. The inlet valve is opened a
little so that the cooler is full , water pressure must not exceed the prescribed limits. Leaks if any ,from
water cooler , pipe joints sand flanges are repaired .Then valve are opened and the cooler is taken into
service. In operation it is recommended to keep the gate valve fully open and regulation is carried by the
operating globe valve in the outlet line. The cooler must always be supplied with water before starting the
generator. The equipment must be protected for any mechanical damage.
3.6.2

Checking of Water Circuit :

The water circuit is to be checked with max. of 7 atg of water pressure .Water is led into the cooling when
the slide valve is fully opened and side valve is cracked opened in order that the air is forced through the
discharge pipes .When the cooler is filled with water , the outlet valves are closed and max. pressure is
maintained in the cooler for about 20 minutes during which it can be found whether the system is water
tight.
3.6.3

Possible Defects and Remedies :

1.
2.
3.

3.6.4

Leakage of water under clamping bolts /nuts .They are to be

tightened.
Leakage of water under water chambers :The chambers to be
tightened, the defective packing is to be replaced.
Leakage of water from flanges :The flanges are to be tightened , the
packing is to be replaced.

Maintenance of Air Cooler :

The air circuit should be checked as and when it is necessary .The dirt accumulated on the finned tubes
are cleaned by the clean compressed air. The water tubes are to be cleaned in the following manner.
The inlet and outlet valves are closed, the flanges of the distribution pipe are disconnected at the cooler
end and the water is discharged from the cooler. When the cooler is drained , the distribution piping and
cooler lid are not damaged .In case they are damaged , they are replaced and cleaned .After the cleaning
the lids with piping and packing are reassembled the cooler is put into the operation.
The air circuit is cleaned when equipment is in operation . The water tubes are cleaned .When the cooler is
in operation for more than two month of operation the water must be discharged from the cooler. The
condensed moisture on the fins when the equipment is operating must be drained from the cooling
chamber. When the temperature and humidity are stabilised dripping will seize.
3.7

Bearings :

The generator rotor is supported at two journal bearings. The bearing consists of a bearing pedestal &
bearing shell which are split into two halves to facilitate assembly. The bearing pedestals are made of grey
iron & the bearing shells are steel castings.
The bearing pedestal is provided with a spherical seating surface and the bearing shell rests in its outer
surface. The spherical surface provides self-aligning property to the bearing. A step is provided in the top
bearing shell to prevent it from rotating in the pedestal. The exciter end bearing is insulated from
foundation and piping to prevent flow of shaft currents.
3.7.1

Bearing Oil Supply :

The oil required for bearing lubrication and cooling is obtained from the turbine oil supply system and
supplied to the lubricating groove in the bottom bearing sleeve.

3.7.2

Bearing Oil Temperature :

The temperature of each bearing is monitored by one double element RTD. The RTD is screwed in position
on the lower bearing sleeve from outside with the detector extending to the babbit liner.
3.8

Measuring Devices & Supervisory Equipment :

The supervisory equipment consists of alarm and measuring devices, gives a visual indication of the
system parameters. The alarm devices initiate visual or audible signals in the event of a controlled
quantity falling below the predetermined limit values .In many cases the measuring and alarm devices
combined to form one supervisory unit.
Closely associated with the supervisory equipment are regulating system , automatic controls for
reduction of manual supervisory work.
3.8.1

Temperature Detectors :
a.

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) : Temperature

measurement is made with RTD?S. When temperature measurement
has to be made , the resistance element is exposed to that
atmosphere. It works on the principal of change in electrical resistance
of a conductor due to temperature

The approx. Value may be calculated by the following formula :

R= R0 ( 1+ .T )
Where,
R0 = Reference value at 00C
= Temperature Coefficient
T = Temperature in 0C

b.

3.8.2

Rod Type Thermostats : Rod type thermostats are used for

detecting temperature Limits. These instruments utilises the different
co-efficient of thermal expansion of two dissimilar metals. When
exposed to a temperature rise, the rod arranged inside a tube fitted to
one of end of it features linear expansion different from that of the
surrounding tube. As a result of which a limit is actuated which in turn
causes a change over contact. This operates when the set value is
reached .Since they are used in pressurised surrounding they must
always be used in connection with protective tubes.

Vibration Pick-Up :

The vibration pick up for measurement of the absolute bearing vibration converts mechanical vibration into
an electrical signal .The max. Velocity of the absolute vibration is measure by means of the transducers
which is attached to the bearing housing.
The output signal of the transducer is integrated amplified and then displayed and recorded as peak to
peak max. Velocity vibration values.
3.8.3

Supervision of Generator :

The most essential measuring and supervisory devices at the generator serve for :
1.

Temperature Monitoring

2.

Vibration Monitoring

1. Temperature Monitoring :
a.

Stator Slot Temperature - The slot temperature is measured with

RTDs .The platinum measuring wire is embedded in a moulded plastic
body, which provides insulation and mechanical strength.
The RTD?S are embedded in the stator slots between top and bottom
bars at points where the highest temperature are expected.

b.
c.

d.
e.

3.9
3.9.1

The RTD`S are characterised by a constant temperature vs. Resistance

characteristic, high mechanical strength and insensitivity to electrical
fields.
Stator Core and Teeth Temperature - Are measured by RTDs. The
elements are embedded in the Insulation trough and inserted in core.
Cold and Hot Air Temperature : The temperature of the hot and
cold air are measured by RTD`s upstream and downstream circuit of
the coolers. Separate RTD`s are provided downstream of the cooler for
measuring cold air temperature.
The RTD`s cable are brought to the terminal board and fixed to the
terminal blocks.
Supervision of Bearing : The generator bearing temperature is
measured by RTD`s located in the bearing lower halves .The actual
point is located at the babbit / steel interface.

Cooling System of a Generator :

Thermal Ratings of Machines :

The table of temperature rise limits for industrial machines is interpreted in accordance with
the duty that the machine is called upon to perform. Although is rarely predictable in precise
terms, it may be comparable one of the number of internationally agreed standard duty cycles (
BS 2613 ), designated as follows :
Standard Duty Cycles :
Type
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8

Description
Continuously running at rated load.
Short time operation.
Intermittent periodic operation.
As S3 but with starting.
As S3 but with electric braking.
Continuous cyclic operation.
As S6 but with electric braking.
As S6 but with related load/speed characteristic.

Operating Conditions :
Type
N
R
D
B
V

Description
Operation under rated conditions of load
Machine at rest & deenergised.
Starting duty.
Braking duty.
Operation at no load, but rotating.

Cyclic-duration Factor : For the more elaborate duty cycles a cyclic-duration factor is defined :
it influences the class of rating.
S3
S4
S5
S6

: N/(N+R)
:(D+N)/(D+N+R)
: (D+N+F)/(D+N+F+R)
: N/(N+V)

Rating Classes : Following are brief indications of the rating on which the design of the
machine is based
Maximum continuous(MCR) :Continuous operation as in S1.
Short Time (STR) : The load duration in S2 is usually 10,30,60, & 90 min., & the limits of
temperature rise may be increased by 10 degree.
Equivalent Continuos (ECR) : This is for test purposes in the case of duties S1 & S2.
Duty Type (DTR) : Corresponding to S3-S8.The time for a cycle should be 10 min., cyclic
duration factors should be 0.15,0.25,0.40 or 0.60. The information required for determining the
DTR includes the stored kinetic energy of the motor & of the load, the duration of the cycle &
the cycle duration factor.
3.9.2

Cooling of Rotating Machines :

1.

Forced Air Cooling : For large machines which may require

many tonnes of cooling air/hr. , forced ventilation permits the
cleaning of the air by suitable filters , avoiding clogging of the
ducts. The air is filtered or washed with a water spray , then
baffled against flooded scrubbing surfaces to precipitate the
dust. It is then dried by passing over a series of dry scrubbing
plates.

2.

Hydrogen Cooling : To build air cooled turbo-generators above

50 MW rating present serious ventilation difficulties, not only in
circulating the requisite quantity of air through the machine
but also the high fan power required to circulate the air.
Therefore the use of air as a coolant for high rating machines is
ruled out and hydrogen is used as the alternate cooling media.

a.

Increased Efficiency : The density of hydrogen is only 0.07

times the density of air & therefore the power required to
circulate hydrogen should be about 1/14 of the power required
to circulate an equivalent quantity of air. Thus an increase in
efficiency results from reduction in the ventilation losses which
are a major portion of the total losses in a high speed turbine.
Calculations show that in 50 MW & 100 MW turbo-alternators
with hydrogen cooling the efficiency is raised by approximately
0.8% at full load attaining values of 99.0 to 99.2 per cent.

Advantages :

Increase in Rating : Hydrogen has a heat transfer coefficient

1.5 times & its thermal conductivity 7 times that of air.
Consequently with hydrogen as coolant the temperature
gradients across the film barrier between cooled surface &
coolant & also across the coolant are reduced. Since the heat
generated in the machine is more effectively removed , the
active materials can be more loaded than is possible with air
cooling. Therefore with hydrogen cooling an increased output
can be taken from a given frame size. If conventional hydrogen
cooling is applied to a generator designed for air cooling, the
overall advantage could be an increase in rating by 20-25 per
cent.
Increase in Life : The life of the machine is mainly the life of
winding insulation & air pockets in insulation can be sources of
such high local temperatures that there is always the risk of
insulation breakdown & fire. The thermal conductivity of
hydrogen is nearly 7 times that of air & is of the same order as

the winding insulation. When, therefore, there are pockets

filled hydrogen , heat conduction through them will be as good
as through winding insulation & consequently high local
temperature rises are not there.
When air is used as a coolant the high voltage winding can fail
due to action of corona discharge. This is because air contains
oxygen & nitrogen & during corona discharge ozone nitric acid
& other chemical compounds are formed which attack any
organic material in the insulation. On the other hand with
hydrogen as coolant, sufficient oxygen to form ozone and
destructive compounds in the event of corona discharge is not
present. Hence hydrogen as coolant greatly increases the life of
machine.
b.
c.
d.

3.

4.

Elimination of Fire Hazard : The outbreak of fire inside the

machine is impossible as hydrogen does not support burning.
Smaller Size of Coolers : The size of coolers required to cool the
gas is smaller when hydrogen is used as a coolant.
Less Noise : The noise produced by a hydrogen cooled machine
is less as the rotor moves in a medium of smaller density.
Gas Cooling : Large stator cores for turbo-generators are
provided with both axial & radial ducts. For machines of rating
more than 100 MW, the temperature gradient over the
conductor insulation is high enough to call for direct contact
between the coolant & the material of the conductor
themselves. The rotor conductors comprise rectangular
tubes ,ventilated by the cooling circuit separate from that of
the stator, the hydrogen gas being admitted to the tubes
through insulating flexible connections at the ends from a
centrifugal impeller mounted on the outboard end of the rotor
shaft. The direct gas cooling of the stator & particularly of rotor
winding permits of much higher electrical loading. With ratings
of 1000 MW even this is not enough to cope with the very large
flow rate & pressure, which might be 15 cu. m of hydrogen at
1.2 atm to absorb an excitation loss of 5 MW.
Water cooling : Turbo-generators of highest rating so far
contemplated are likely to have hydrogen cooled stator cores &
direct water cooled stator & rotor windings. In the direct water
cooling of stator windings, one problem is to device flexible
water tube connections with insulation against the high
winding voltages and to preserve a low water conductivity.
Water cooling of rotor winding, even more desirable because of
it?s high electric loading, offers more mechanical difficulty.
Water cooled field windings have been used for salient poles of
large hydro-generators. The mass of cooling water required is
only one quarter of that of air at atmospheric pressure for the
same cooling effect.
Continuous operation of generators results in the generation of
heat in the armature & field coils, which have to be dissipated
to avoid formation of hot spots & a consequent insulation
failure & deterioration of thermal characteristics of the
generator.
As all the losses appear as heat, the temperature of each part
so affected is raised above the ambient medium. The
temperature rise above the ambient is related :

To the rate of heat production.

The rate of cooling .
The thermal capacity.

The temperature rise is paramount in determining the plant rating particularly through it?s
effect on the winding insulation, and is the subject of specified operating limits.
Although in large machines the full-load loss may total no more than one or two percent, this
may amount to 10 MW or more. Removal of the heat demands a comprehensive cooling system
using appropriate cooling fluids. Heat is removed by a combination of conduction & convection ,
assisted by radiation from outer surfaces. Briefly a cool fluid is passed through passages in a
machine to conduct away the heat but a scrubbing action of the coolant is relied upon for
effective heat exchange. This is a kind of forced convection, whereas air current dissipation
from outside surfaces is natural convection unless fans augment it.
A generator may be cooled by two methods
3.9.3

Indirect Cooling :

Indirectly cooled machines dissipate their losses to a cooling medium which is entirely outside
the coil insulation. All air cooled machines with rare exceptions are cooled in this manner, as
well as most hydrogen cooled machines under 200 MVA.
Ventilating path: Stators are usually cooled by blowing air or hydrogen over the coil ends &
through radial ducts in the armature core.
The comparative characteristics of various gases that might be used for cooling are as below :
Characteristic

Air

N2

CO2

NH3

H2

He

Methane

Thermal Conduct

1.08

0.638

0.868

6.69

6.40

1.29

Density

0.966

1.52

0.588

0.069

0.137

0.544

Specific Heat

1.046

0.848

2.185

14.35

5.25

2.495

Heat Capacity

1.02

1.29

1.232

0.996

0.72

1.38

Heat Transfer

1.03

1.132

1.228

1.51

1.18

1.43

Air is the most commonly used. Hydrogen provides better heat transfer with much less
windage loss.
3.9.4

Direct Cooling :

Direct cooling is the process of dissipating the armature & field coil losses to a cooling medium
within the main conductor insulator wall. Machines cooled in this manner are also called ?
Supercharged?, ?Inner cooled?, or ?Conductor cooled?. This method is generally employed in
machines rated more than 200 MVA. The cooling medium either is in direct contact with the
conductor copper or is separated only by a thin material having little thermal resistance. Direct
cooling eliminates the temperature differential resulting from heat flow through the coil
insulation providing greater current carrying capability for the same hot spot temperature rise.
Cooling Media normally employed are hydrogen, oil & water. Most air-cooled turbine generators
operate in a hydrogen atmosphere, which provides cooling for all the machines.

3.10

Windings :

Materials - The winding of a machine conveys electrical energy to or from the working region,
and is concerned with EMF induction and the development of magneto-mechanical force.
Windings are formed from suitably insulated conductors.
Conductors -If a current of density J flows in a conductor of resistivity and density , the loss
per unit cube is
J*J*and the loss per unit mass (the specific loss) is p= J*J* /
Copper is the most common conducting metal, but there is an increasing use of aluminium.

Copper : The International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) has at 20`C a resistivity 0.017
241 micro ohm, a resistance-temperature coefficient 0.003 93 per C, and a tensile strength
220-250 MN/m*m . Hot and cold working (such as wire-drawing) raises the mechanical
strength at a small sacrifice in conductivity.
Most machines employ windings of annealed high conductivity copper, but is necessary in large
machines to use a worked copper of controlled proof strength, in turbo-generators a silverbearing copper with resistance to thermal softening and creep. Cadmium-copper is adapted to
cage winding because it can he flame-brazed without deterioration.
Aluminium : Aluminium-alloy conductors to BS 3242 have a resistivity at 20 'C of 0.0325 micro
ohm per meter (i.e. a conductivity of 53% IACS). Sheet material is often used for the low
voltage windings of small and medium-rated transformers. Cage windings can be fabricated by
brazing slot bars to the end-rings, or by integral casting with silicon-aluminium alloy (6-12%
Si) of resistivity 0.04-0.05 ttsl-m.
Typical characteristics at 200C for resistivity p, temperature coefficient per 0C, and density ,
are:
=( -m)

(per 0C)

(kg m3)

Copper : annealed

0.0172

0.00393

8.900

Copper : hard-drawn

0.0178

0.00390

0.045

0.00390

0.0325

0.00390

Char at 200C

Aluminium : cast
Aluminium : hard-drawn

2.700

I2r Losses - This is the significant electrical property. As an example of magnitude, the loss in
hard-drawn material at 75 `C carrying a current of uniform density 5 MA/m 2 (or 5 A/m2) is
Copper : 540 kW/m3, 61 W/kg
Aluminium : 990 kW/m3, 365 W/kg.
3.11

Insulators :

Insulating materials, essentially non-metallic, are organic or inorganic, uniform or

heterogeneous in composition, natural or synthetic. An ideal insulator would have:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
3.11.1

High dielectric strength, sustained at elevated temperatures;

Good thermal conductivity;
Permeance ,non deteriorating at high temperatures;
Good mechanical properties;

Classification of Insulators :

Class Y : cotton ,silk ,paper, wood, cellulose, fibre etc. without impregnation
Class A : The materials of Class Y impregnated with natural resins, cellulose esters, insulating
oils, etc.; also laminated wood, varnished paper, celluloacetate film, etc.
Class E : Synthetic-resin enamels, cotton and paper laminates with formaldehyde bonding, etc.
Class B : Mica, glass fibre, asbestos, etc. with suitable bonding substances; built-up mica,
glass-fibre and asbestos laminates.
Class F : Materials of Class B with more thermal-resistant bonding materials.

Class H : Glass-fibre and asbestos materials, and mica, with appropriate silicone resins.
Class C : Mica, ceramics, &n, quartz and asbestos without binders or with silicone resins of
superior thermal stability.
The classification is based on the following maximum permitted temperatures:
Insulation
class

Maximum
Temperature0C

90

105

120

130

155

180

> 180

The figures are based on a 20-year working life under average conditions. The life of an
insulating material is closely related to the "hot-spot" temperature within the winding it
covers.
Some notes follow on typical machine insulation.
Mica - in the virgin or sheet state is difficult to work, and it is used in the form of sheets of
splitting & with shellac, bitumen or synthetic polyester bonding.
Micafolium - is a wrapping composed of mice splitting bonded to paper and air-dried. It may be
wound on to conductors, then rolled and compressed between heated plates to solidify the
material and exclude air.
Fibrous Glass - is made from material free from alkali metal oxides (soda or potash) that might
form a surface coating that would attack the glass silicates. Glass absorbs no moisture
volumetrically. but may attract it by capillary action between the fine filaments. Tapes and
cloths woven from continuous-filament yams have a high resistivity, thermal conductivity and
tensile strength, and form a good Class B insulation. The space factor is good, but the material
is susceptible to abrasive damage. Thin glass silk coverings are available for wires for field
coils or mesh windings, varnishing are necessary to abrasion.
Asbestos - is mechanically weak, even when woven with cotton fibres, and only occasionally
compete with fibre glass. Laminates of asbestos with the resins have good mechanical strength
and thermal resistance. Asbestos, wire- and strip-coverings have resilience and abrasion
resistance, but the space factor is low.
Cotton Fibre - tapes woven from acetylated cotton, recently developed, have made remarkable
resistance to heat "tendering", and are much less hygroscopic than ordinary cotton materials.
Polyamides -such as nylon make tapes of high mechanical strength and effect a saying in space
by their thinness. Nylon film is one of the few plastic as having adequate resistance to
temperature and opposition to tearing.
Synthetic-resin Enamels - of the vinyl-acetate or nylon types give an excellently smooth finish
and have been applied for mush windings, with considerable improvement in winding times
and in length of mean rum. Varnishes of the same basic materials give good bonding of
windings.
Slot Lining Materials - have in the past been various mica-composites, but the mica content is
easily damaged in forming. With small motors a two - ply varnished cotton cloth bonded to
pressboard has been found satisfactory; while three-ply material may serve for heavier
windings.
Wood -in the form of synthetic-resin-impregnated compressed laminations, has proved a
robust and accurate material for packing blocks, coil supports and spacers. If the electrical
properties are not adequate, phenolic paper laminations will be preferred although their cost is
greater.

Silicones - are semi-inorganic materials with a basic structure of alternate silicon and oxygen
atoms. They are remarkably resistant to heat, and as binders in Class H insulation permit of
continuous operation at 180 `C. Even when disintegrated by excessive temperatures, the
residue is the insulator silica. Silicones are water-repellent and anti-corrosive: they have been
successfully used in dry (oil-len) motors, mill motors and aircraft operating at a winding
temperature range of 200 to -40 `C. An additional advantage is the superior thermal
conductivity, improving heat-transfer from conductors and facilitating dissipation.
Epoxide - thermosetting resins have become important in casting, potting, laminating-adhesive
and varnishing applications, and in the encapsulation of generators.
Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper - cotton and glawfibre laminates have good electrical and
mechanical properties as sheets, large cylinders and tubes.
Petroleum-based Minerals Oils - are commonly employed in the cooling and insulation of
generators.. The characteristics of importance are chemical stability, expansion coefficient,
resistance to sludging by oxidation, and viscosity. When clean and moisture-free their electric
strength is good.
Askarels - are synthetic non-flammable insulating liquids which when decomposed by an
electric arc, evolve only non-explosive gases. The commonest askarel is a 60/40 mixture of
hexachlorodiphenylltriefflorobenzine giving a low pour point and a satisfactory viscosity /
temperature characteristic.
3.12

Types and Classification of Generators :

Generators may be classified as follows :

1.

Based on the Prime Mover

Turbo Generator - Driven by steam turbines at high speeds (up

to 3000 rev./min) and in rating up to 1000 MW.
Hydro Generator - Driven by water turbines at speeds between
90 & 1000 rev./min & in ratings up to 750 MW.
Diesel Generator -Various forms of prime mover of internal
combustion type with speeds up to 1500 rpm & ratings up to 20
MW. Gas turbine drives may be of higher speed & rating.
Nuclear Generator

Generator employing non conventional forms of energy.

2.

Based on Rotor Construction

Cylindrical rotor machine-used for high speed applications

(3000rpm for STG)
Salient pole rotor machine-used for relatively low speed
applications. (Hydro generators)

4.0 Excitation System

4.1 Classification of Exciters :
Excitation systems for synchronous machines can be classified as below
4.1.1 DC Excitation :

This is the traditional method. A DC generator is mounted on the main shaft & separately or shunt excited,
the output being fed to the rotor of the main generators through slip rings or brushgear. Commutation
difficulties at high speeds have sometimes led to geared or separately driven exciters.
4.1.2 Static Excitation :
Direct current excitation can be obtained by means of a rectifier & suitable supply of alternating voltage.
By this method, the commutation limits inherent in the rotary DC generator are avoided. With an AC
exciter machine mounted on the main shaft, its field fed from a pilot exciter whose field in turn is derived
from a permanent magnet generator, the exciter output is fed to the floor standing rectifier. The rectified
current is supplied to the main rotor winding through conventional slip rings. The rectifier unit has no
rotating parts, requires little maintenance & is immune to dust or hazardous atmospheres.
4.1.3 Self Excitation :
Self-excitation can be obtained by means of a bridge connected rectifier deriving its alternating voltage
from a transformer with two primary windings per phase; one primary is excited from the generator
terminal voltage, the other from the load current as indicated in the fig. As a result the excitation is
responsive to both output voltage & load current and is said to be compounding or self regulating. As most
generators have a residual rotor field too small to occur from a standstill start, a permanent magnet pilot
exciter is provided to establish an adequate generator terminal voltage for initiating self-excitation. D.C
excitation through batteries can also be provided till sufficient generator terminal voltage is available.

Self-excitation system initiated by station batteries is used for exciting the rotor windings of Steam turbine
generator (STG).
4.1.4 Brush-less Excitation System :
The term Brush-less is applied to a machine in which the conventional brush gear is eliminated. An
exciter with a fixed field and rotating phase windings is mounted on the main shaft, the AC output being
converted to DC by means of shaft mounted rectifiers & fed directly to the main rotor windings; no sliprings or brush gear being needed.
The exciter consists of :
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Rectifier wheels
Three-phase pilot exciter
Three-phase main exciter
Metering & supervisory equipment.

4.2 Components of Brushless Exciter :

The 3-phase pilot exciter system has a revolving field with permanent magnet poles. The 3-phase AC is
fed to the field of a rotating armature main exciter via a stationary regulator and rectifier unit. The 3phase AC included in rotor of the main exciter is rectified by the rotating rectifier bridge and fed through
the DC lead in the rotor shaft.
A common shaft carries the rectifier wheels, the rotor of the main exciter and the permanent magnet rotor
of the pilot exciter. The shaft is rigidly coupled to the generator rotor & supported on end bearing shield.
The generator & the exciter bearings are thus supported on a total of three bearings. Mechanical coupling
of the two shaft assemblies results in the central shaft bore through the Multikontakt electrical system
consisting of plug in bolts and sockets.
4.2.1 Rectifier Wheel :
The main components of the rectifier wheels are the silicon diodes, which are arranged in the rectifier
wheels in a 3-phase bridge circuit. A plane spring assembly produces the contact pressure for the silicon
wafer of the diodes. The contact pressure is such that this contact pressure is increased by centrifugal
force during rotation.
One diode is mounted each in the light metal heat sink and then connected in parallel. Associated with
each diode is a fuse that serves to switch off the diode from the circuit if it fails.
The 3-phase connection between armature and diodes is obtained via copper conductors arranged on the
shaft circumference between the rectifier wheels and the main exciter. The conductors are attached by
means of the binding clips and equipped with the internal diode connections. One conductor is provided for
each arm of Diode Bridge. The conductors originate at a bus ring system of the main exciter.
4.2.2 Three Phase Pilot Exciter :
The three phase pilot exciter is a six-pole revolving field unit. The frame accommodates the laminated
core with the three-phase winding. The rotor consists of a hub with mounted poles. Each pole consists of
separate permanent magnets that are housed in a non-metallic enclosure. The magnets are braced
between the hub & the external pole shoe with bolts. The rotor hub is shrunk onto the free shaft end.
4.2.3 Three Phase Main Exciter :
The three phase main exciter is a six-pole revolving armature unit. Arranged in the frame are the poles
with the field & damper windings. The field winding is arranged on the laminated magnetic poles. At the
pole shoe, bars are provided which are connected to form damper winding. Between the two poles a
Quadrature-axis coil is fitted for inductive measurement of the field current.
The rotor consists of stacked laminations that are compressed by through bolts over compression rings.
The 3- phase winding is inserted in the laminated rotor .The winding conductors are transposed within the
core length and turns of the winding are secured with steel bands. The connections are made on the side
facing the rectifier wheels; the winding ends are run to a bus ring system to which 3- phase leads leading
to the rectifier wheels are also connected. After full impregnation with epoxy resin and curing , the
complete rotor is shrunk onto the shaft.
4.2.4 Stroboscope for Fuse Monitoring :
The fuses on the rectifier may be checked during the operation with the stroboscope.
A separate flash tube is provided for each wheel (A and B).The tubes, which are supplied from common
control unit , are permanently installed in the rectifier enclosure. This permits easy monitoring without any
adjustment outside the exciter enclosure being required.
The stroboscope is located in the rectifier wheel and the exciter enclosure so that the fuses may be
observed from outside the Exciter enclosure while controlling the stroboscope.

To synchronize the sequence of flashes with the generator rotation, the frequency is utilized to activate the
flashes. A double synchronous motor, controlled through two push buttons and connected to the two
potentiometer and IC`s causes the flashes to be at the same frequency or nearly equal frequency so that
a slow motion observation of the fuses is observed.
The continuous sequence of flashes can be interrupted at any time by actuating the FEED or RETURN push
button. Following this a stationary image is obtained which ensures accurate checking of a single fuse.
After approx. 2 minutes the stroboscope is automatically switched off. It can be switched on again
immediately once again for 2 minutes.
The stroboscope contains plug in printed circuit boards that can be readily replaced in order to remedy any
faults.
4.2.5 Generator Field Circuit Ground Fault Protection System :
This detects the high resistance and low resistance ground faults in the generator field circuit. It is very
necessary to detect the this because a double earth fault causes thermal unbalance due to the decrease of
resistance of one pole coil and increase of field current should activate an alarm and corrective measures
be initiated, if possible, before the fault is fully developed.
If the field ground fault detection system detects a ground fault, an alarm is activated at
RE < 80 ohms (1st stage). If the insulation resistance between ground and generator field drops to R E < 5
ohms the unit is shut down (II stage).

Figure : Brushless Rotor Exciter

Basic Arrangement of Brushless Excitation System

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Automatic Voltage Regulator

Permanent Magnet Pilot Exciter
Slip Ring & Measuring Brushes For Field Excitation System
Quadrature Axis Measuring Coil
Three Phase Main Exciter
Silicon Rectifier Diodes
Three Phase Leads
Multikontact Connector
Rotor Winding of Turbo-Generator
Stator Winding of Turbo-Generator

5.0 Automatic Voltage Regulators

5.1 Function :
The voltage regulator is intended for the excitation & control of generators equipped with exciters
employing rotating non controlled rectifiers. Excitation control is required to maintain
a.
b.

normal operating voltage, to vary generation of reactive power,

the voltage during external faults,

c.

to increase the steady state, dynamic & transient stability.

Manual control of an exciter field rheostat suffices for very small machines, but otherwise the use of
automatic voltage regulators (AVR) is universal.
5.2 Types of AVR :
The AVR may be of the following types.
Carbon Pile Regulator - for very small machines makes use of the resistance variation of a pile of
carbon plates with variation of comprehensive force, the mechanical pressure being provided by an
electromagnet energized from the supply to be controlled.
Torque-motor Regulator - is a sensitive quick acting device comprising multi tapped resistors connected
into the exciter field circuit & brought out to closely spaced rows of silver contacts. Short circuiting sectors
roll over the contacts in accordance with the torque of a small split phase disc motor against spring
loading & eddy current damping. Voltage setting is simple, & droop & compounding effects can be
adjusted independently.
Vibrator Regulator - is the type of AVR in which the exciter field rheostat is rapidly switched in & out of
circuit to correct deviations from nominal voltage setting. A control magnet is energized from the voltage
to be regulated & its main contacts are closed by a spring. If the voltage rises, the pull of the spring is
overcome & the contacts open, inserting the field rheostat into circuit. The resulting fall in voltage causes
the contacts to re-close. The cyclic process takes place rapidly & repeatedly, holding the voltage within the
limits prescribed.
High Speed Regulators - The above mentioned electromechanical regulators are unsuitable for large
machines owing to large field currents required for the main exciter. High-speed regulators are required
that can give rapid response rates with the largest generators. Such an automatic voltage regulator
comprises error detecting, follow up, under excitation limiter & under voltage protection units, with
appropriate amplifiers.
5.3 Description of High Speed Regulators :
The automatic voltage regulator is a fast response, transistorised, dual channel type regulator with the
provision of application of negative ceiling voltage across the field windings of the turbo generator.
The main parts of the regulator equipment are two closed loop control systems including a separate
gate control set and thyristor set each, field discharge circuit, an open loop control system for exchanging
signal between the regulator equipment and the control room, and the power supply circuits.
The closed loop control systems are

AUTO mode

MANUAL mode

The AUTO control system performs the following functions

1.
2.

Generator voltage control

Field forcing limiter - undelayed limiting control for the output current
of thyristor set.

3.

Under-excitation limiter

4.

Over-excitation limiter-delayed limiting control

5.

Automatic field suppression during shutdown of generator.

6.

Stator current limiter- delayed limiting control

7.

V /Hz limiter.(Over fluxing protection)

For optimum utilisation of inductive & capacitive load capabilities of the generator, the A.V.R is provided
with Rotor current limiter and Rotor angle limiter.
The MANUAL control system controls the excitation current in the main exciter field winding.
Normally, the automatic voltage regulation system (AUTO) is operative, including the start-up & shutdown
of the machine. The set point adjuster of the excitation current control (MANUAL) is possible at any time.
Under certain emergency & fault conditions, the changeover from AUTO to MANUAL mode is initiated
automatically. Correct operation of the follow-up control is monitored & can also be observed on a
matching instrument (null voltmeter) in the control room. This instrument also permits manual matching.
5.4 Limiters :
Under Excitation Limiter - It ensures that, in the under-excited range the minimum excitation required
for stable parallel operation of the generator with the system is available & the under-excited reactive
power is limited accordingly. The response characteristic is formed on the basis of the generator reactive
current, active current & terminal voltage & can be matched to generator and system data.
Stator Current Limiter - Ensures delayed reduction of the excitation current in the over-excited part of
the capability diagram.(CH-7, Fig. 3) The delay time depends on the magnitude by which the limit has
been exceeded. Lowering of generator excitation in the under-excited area of the capability diagram would
increase the stator current instead of limiting it. Therefore the limiter is disabled by a limit monitor, when
the reactive current falls short of an adjustable reactive current limit.
V / Hz Limiter - Prevents excessive magnetic flux increase and thermal stressing of the unit transformer
& of the generator. The function of the V / Hz limiter is to issue a signal to the voltage regulator, to reduce
the excitation current when a pre-set V / Hz limit value is increased.
Field Forcing Limiter - With the voltage regulation calling for maximum excitation, the thyristor set
supplies a higher voltage to the field winding of the main exciter than that actually required for exciting
the main exciter to the ceiling voltage.(maximum excitation voltage of generator). Yet the output current
of the thyristor set is limited by the field forcing limiter to the ceiling voltage.
Automatic Field Suppression - On shutdown of the generator by a reverse power relay or speed
dependent, or in fault conditions, by the generator protection equipment Field discharge commands drive
the thyristor set to the maximum negative output voltage (inverter operation)via the gate control set. This
causes the main exciter to be de-excited in less than 0.5-sec. Generator de-excitation follows depending
on the generator time constant. The main exciter field breaker is tripped after the inverter operation of the
thyristor set. The field breaker & its discharge resistor is suitably rated to effect field suppression even in
case of failure of electronic field suppression.
Rotor Current Limiter - If the generator is operating with a rotor current more than the permitted value,
the magnitude of the rotor current can be brought back to a safe permitted value by increasing the firing
angle & decreasing output of thyristor bridges.

Rotor Angle Limiter - If the generator is operating on capacitive mode with a rotor angle (load angle)
more than the permitted value, the magnitude of the rotor angle can be brought back to a safe value by
decreasing firing angle of firing pulses & thereby increasing output from thyristor bridges.

6.0 Testing & Commissioning

The primary use of testing the equipment at works is to prove that the machine tested has required
performance in respect of load characteristics, losses and temperature rise, and excitation.
Tests are performed on generators to demonstrate that they meet their required performance as
guaranteed by manufacturer . The schedule of tests may vary from commercial tests, which require only
measurement of winding resistance, excitation current at rated voltage, no load and dielectric losses , to a
complete schedule , which evaluates essentially all the operating characteristics of the machine.
There are mainly three types of tests :
a.
b.
c.

Type tests
Routine tests
Special tests

For testing the generator at works, it does not involve the supply and dissipation of power of a large
machine , as this is quite impracticable ; even the losses may be several megawatts. The generator does
not readily develop adequate torque from an a.c. supply to start against bearing friction, and they are
usually coupled to a driving motor and gearbox. For tests within the voltage range of the loading machine,
the turbogenerator is connected to a group of inductors and brought upto speed (unexcited). On applying
field excitation, the terminal voltage and reactive current are built up, and the turbogenerator
synchronised with a motor generator for a.c. driving. The starting motor is then disconnected. The motor
generator makes up any deficiency in the reactive power taken by the inductors, and its power input
provides the basis for the calculation of the turbogenerator loss.
6.1 Testing at Works :
The following tests are conducted on the generator during works testing.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.

12.
13.

Mechanical run test at rated speed.

Bearing vibrations during operation at the rated speed are within the
specified limits.
Measuring of mechanical losses, three-phase short circuit characteristic
and measurement of loss upto 100% of rated current.
Measurement of mechanical losses, Open circuit characteristic and
losses upto 120% rated voltage.
Phase sequence check - To match the phase with respect to existing
system.
Shaft voltage measurement at 100% rated voltage.
Vibration measurement at 100% rated voltage.
Impedance measurement of rotor winding at 0, 1/3, 2/3 and 3/3 of
rated speed. (rotor inside the stator).
I.R value measurement , High voltage test on stator and rotor winding
to determine the ability of the windings to withstand momentary
voltages of very high value.
Checking of RTD and polarisation index of stator winding. The RTD
should be functioning correctly because they are used to determine the
temperature rise in the stator winding which may be caused due to
any possible fault.
The polarisation index is defined as the ratio of the value of insulation
resistance of the stator winding after one minute to the value after ten
minutes. The polarisation index signifies the healthiness of the
winding.
D.C resistance measurement on stator and rotor winding.
Temperature rise

i.
ii.

By full load zero pf over excited run .

By equivalent heat run :

This test establishes the capability of the machine to operate at its rated load without exceeding the
guaranteed temperature rise. Most commonly used types of heat runs are open circuit , short circuit and
zero power factors. The test comprises a temperature rise measurement on the stator with excitation but
no stator current, followed by a test with rated stator current but minimum excitation. The total
temperature rise is then obtained by combining the results.
In addition tests are also conducted on the Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG) and the Exciter.
6.1.1 Tests on PMG :
1.
2.

Open circuit voltage measurements at 1000, 2000 and 3000 rpm.

Load test .

6.1.2 Tests on Main Exciter :

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Open circuit characteristic.

Bearing vibration measurement at 100% rated voltage.
Load magnetisation characteristics at various load resistance values.
I.R value measurement , High voltage test on armature, field,
quadrature axis coils and PMG stator windings.
D.C. resistance measurement on armature field quadrature axis coils
and PMG stator windings.

6.2 Installation and Commissioning :

The installation procedures described in the following sections are for general reference only and vary
according to the site conditions. Correct installations, operation and maintenance are the prerequisite for
the satisfactory functioning of the machine.
The dimension certificates appended to the installation instructions are of primary importance for the
installation work and for the supervision of the machine . They should be filled out carefully and should
not be removed from the instruction manual.
The values given in the dimension certificates permit well-defined judgement of the alignment of the
electrical machine or machine set . The certificates are also used as a basis for check measurements
during later machine inspections.
6.2.1 Assembly Groups :
An assembly group number is given under the heading of each section of the instruction manual. This
number clearly identifies the machine part (assembly group) and the association of the part with the
superordinated assembly group.
The number is marked on the dispatch note , on the packing lists, on the label attached to the machine
part and on packing case , thus facilitating locating of the parts. When sorting the packing and during
similar work , it should be noted that the individual assembly groups are associated with the main
assembly groups .
The seven main assembly groups may be classified as below :
Rotor

1000

Stator

2000

Bearings

3000

Enclosure

4000

Built on accessories, machine base

5000

Supply, monitoring arrangements

6000

Tools, fitting tackle and devices

7000

6.2.2 Package Marking :

The package marking is made up of the following details :
Address
Port of destination
Details of weight
Dimensions
Handling note or marking
Package number
The weight(s) , dimensions and markings indicated on the package provide information on the correct
selection and use of the hoisting gear, handling and treatment during transport, receipt and storage of the
package.
6.2.3 Package Number :
The package number is composed as follows :
E D 701 / 5
where,
E= Name of division
D= Address of works
701= Collective number
5= Consecutive (serial)number
The collective number includes any number of packages of one machine . The consecutive (serial )
number serves to identify individual packages with the same collective number. The package number has
nothing to do with the assembly group number, order number or any others.
6.2.4 Shipping Documents :
One set of shipping documents , comprising of the dispatch note , and the packing list is sent to the site
management under separate cover.
6.2.5 Dispatch Note :
The dispatch note is the cover sheet of the packing list . In addition to the forwarding address, it contains
the package numbers of the packages shipped with this note.
6.2.6 Packing List :
The packing list is a supplemented copy of the list of parts on the drawings on which the package numbers
, components are shown. The packing list includes the following data:
a.

Part number of the assembly group(s), individual parts etc., shown on

the drawing is included in this particular consignment.

b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

If this number covers two or several packages , the consecutive

number is shown in the column ( shipping data package number) and
in the line containing that part which is included in this package.
Package number, which corresponds to the number marked on the
package included in the heading of the packing list is the collective
number of the package number.
Part designation.
Number of the drawing on which the assembly groups , parts etc. are
shown.
Parts list number.
In case of a partial delivery, change in the quantity and weight are
changed in writing in the packing list and the quantity remaining to be
shipped.

6.2.7 Locating a Machine Part :

The part and drawing numbers can be taken direct from the drawing provided for the assembly work . The
number of the package containing the part required be indicated in the packing list.
All inquiries to the manufacturers works regarding the shipment of parts should include the following:

Packing numbers
Serial numbers
Number of drawing
Part numbers

6.3 Transport :
Goods must be transferred to site by experienced forwarding agents . Erection personnel of manufacturer
may act only in an advisory and supervisory capacity. The casings are marked with instructions for safe
handling and proper storage.
Instructions - Instructions in different languages , including local language (if possible), may be
mentioned on the case for the ease of erection team.
Receipt - Immediately after receipt of goods , the case should be examined all round for any signs of
damage . If it is damaged, remove the lid or several boards so that the contents can be seen .If the
contents are sealed, do not damage the plastic sheeting while doing this.
When unpacking a consignment which is damaged / under suspicion of damage, store the contents in a
dry place or repack them. It is necessary to examine the contents in a dry place or repack them . It is
necessary to examine the contents of the package immediately to determine the extent and cause of
damage and also the persons responsible for it.
In case of damage, the carrier should be notified immediately and invited to draw up a joint statement of
damages. This is imperative for indemnification and lodging a claim with the insurance company. It is
always advisable to photograph serious damage.
Storage - Machine or machine parts packed for overland transport must be stored in closed storerooms .
The storerooms should be well ventilated , dry and clean . The relative humidity must be maintained lower
than 50 %.
The basic principles of materials management must be adhered to in the storage of goods:

Heavy goods must not be stacked over one another , keeping in mind
the carrying capacity of the floor.
The machines with rolling contact bearings must be kept on vibration
free floors to prevent damage to bearings.
Tarpaulins , in case of outdoor storage must be laid.

The sealed wrappings should not be opened en route or during

handling. Desiccants for humidity control should be checked as soon as
the shipment arrives and periodic checking afterwards should be
ensured.

6.4 Dynamic Testing / Synchronisation Procedure for Generator :

Dynamic testing is carried out when the generator is running at Full Speed No Load (FSNL). The various
protection relays & parameters are checked for proper operations and correctness of control wiring. The
set values of relays are also confirmed by primary injection. A detailed procedure for carrying out the
dynamic testing is listed below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

Check field breaker is tripping through Generator Synchronising Panel

(GSP) and Generator relay panel (GRP).
Check GT Circuit Breaker tripping through GSP and GRP.
Make short the three phases at Generator Auxiliary Compartment
(GAC) (after C.Ts)
Run the machine to FSNL. Check Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
voltage and phase sequence in Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR). It
should match with the phase sequence of the test supply.
Measure the CT currents in GSP / GRP / AVR while the m/c is on FSNL.
Excite the machine by closing the field breaker. Raise excitation slowly
till generator current is about 600 Amp i.e. 0.2 Amp in CT secondary.
Gen. Backup impedance relay will operate.
Raise the excitation and check the operation of overall differential
relay. Block tripping of all differential relays.
Check the operation of generator differential relay by shorting or
reversing the polarity of generator / neutral side C.T.
Take the SCC readings in step of 75 A upto rated current
Check the operation of O/C relay (RACID) by reducing the setting of
the relay.
Stop the m/c. Remove 3 short and put 2 short at GAC.
Run the m/c to FSNL, excite the m/c by closing the field breaker.
Check the operation of -ve phase sequence relay.
Stop the m/c . Remove 2 short. Put 1 -E short. Run the m/c to
FSNL. Excite it by closing the field breaker. Check the operation of (095%) stator E/F relay.
Stop the m/c. Remove 1 -E short link.
Create 3 short outside the zone of overall different relay stability by
taking the M/C to FSNL.
Check the operation of differential relay by shorting or reversing the
polarity of differential CTs.
Stop the m/c. Remove the 3 links outside the zone of differential
protection.
Put 1 -E shortlink after GT transformer (53 MVA). Check for the
operation of REF relay.
Normalise the connections.
Run M/C to FSNL, excite m/c, measure all the PT voltages (AVR /
metering / protection)
Take the readings of OCC in steps of 1 kV.
Check the operation of u/v relay. Must reset at set value.
Check the operation of o/v relay by reducing the setting.
Check operation of rotor E/F relay by shorting the rotor E/F brushes or
by decade resistance box.
Check the operation of u/f relay by reducing the speed of the machine.
Check the operation of V/Hz relay (overfluxing relay) by reducing the
speed or increasing the voltage.
Check 95-100% Stator E/F by shorting the neutral directly to earth.
Fine tune the AVR/ check the null balance / change to AUTO mode ,
check follow up, breaker operation.
Build up voltage to 10KV in auto mode. Observe the overshoot.
Ensure SKE picks up at 12oclock position of the synchroscope.
Close the GT breaker in auto mode.

The generator is now synchronised with the grid.

7.0 Operation of a Generator

7.1 Starting :
Much of the process of starting a turbo-generator from cold concerns the thermal problems of turbine
expansion & stressing more particularly of its rotor. Thermal bends in rotor may develop during run-up
and cause damaging vibrations through which the set must be nursed.
It is prerequisite for start-up of generator that continuous contact be maintained between all plant
sections directly or indirectly involved in starting procedure. The following checks need to be made:
1.
2.

The coolers should be filled with water. The cooler vents must be open.
Sufficient cooling water supply should be available.

3.

All alarm systems should be checked.

4.

All temperature measuring points should be checked, local as well as

remote reading thermometers.

5.

The generator lubricating oil system must be placed into operation.

The oil flow of the bearings must be checked to ensure an adequate
flow. In addition drains should be inspected for proper operation.

6.

During run up to rated speed, the bearing oil inlet temperature should
be in accordance with the turbine manual.

As previously discussed, when the rotor of a generator is excited through the D.C field windings, the
stationary stator conductors experience a synchronously rotating flux waves & in accordance with
Faradays law, three phase e.m.f. is generated.
During starting, the rotor of the generator is cranked i.e. brought upto near synchronous speed by first
using a separate motor set to bring the turbine upto 25 % of its rated speed & then firing the turbine to
bring the rotor of the generator to its rated speed. This state when the machine is running at its rated
speed without being loaded is the "Full Speed No Load" (FSNL) condition. Now the machine can be excited
by closing the field breaker.
The following must be ensured before exciting the machine
a.

The AVR is reset and put in AUTO mode.

b.

All the protective relays of the generator are reset.

Excitation command is then given to the machine & the generator voltage builds up upto a voltage level as
defined by the minimum reference potentiometer value of the AVR. The voltage is then brought to the
voltage of the bus to which the generator is connected. The speed of the machine is adjusted so that
frequency of generation is close to that of the bus frequency. The machine is now ready for
synchronisation.
7.2 Synchronisation :
7.2.1 Criteria for Synchronisation :
The operation of connecting a generator in parallel with another generator or with a grid of common bus
bars is known as synchronising. In order that an incoming generator may be connected in parallel with
others already in operation the following conditions must be satisfied.

1.
2.

The magnitude of the terminal voltage of the incoming generator must

be equal to that of the system at the bus terminals where the
connections are made.
The speed of the incoming machine must be such that its frequency
equals the bus bar frequency.

3.

The phase sequence of the incoming machine must be the same as

that of the bus.

4.

The bus voltage and the machine voltage should have equal phase i.e.
there should be no phase displacement.

If and only if these conditions are satisfied, the voltages across the three breaker poles of the circuit
breaker are all zero, and the generator can be smoothly " locked" onto the network by closing the breaker.
7.2.2 Disadvantages of Synchronising with Grid :
The major disadvantages of synchronising generator with grid are:

Increase in fault level.

Power may be fed back to the grid and cause accidents and losses in
grid circuit opened for maintenance / other purposes.

Failure of grid supply may result in shock loading, which may result in
crankshaft failure.

Reclosure of breakers at electric supply authoritys end particularly

auto reclosing after self clearing faults may lead to out of phase
synchronising, which may damage the generator.

It involves extensive metering controllers, limiters that are not

required for normal operation.

Failure of prime mover results in the generator to work as synchronous

motor and damage the primer mover.

7.2.3 Procedure for Synchronisation of Generators :

In three phase generators, it is necessary to synchronise one phase only; the other two phases will be
automatically synchronised with each other. But it is necessary that the incoming generator is correctly
phased out i.e. the phases are connected in the proper order of R, Y, B and not Y, R, B.
In this case, three lamps are used. But they are deliberately connected asymmetrically as shown in the fig
1.

Fig. 1 Synchronisation using indicating lamps

This transposition of two lamps helps to indicate whether the incoming machine is running too slow. If the
lamps were connected symmetrically, they would dark out or glow simultaneously.
Lamps L1 is connected between R and R`, L2 between Y and B` and L3 between B and Y` as shown in the
fig.2
Voltage stars of two machines are shown superimposed on each other in diagram below.

Fig. 2 Bright lamp synchronisation

Two sets of star voltages will rotate at unequal speeds if the frequencies of two machines are different. If
the incoming generator is running faster then the voltage star R`Y`B` will appear to rotate in the anticlockwise direction with respect of the bus bar voltage star RYB at a speed corresponding to the difference
between their frequencies. It is seen the voltage across L 1 is RR` and that across L2 is Y`B, which is
decreasing, having passed its maximum, that across L 3 is BY` which is increasing and approaching its
maximum. Hence lamp will light up in the order 2,3,1 or 1,2,3.

Now suppose the incoming machine is slightly slower. Then the star R`Y`B` will appear to be rotating in
the counter clockwise direction relative to the voltage star RYB. Here we find that the voltage across L 3 is
Y`B and is decreasing having passed its maximum. That across L 2 is YB` and is increasing and
approaching its max. Voltage across L1 is decreasing having passed its maximum earlier. Hence lamp will
light up in the order 3,2,1 or 1,3,2.
Usually the lamps are located in the three corners of a triangle and the apparent direction of rotation
indicates whether the incoming machine is rotating too fast or too slow. Synchronisation is done at the
moment the lamp L1 is in the middle of the dark period.
The synchronisation by lamps is not an accurate method. So machines are now synchronised with more
accurate device called synchroscope. It consists of three stationary coils and a rotating iron vane, which is
attached to a pointer. Out of three coils one pair is connected to one phase of the line and the other to the
corresponding machine terminals, potential transformer being used. The pointer moves to one side or the
other from its vertical position depending upon the speed of the incoming machine. Synchronisation is
done at the moment the position of the synchroscope is between 11 O clock and 12 O clock position.
In addition to synchroscope, a separate synchro check relay is connected in circuit. The permissive
contact of which is connected in series in the closing circuit of the breaker. This ensures the
synchronisation at 12o clock position.
A.

Synchronisation by above mode is MANUAL Mode.

B.

In AUTO mode, necessary inputs from incoming machine and from

bus bar is given to a synchroniser.

The function of the synchroniser is that it matches both voltage and frequency and the given output
command (which may in turn be wired in series with synchro check relay) to close the BREAKER.
7.2.3.1 Synchronising Current :
Once synchronised properly, two generators continue to run in synchronism. Any tendency on the part of
one to drop out of synchronism is immediately counteracted by the production of a synchronising torque,
which brings it back synchronism.
When in exact synchronism, two generators have equal potential differences and are in exact phase
oppositions so far as the local circuit (consisting of their armatures) is concerned. Hence, there is no
current circulating round the local circuit . The e.m.f. E 1 of machine No. 1 is in exact phase opposition to
the e.m.f. . of machine No.2 i.e. E2. The two e.m.f. are in phase opposition , so far local circuit is
concerned but in same direction with respect to the external circuit . Hence , there is no resultant voltage
(assuming E1=E2 in magnitude) around the local circuit . But now suppose that due to change in the speed
of the governor of the second machine , E2 falls back by a phase angle of electrical degrees. Though
still E1=E2 there is a resultant voltage Er, which when acting on local circuit , circulates a current known as
synchronising current . the value of this current is given as:
Isy = ER / ZS.
Where,
ZS = Synchronous impedance of phase winding of both machines (or of one machine only if it is connected
to infinite bus)
ER = Resultant Voltage
The current Isy lags behind Er by an angle given by Tan =Xs/Ra, where Xs is combined synchronous
reactance of the two machines and Ra their armature resistance. Ra being very small, is almost 90
degrees and thus Isy lags Er by 90 degrees , being almost in phase with E1. It is seen that Icy is generating
current with respect to machine 1 and motoring current with respect to machine 2( when current flows in
the same direction as e.m.f. then the machine acts a generator and when current flows in opposite to
e.m.f. the machine acts motor). this synchronising I sy sets up a synchronising torque ,which tend to retard
the generating machine i.e. machine No.1 and accelerate the motoring machine i.e. machine No.2 .

Similarly , if E2 tends to advance in phase , then Isy , being generating current for machine No.2 , tends to
retard it and being motoring current for machine No.1 tends to accelerate it . Hence any departure from
synchronism results in production of synchronising current Isy which sets up synchronising torque .This reestablishes synchronism between the two machines by retarding the leading machine and by accelerating
the lagging machine. This current Isy is superimposed on load current in case the machines are loaded.
7.2.3.2 Synchronising Power :
It can be defined as product of synchronising current I sy and potential difference E1 across the generating
machine (as discussed above).
Psy = Isy *E1 (assumed that armature resistance is very small ,thus Isy lags Er by 90 degrees).
Where,
Psy = Synchronising Power
Isy = Synchronising current
E1 = Potential difference across generating machine.
While synchronising or for the case that in which units are already running in synchronism and transient
tries to pull the machine out of synchronism care should taken that minimum synchronising power is
developed .
7.2.3.3 Synchroscope :
The usual type of synchroscope has two coils one fixed and the other a motoring coil. The fixed coil is
energised by the "running voltage" (VR ) which is the grid voltage. The motoring coil is energised by the
incoming voltage V1 that is the voltage of the incoming generator. The running voltage (Grid) and the
incoming voltage (Generator) are sensed through PT generally 110V Ph (63.5 Ph to N) on PT secondary
side. There shall be no phase shift between the primary of the PT and the secondary side of PT, so that the
secondary voltages compared on the synchroscope are in phase whenever the two primary voltages are in
phase. In case there is a phase-shift in one PT (say running PT) then the other PT (incoming PT) should
have identical phase-shift.
Under the above conditions the position of the pointer of an ideal synchroscope :
a.
b.

Will be at 12 'O' clock position steadily when frequency of the running

machine & the incoming machine is the same & the phase difference is
zero.
Will be stationary at 4 O clock position steadily when frequency of
the running machine & the incoming machine is same but the phase
angle is 120 electrical degrees.

c.

Will rotate clockwise if the incoming generator faster than the grid. (
fI < fR)

d.

Will rotate anti-clockwise if the incoming generator is slower than

the grid.( fI < fR)

Where,
fI = Frequency of the incoming machine
fR = Frequency of the running bus
The speed clockwise will be (fI-fR) x 360 degree per sec. provided the value of the difference between f I
and fR (Incoming and running frequencies) does not exceed 0.25 to 0.5 Hz depending on the inertia of the
pointer system which cannot follow if the value of the difference is too great.
If fR is not equal to fI the pointer will never be stationary and will always be moving (provided f R -fI does
not exceed above-mentioned limit) and the position of the pointer at any given instant is the phase angle
between VR and VI. Ideal synchroscope of course are not available.

7.2.4 Components of Excitation Control & Synchronising Panels :

Excitation control panels generally consists of following features :
1.

Auto mode using Automatic Voltage Regulator

Voltage Regulation 1.0% of set value.

Voltage variation of 10% & -10% of nominal voltage.

Facility for remote control of voltage using motorised potentiometer.

Under frequency protection (V/F) , set between 43 & 47 Hz.

Three phase average sensing.

Droop compensation circuit for effective parallel operation of generator

for proper kVAr load sharing.

Maximum excitation limiter as an optional.

Minimum excitation / leading kVAr load limiter. This feature is required

only when generator is running paralleled with the grid and APFC is not
in the circuit.(Optional)

Automatic P.F. /Reactive Current Controller. This feature is required

only when generator is running in parallel with the grid.

2.

Manual mode facility with manual / motorised variac & bridge rectifier.

3.

Auto Field Flash facility with auxiliary DC Voltage.

4.

Diode failure relay for detecting the failure of rotating rectifier diode
while Generator is in operation.

5.

Under & Over excitation relays are mainly to sense the failure of AVR
during parallel operation.

6.

Ensuring excitation shutdown for faults only after the Generator

breaker opens.

7.

Annunciation and Control Logic Circuit.

8.

Smooth changeover from auto to manual mode using auto tracking

unit and OER & UER relays. (Optional)

It is important to provide additional protective features to isolate the generator or grid breaker during
faulty condition to safeguard the generator as well as to avoid any disturbances in grid. Following are
some of the conditions for which the protection must be planned.

In case of emergency condition in the grid, suitable isolation from the

grid is required.
Detection of the grid power supply failure without prior notice.

If connected in plant load is greater than generator capacity , suitable

load throw off system is required after grid falls.

Extensive metering is required for data monitoring.

The various components of a synchronising panel are described as below :

Potential selector push button switches and relays for each circuit
breaker requiring synchronising facility. These relays on picking up
connect to the synchronising bus, the secondary potentials of the
appropriate pair of PTs on either side of the circuit breaker under
synchronising.
Synchronising panel with meters and synchroscope.

Speed and voltage control switches (Raise/Lower) for each generator.

After synchronising the speed-switch functions as a power (raise/lower
switch) control switch for remote loading of each generator.

MW, MVAr, pf, V and A meters for each generator to enable the
operator to do the unloading and loading of the generators
independently when the machines are in parallel with the grid with
fixed power generation as set by the operator but frequency varying
with grid frequency. A frequency meter for each Bus is also needed on
the synchro-control desk.

Trip/Close switches for each breaker.

Emergency stop for each generator.

ON/OFF lamp for each circuit breaker .

"Synchronisation-in progress" lamp slow flashing during manual

synchronising, fast flashing during auto synchronising and steady "ON"
when dead bus charging is selected. Lamps at circuit breaker panels at
site also are to slow flash/fast flash or steady as the case may be for
local indication.

Mimic diagram with semaphore indicators with built-in discrepancy

lamp for each circuit breaker having synchronising facility.

Relays for dead bus charge, manual synchronising, auto-synchronising

The check -synchronising relay.

Four position selector for selecting "Auto" or "Manual" synchronising or

"Off" or "dead -bus-charge" position.

The UV relays 27R, 27I and the potential selector relays etc can be housed in auxiliary panels. The UV
relays will block dead-bus-charging if the bus is really not dead
7.2.5 Functions of a Check Synchronising Relay :
The manual commands of a human operator requires supervision and monitoring so that in case he issues
an inadvertent closing command it is blocked by the check-synchronising -relay. The contact of the check

synchronising relay is in series with the breaker ON contact of the closing switch so that the "close"
command is issued only when both the relay contact and manually operated switch are in "made"
position . The relay closes the contact only when

the two voltages (running and incoming) are within a fixed percentage
of each other in magnitude.
the phase angle between the two voltages are within the set limits.

the difference in the two frequencies does not exceed the set limits.

the rate of change of difference in frequency d(f I-fR)/dt is within set

limits.

If the operator issues a command when the above conditions are not satisfied then the relay will block the
command as the relay contact is open under the circumstances.
7.3 Loading of Generator :
The loading of the generator is done considering various factors as governed by the capability curves &
the V-curves of the machine
7.3.1 Capability Curve :
The capability curve (Fig 3) of a generator defines the operating limits of the machine and its practical use
is in the operation of large synchronous generators. It is in turn governed by active power (prime mover
power output limit), power factor, stator and rotor current limits (as they influence temperature rise) and
dynamic stability of the system. The power produced by a synchronous machine is given by the equation :
P = Vt . Et sin / Xa
Q = (Vt/Xa).[Etcos -Vt]
Where,
P = Active Power
Q = Reactive Power
Xa = Armature Synchronous Reactance
Vt = Generator terminal voltage
Et = E.M.F generated
= Load Angle ( Between Et & Vt )

Fig. 3 Capability Curve

The generator rating for the above diagram is taken as 1.0 p.u. apparent power at a pf of 0.9 lagging, &
the maximum drive power as the corresponding active-power rating i.e. 0.9 p.u. The capability curve has
Active Power on the abscissa (x-axis) and Reactive power on the ordinate (y-axis). The power factor is on
the radial lines originating from a reference point (origin). The positive y-axis has Reactive Power (lagging)
and the negative y-axis has Reactive Power(leading).The working area of the curve encloses all operating
points within the specified limits of rotor excitation, stator current, prime mover power and stability, as
indicated in the Fig. 3
The generator apparent power rating at a specified pf determines the point q & the active power rating
locates the line qp. The stator current limit line is the arc qn struck from centre. At n the rotor current
limit becomes operative : It is assumed that the rotor current must not exceed a value corresponding to E t
= 2.5 p.u. i.e. 2.5 times Vt. The arc nm is therefore struck from centre O, completing the capability chart
for the generator for unity & lagging pf. The line qp cannot be continued downward to the theoretical
stability limit , for the smallest increment of load would cause the machine to fall out of step. A practical
consideration is for the load to be restricted to 0.1 p.u. less than the theoretical limit for any excitation.
The machine is presumed to have a current rating limited by 1.0 p.u. active power at a power factor not
lower than 0.9.
MN represents the excitation limit imposed by rotor heating.
NPS is the prime mover mechanical power limit.
SQ is imposed by stator heating.
QU is the practical stability limit.
For (load angle) greater than 90 degrees, the working region is the region of dynamic stability. The
factors determining dynamic stability are the inertia of the machine and its prime mover, the transient
reactance, damping and exciter response rate.
7.3.2 V-Curves :
The magnitude for armature current varies with excitation. The current has large value both for low and
high value of excitation (though it is lagging for low excitation and leading for high excitation). In
between, it has minimum value corresponding to certain excitation. The variation of I with excitation is
shown in the figure 4, which are known as V-Curves, because of their shape. For the same output, the
current varies over a wide range, and so causes power factor to vary accordingly. When overexcited, the
generator runs with leading power factor and lagging power factor when underexcited. In between, the
power factor is unity. A curve of power factor to excitation current looks like inverted V, which is shown in
the figure 4.

V-Curves applies to both generator as well as motor.

Fig. 4 - V-Curves of A Generator

Capability Curve of 34 MW Generator :

Fig. 5 - Capability Curve of 34 MW Generator

7.4 Modes of Operation :
7.4.1 Equations for Power :
The prime job of the generator is to produce power. The electromechanical air-gap torque that is
developed within the generator constitutes the basic link between the mechanical turbine power P T and the
electrical power PG delivered from the generator terminals. We study briefly the physical mechanism
whereby the air-gap torque is created, and also the qualitative nature of it.
The basic physical law to remember is the force action between a magnetic field B and a perpendicular
current I. The force on the current-carrying conductor. If this law is applied to the rotor-based flux wave
and the stator-based current (I) wave we realise (if - 900 < B < 900) that the stator is subject to a force
(and torque) acting in the direction of rotation.
The rotor is subject to an equal and opposite force (and torque). This latter torque clearly tends to
decelerate the rotor, but will be prevented from doing so by the accelerating turbine torque, which will
always keep exact balance and thus maintain constant rotor speed.
Consider the following diagram

Fig. 6(a)
Where,
= Phase angle between V & I
Resolving the vector I along the two axes,
P = V I Cos (along X - axis)
Q = V I Sin (along Y - axis )
The resultant of P (Active Power) & Q (Reactive Power) gives the factor Apparent Power
The phasor diagram is as follows

Fig. 6 (b)
The formula for complex power
S = P + jQ = | V| | I | cos + j | V | | I | sin
The real and reactive generator powers are as follows:
P = { V E sin }/ Xd + { V / 2} * {1/ Xq - 1/ Xd} sin2 MW/phase
Q = { V E cos }/ Xd + { V cos }/

Xd-

Where,
S = Complex Power
P = Active Power (Measured in MW)
Q = Reactive Power (Measured in MVAr)
V = Terminal voltage of the machine
E = E.M.F Generated
= Load angle (Angle between E & V)
Xd = Direct axis synchronous reactance
Neglecting the saliency effect by setting Xd=Xq=Xs

sin /

Xq MVAr/phase

P = { V E sin }/ Xs MW/phase
Q = { V E cos }/ Xs + { V /

X s}

MVAr/phase

Where Xs = Synchronous reactance of the machine

7.4.2 Operation of a Single Generator :
Synchronous generators can be operated either onto individual loads or, in parallel with other generators,
as part of huge interconnected power grids.
It is simple mode of operation. In this mode, generator set alone provides required power to connected
loads. Load and power factor of generator depends on connected load only. For a fixed connected load,
change in speed setting will result in change of generator frequency. In the similar way, change of
excitation will result in change of generator terminal voltage. Hence loss of excitation will result in loss of
supply to the load, but will not harm the generator
The frequency and terminal voltage level must be controlled by means of the prime-mover torque and the
field current respectively. The load itself essentially determines the generator power, real and reactive.
Primarily the real output power depends upon the load and is controlled by regulating the primemover so
as to achieve torque balance and as a result constant speed and frequency. The excitation level controls
the terminal voltage . However, there is an interaction or cross coupling between these two control
channels; an increase in excitation level cases an increase in real power output which in turn requires a
prime mover adjustment. Although this mode of operation is comparatively uncommon we shall presently
study it for the purpose of comparing it with the more common parallel operation.
Consider a synchronous machine initially running at rated speed, zero loading, and with a 100 percent
terminal voltage. A load consisting of three Y- connected resistors is connected to its terminals.
As the load is being applied, the resulting stator currents immediately will create a stator I wave and an
accompanying air-gap torque. The later will tend to decelerate the rotor. In order to maintain constant
speed it is thus necessary to increase the prime-mover torque until torque balance is restored. The air-gap
torque thus constitutes the mechanism whereby mechanical power from the prime mover is transformed
into electrical power to the load impedances.
The stator current will also cause a voltage drop across the synchronous reactance. Thus we can expect
the terminal voltage to drop below its original 100%. In order to restore constant terminal voltage we
must obviously boost the excitation level, thereby increasing the e.m.f. magnitude.
7.4.2.1 Active Power Control :
Assuming |V| to be constant. If, in addition, the excitation level is fixed then |E| is also constant. Thus, if
non-saliency is also assumed, the real generator output power equals
P [|E| |V|/ {Xs + Xl }] sin = Pmax sin -------------- (Section 7.4.1)
Where Pmax = |E| |V| / (XS + XL) is constant.
Where,
P = Active Power generated
V = terminal Voltage
E = EMF generated or excitation voltage
= Load angle (Angle between E & V)
Xs = Synchronous reactance
XL = Leakage reactance
A positive means that E leads V and this phase relationship forces P to become positive signifying
generator action. On the other hand, should V lead E, then P becomes negative, the machine thus taking
real power from the network, i.e., motoring.

The phase of E is tied to the position of the rotor. A positive N thus results when the prime mover
advances the rotor position by delivery of an accelerating torque. A negative N results when the rotor
moves into a lagging position due to the decelerating torque emanating form a mechanical shaft load.
Changing the fuel supply to the prime mover can alter active power.
7.4.2.2 Reactive Power Control :
The formula tells us that QG becomes positive if
|E| cos > |V| -------------- (Section 7.4.1)
This means that the generator produces reactive power, i.e., and acts, from the network point of view, as
a capacitor. The inequality evidently depends upon , that is, upon the real power P. Generally, however,
the inequality is satisfied for high-magnitude |E|, that is, for strong excitation. We refer to this as over
excitation.
An overexcited synchronous machine (operated either as motor or generator) produces reactive power
and acts as a shunt capacitor as viewed from the network. On the contrary an underexcited machine
consumes reactive power from the network and in consequence acts as a shunt coil, if viewed from the
network. Under excitation is defined by the inequality
|E| cos < |V|
This feature of an overexcited synchronous machine, of actually generating reactive power, is taken
advantage of in a so-called synchronous capacitor. In this mode of operation the machine usually carries
no real load; that is,
N = = 0.
Q = {|V| |E| - |V|2 }/{ Xs + Xl }MVAr
QG can be continuously and simply controlled in both magnitude and direction by changing |E|, that is, by
varying the dc excitation current.
A change in excitation level will not affect the real power output P of the generator. The excitation change
will, however, affect the magnitude of P max., and thus the stiffness of the machine. This means that the
power angle , but not the active power P, will vary. For example, a reduction in the field current will
increase the magnitude of , even possibly to the point of pullout.
A change in the shaft torque will immediately affect the power P. At the same time the power angle will
also change, and since reactive power Q depends on cos , we therefore also experience a change in
reactive power Q. We usually work with power angles below 300. For such small angles, cos N is rather
insensitive to changes in and therefore we do not experience too large a fluctuation in Q. We say that
cross coupling is weak.
7.4.3 Operation of Generators in Parallel with the Grid :
The technical advantages in the parallel operation are,

Backup power supply for emergency systems without interruption

when the systems separate i.e. in case of failure of captive generator
sets the load is changed over to the grid without interruption of power.

A large HT. motor can be started on the combination of grid and

captive set after which, the site-generator-set can be separated from
the grid with the HT-motor on the site-set without interruption.

Better regulation of the sets if the grid is stable. Isolated operation of

the sets is a problem when large motors are started. Sudden load
fluctuations (active and reactive) pose problems to a generator
operating in solo mode.

Co-generation - When the by-product of a process (gas, steam) is

used to generate the power required for the process, it is referred as
co-generation. Co-generation system may be designed to generate
power less than required or more than required for the plant. In the
former case extra power will be imported from the grid and in the
latter, extra power will be exported to grid.

When load is far away from generating station, grid is used to transfer
the power, e.g. hydel plants.

A system in which the change in shaft power or field excitation of a connected generator does not cause
the system frequency or terminal voltage to vary is called an infinite bus.
When generator is synchronised with infinite grid, the terminal voltage & frequency of generator are same
as that of grid and does not have the drooping characteristic. Hence in order to have better stability,
generator should have both speed & voltage droop. The generator kW load is set by governor setting & pf
or kVAr is set by excitation setting.
When generator is paralleled with grid, it is required to monitor that generator works well within safe
operating area of its power capability curve. Normally following four aspects will be monitored.

Prime mover capacity & corresponding generator output.

Rotor current of generator.

Stability limit of generator.

Stator current of generator.

If the grid frequency is widely varying, power delivered by the prime mover changes. For an increase in
the grid frequency, the load on set will decrease and for a decrease in the grid frequency, the load will be
shifted to the primer mover.
If the grid frequency falls below the level of droop set by governor, the prime mover gets overloaded and
if grid frequency rises the prime mover may be driven to reverse power conditions. Hence it is required to
use Automatic Power Controller which continuously monitors generator kW load and maintains the same
tot he set value by adjusting the governor of the prime mover.
When the generator is paralleled with grid, a simple quadrature droop compensation feature is not
sufficient for effective VAr loading. Normally QDC droop is set to 4% for the rated load of the generator.
When the grid voltage decreases below the droop setting level, generator kVAr load increases. And hence
the rotor current as well as stator current may also exceed the limit. When the grid voltage increases,
generator kVAr goes on decreasing and may go tot he leading side beyond the stability limit resulting in
generator pulling out of the synchronisation.
Hence it is required to use an Automatic Power Factor or VAr Controller (APFC) in order to maintain the
generator kVAr-loading tot he set value.
In case of automatic power factor controller, in addition to maintaining the kVAr for varying grid voltage it
also varies the kVAr of generator proportional kW load to maintain the power factor constant. However it
is not possible to use both pf & VAr controller simultaneously. APFC output may be either potential free
relay contacts or DC signal. In the former case, excitation set potentiometer of AVR must be motorised

potentiometer and hence it can be used with any type of AVR. Whereas in latter case, it need not be
motorised. Since DC signal is given directly to AVR, APFC has to be compatible with AVR.
When generator is employed with APFC control, it will not allow generator to go to leading side. But in the
absence of APFC, generator may go to the leading side for increase in the grid voltage. As already
explained generator load angle increases & generator will go out of synchronism, if reverse kVAr crosses
the stability limit. Hence minimum excitation / leading VAr limiters are used to see that generators should
not cross the stability limit.
Stator current of generator constitutes both active and reactive current components. Excitation control
only limits the reactive current. When generator is in lagging mode, to limit reactive stator current,
excitation should not increase. In leading side, excitation current should not decrease, to limit stator
current. Minimum excitation limiter setting also takes care for reactive stator current in leading side. In
lagging side, APFC in reactive current mode will limit the stator current. In brushless generators main field
current or voltage is limited to limit rotor current.
7.4.3.1 Terms used with respect to Parallel Operation :
Islanding - When a large-system fed by several generators (or generating-stations) is split into several
segments due to the tripping of interconnecting lines, then each segment is an "island" with its own
generation and load. In some of the islands, generation may exceed demand with consequent
overspeeding and over-frequency, while in other islands generation may fall short of demand, causing
under-frequency conditions.
Spinning Reserve - A generator on bars (or grid) delivering an output Pa lower than its rated out Pr has a
spinning reverse of Pr-Pa if it can be rapidly raised from a generation level of Pa to Pr in a short time within
a minute or two. The hydro machines only, have the spinning reverse. For all other machines, the
generation of power has to be raised gradually.
Closed loop control for MW-setting on the TG Set - A control system in which the MW- setting on the
T-G set is maintained by adjusting the boiler-output to match the MW-setting so that the T-G set
generates the set-power but the speed of the T-G set follows the grid speed. For DG sets also, set-powergeneration is feasible on closed loop control, only if the DG-Set is in parallel operation with grid. In
islanded mode of operation the power generated by DG-Set or sets follows the demand of the island on
which the set (or sets) are operating. In islanded mode, the local-site-generators operate on fixed
frequency, the generation fluctuating in step with the demand in the island.
Turbine follows Boiler" Mode - This is in vogue in nuclear stations where the turbine follows the boiler
(Reactor) and generates as much power as is possible with the steam generated by the Nuclear-boiler.
Power-sharing mode (fixed frequency but varying power mode) - When two local generators (HV)
are operated in parallel on an islanded system, the two sets have to share the load in the ratio of their
ratings. If an 8 MW set is in parallel with a 5 MW set then loads on the islanded system will be shard in the
ratio of 8:5 . In this mode they operate on fixed frequency but active and reactive power vary with the
demand on the island.
Parallel-Operation mode (fixed power-but-varying frequency mode) - When the two above
mentioned HV-local -site generators are operated in parallel with the grid of the utilities, the mode of
control has to be changed over from power-sharing mode (as "e" above) to parallel-operation mode.. In
this mode, the sets generate power as set by the operator, who for example can set 7 MW on 8MW set
and 2MW on the other 5MW set. The speeds of the two generators follow the grid-speed (grid-frequency)
7.4.3.2 Protection and Controls needed for Parallel Operation :
A grid running in steady state condition may fall into alarming stage due to single or number of
abnormalities. Further deterioration of this condition can lead the system to fall into emergency step and
ultimately cause collapse (Cascade tripping).
Islanding Scheme identifies these abnormalities and islands the CPP in appropriate time so that islanded
system can come back to steady stage operation fast.

Abnormalities can be categorised as:

1.
2.

Loss of major generating unit,

Steep increase in load demand,

3.

Sustained overload operation of the grid.

4.

Short circuit in grid electrically near to CPP.

1. Loss of major generating unit - In the event of loss of major generating unit in the grid, the other
generators connected to the grid become overloaded. This power imbalance causes rapid frequency decay
in the grid.
For Maharashtra State gird, frequency decay at the rate of 1 Hz. per sec. and above can be viewed as loss
of major generating unit.
2. Steep increase in load demand / loss of minor generating unit - The power imbalance in this
condition causes frequency decay in the grid, but the frequency decay is not as sharp as mentioned
earlier.
Under these circumstances, all generators connected to the grid increase their generation. Combination of
tie line power flow, captive generator overload and gradual fall in frequency of the system can be viewed
as the indication of this type of abnormality.
3. Sustained overload operation of the grid - This condition can result in during peak load period,
outage of generators and subsequent increase in load. The effect of this is sustained under frequency
operation of the grid.
Power system is said to be operated in alarming state in this condition and this is vulnerable. More over,
sustained under frequency operation is not desirable for the following reasons:
i.

ii.

Steam Turbines comprise several stages of turbine blades of varying

lengths, shapes and natural frequencies of vibration. The design is
such that at synchronous speed, the vibration is within limits. Offfrequency operation of a turbine under loaded condition increases the
vibration stresses on the turbine blades and may eventually damaged
them. The reduction in frequency of 2% for about 90 minutes would
result in damage of particular machine blades. Similarly, 3% reduction
for 10-15 minutes and 4% reduction for 1 minute could result in
damage. For actual limits of a particular machine, manufacturers data
is referred.
The generated e.m.f. of the synchronous machine is reduced during
under frequency operation, which may lead to over excited operation
of the machine, leading to the generator being operated near its
capability limits.

iii.

User equipment are designed only for 5 % frequency variation since

low frequency operation reduces the efficiency of motors and increases
the losses.

iv.

The performance of frequency clocks is unreliable.

CPP may decide to get islanded in this condition at a predetermined frequency. While deciding this
frequency, under frequency trip setting of in-house generators and load shedding steps are generally
considered.
4. Short Circuit in Grid Electrically near to CPP - In this condition CPP will feed the fault and voltage
drop will also be encountered.

Some of the popular Islanding logics are :

i.

Under frequency + df / dt operation: This is resorted in cases where

there is loss of generation from tie.
Directional overcurrent + undervoltage operation: This is resorted in
cases where there are external uncleared faults.

ii.

iii.

Under frequency: Whenever the conditions in the system are such that
generation margin is insufficient to maintain the frequency in the
system.

Typical Islanding Logic :

1.
2.

Discrete Under frequency

Under frequency along with rate of change of frequency.

3.

Under frequency along with flow of current to grid.

4.

Under voltage along with flow of current to grid.

5.

Generator Overload along with flow of current to grid.

Load shedding scheme initiated by under-frequency detectors with df/dt feature: The under-frequency as
well as the rate of deterioration in frequency indicates distress of the system and the urgent need to
separate the site-system from the grid and simultaneously initiate load shedding so that the load on the
island is restricted to the capacity of the generators in service at the moment of separation. The underfrequency signal in conjunction with the permissive signal of df/dt relay will initiate system separation by
tripping Circuit breaker as well as by load shedding on the islanded bus.
Under Frequency Load Shedding - Whenever, CPP gets islanded from the grid, it may not be capable of
supply all the loads connected to it. Hence, the frequency goes down and if relief is not given by shedding
some of the loads, the generators in the CPP may trip on overloading. In order to avoid such tripping and
the undesirable effects of sustained under frequency in the system, CPPs' resort to the practice of under
frequency load shedding. In a modern CPP system, automatic load shedding on under frequency is
incorporated which functions based on the following guidelines.
1.
2.

Frequency even transiently should not touch minimum acceptable

value.
Frequency over shoot should be minimum.

3.

The settling frequency after the load is shed should be 49 Hz or above.

4.

Since most induction motor loads are frequency dependent, the

dynamic load characteristic must be borne in mind while initiating load
shedding.

Whenever islanding occurs in an interconnected system, there may arise a situation where there is a
shortfall of generation resulting in frequency decline. Load shedding operation is typically initiated in such
systems. It is preferable to distribute the load shedding equipment evenly within the proposed island.
Load Shedding is of Two Types :
Anticipatory Load Shedding - In Anticipatory load shedding loads are cut off anticipating the probable
drop in frequency when any power system gets islanded from grid.
Effect Based Load Shedding - Effect based load shedding is the one in which the under frequency relays
sense the actual system frequency and cut off loads in steps as per the priority decided at various
frequency values. This is also called as frequency based load shedding (FBLS). The steps of load shedding

are so decided that each step gives enough load relief to the generators and help them to go back to
stable operating frequency.
Pure under frequency relays is normally adequate. However, in cases of disturbances in the system where
frequency decay is very rapid, before the action of the under frequency relays, the frequency can sink to
very low values. In such cases, under frequency + rate of change of frequency relays are utilised to
determine the load shedding.
With the advent of numerical relays with communicable features, it is possible to provide dynamic load
shedding or fast acting load shedding (FALS) facility within the system. In this case, processors or
computer facilitates are interfaced with the relays, which continuously monitor the system configuration as
well as the frequency in the system. This system detects a system disturbance that is table but results in
lines operating beyond their ratings, low system voltages and heavy reactive demand on generating units.
The FALS then sheds enough loads in a short amount of time to prevent a cascading loss of a line or a
generator with the possibility of a blackout. There would be facility for deciding the feeders to be tripped
depending on the assigned priority and generation margin available in the system.

Directional power relays (or low-forward power relays) are needed if

export to grid is to be blocked. The generator also need reverse power
relays to prevent motoring action of the sets.

7.4.3.3 Power Control Modes for Generators :

Various modes of operation in GTG are described below:
a.

b.

Preselect Mode - Selection of this mode is normally resorted to when

we are operating in parallel with the grid. The machine load will be at a
preselect value irrespective of any changes in the grid frequency. The
magnitude of power, which can be selected, is within the machine
capability. Any external load control signal (command to increase or
decrease the speed) will bring out the machine from the preselect
mode of operation and takes it into "droop mode". In this mode of
operation, machine follows grid frequency. If it is steady, there is no
change in active power output. But if frequency decreases or
increases, the generator tries to follow it and accordingly active power
output increases or decreases. Hence it is advisable to select the
machine to preselect mode.
Base Load Mode - This is the most economical mode of operation
when HRSG is also in operation. This is basically a temperature
control. The machine will be loaded to its maximum capability within
its permissible temperature of exhaust gases. The output of the
machine goes on varying as per the changes in the ambient
temperature.

c.

Peak Load Mode - This is also a temperature control mode of

operation similar to base load but the exhaust gas temperature set
value will be at a higher value. This is not a regularly recommended
mode of operation, as it will be overstressing the machine.

d.

Droop Mode - This is the mode of operation when machine is running

in parallel with the grid. The increase and decrease in grid frequency
will decrease or increase the generation of the machine. Similarly, in
isolation, if the load increases, the frequency falls and vice-versa. Here
also, the load that the machine can take is limited to base load
capacity.

e.

Isochronous Mode - Selection of this mode is normally resorted to

when the machine is operating in isolation with the grid. This is
basically a constant speed control, which keeps the machine operating
frequency at preset value. Again, this is applicable as long as the
machine is operating within the base load capacity.

Normal mode of operation when operating in parallel is preselect mode at a specified generation.
When islanded from the grid due to any grid abnormalities, islanding signal is given which will bring the
generator out of the preselect mode to droop mode. After the machine is in droop control mode, it may
manually be taken to isochronous mode.
In grid stations, the operator chooses the power setting on governor controls. In Hydro station he sets
power generation on each machine in accordance with instruction received from load-despatch-centre
(daily generation-schedule with hour-wise demands and generation) or on his own in accordance with
guide lines laid down to meet emergencies like sudden drop in grid frequency. Hydro stations being
peaking stations usually generate during morning peak and evening peak hours and is shut down rest of
the time. If it is an irrigation-oriented reservoir, power generation being secondary, water has to be let out
for irrigation irrespective of whether power is needed or not. Then round the clock generation is on at such
powerhouses for utilising the irrigation discharges, reducing if necessary thermal generation. When there
are surpluses spilling over the dam due to rains and floods, 24-hour generation is again restored to.
Thermal stations are base-load stations generating steadily fixed blocks of power round the clock. The
operator sets the governor control for maximum generation consistent with available boiler output. In a
sophisticated closed loop control the boiler output may also be controlled to meet the MW-setting. The
generation is essentially set by the shift operator and the speed of the machine follows grid frequency, and
equilibrium is set by the total generation on grid. In this situation naturally no machine can be set for
"fixed frequency" as the grid frequency is the same every where at any given time is largely dependent on
the "generation-demand gap". This mode is the "Power set by operator on governor control and speed of
the machines varying with grid frequency". The maintenance of the grid frequency at 50 Hz or close to 50
Hz is the responsibility of the operators at the larger powerhouses where some-spinning reverse is
available.
In captive stations, when a consumer has his own generators to meet the deficit, they are some times
operated in parallel with grid with or without export of power being allowed. Here also the captive
generators generate power as set by the operator with the machine speed following grid frequency. The
grid and local captive generators in the ratio of their reactances share the starting kVA of any large motor
started in the plant. Naturally this means that the grid will meet almost the entire additional starting load
with very little disturbance on the local generator, as the ratio of grid reactance to local reactance is very
high. (Remote grid-reactance to local -source-reactance).
In captive stations, the local generators are sometimes operated in an "Islanded mode" separated from
grid. If 3 generators G1, G2, G3 of dissimilar rating say P1 P2 and P3 are operated in parallel in islanded
mode but separated from grid, then any new additional load started on these 3 sets is shared in the ratio
of P1:P2:P3. The machines can operate at fixed frequency set by the operator but with generation varying
to meet the varying demand on the islanded machines till the limits of rating are reached. If only one
generators working say G1 (P1-Kw) then the controls will respond as if the "Power sharing setting" is P 1:
0:0 and the machine will operate in isolation and take all the load and operate in "fixed frequency set by
operator but generation following demand changes". In an island generation follows the demand with
respect to active as well as reactive power.
Thus there are two modes of control. The first mode "fixed power with varying frequency" is for
parallel operation with grid while second mode "fixed frequency with varying power shared in the
ratio of name plate rating of captive generators" is for islanded mode of operation. The governor and AVR
controls must be changed over instantaneously and automatically from the first mode to the second mode
in the event of the local site-machines of the captive station getting islanded from grid without an operator
having to change the " grid operation -Islanded operation" control-selector-switch.
Generators of consumers have 2 modes, "parallel with grid" mode and "Islanded mode". The islanded
mode calls for a partial load shedding scheme on basis of df/dt under-frequency-detection to limit the load
on the captive generators to the capacity of the machines.
This "partial load shedding or rather "load limitation" scheme is different from the "total load shedding" on
the HV bus where an entire bus is unloaded, the second source connected and auto load-resumptionsequence take-up. The partial load shedding is to protect the captive or emergency generators already on
the bus. But total shedding is needed when the emergency generator is not on the bus but is to be started
from rest requiring one minute or more of interruption.

7.4.3.4 Load Frequency Control :

Since the control of system frequency and load depends upon the governors of the prime movers we must
understand governor operation. It is seen that with a given setting there is a definite relationship between
turbine speed and the load being carried by the turbine. If the load carried by the turbine increases the
speed decreases.
Load Frequency Problem -If the system consists of a single machine connected to a group of loads the
speed and frequency change in accordance with the governor characteristics as the load changes. If it is
not important to keep frequency constant no regulation control is required. The frequency normally would
vary by about 5% between light load and full load conditions. On the other hand if constant frequency is
required the operator can adjust the speed of the turbine by changing the governor characteristic as and
when desired.
If two machines running in a parallel take care of a change in load as shown in figure the complexity of
the system is increased. The possibility of sharing the load by the two machines is as follows: Say, there
are two stations S2 or S2 interconnected through a tie line. If the change in load is either at S 1 or S2 and if
the generation of S1 alone is regulated to adjust this change so as to have constant frequency, the method
of regulation is known as Flat Frequency Regulation. Under such situation station S 2 is said to be operating
on base load. The major drawback of flat frequency regulation is that S 1 must absorb all load changes for
the entire system thereby the tie-line between the two stations would have to absorb all load changes at
the station S2 since the generator at S2 would maintain its output constant. The operation of generator S2
on base load has the advantage when S2 is much more efficient than the other station and it is desirable to
obtain maximum output of S2.
The other possibility of sharing the change in load is that both S1 and S2 would regulate their generations
to maintain the frequency constant. This is known as parallel frequency regulation. The third possibility is
that the generator takes care of the change in a particular area in that area thereby the tie line loading
remains constant. This method of regulating the generation for keeping constant frequency is known as
flat tie-line loading control. This arrangement has the advantage that load swings on station S 1 and the tie
line would be reduced as compared with the flat frequency regulation. Automatic equipment permits
various types of system control. The various methods discussed above can be performed with the help of
automatic control equipment. Besides these, two other types of controls are widely used in automatic
arrangements.
They are :
a. Selective Frequency Control
b. Tie line load-bias Control.

Fig. 7 - Operating Cases of a Synchronous Machine

Refer Section (7.4.2.1 & 7.4.2.2)

8.0 Turbine Governing System

The turbines governing system functions to control steam/Fuel flow through the unit. It usually does this
to keep some output parameter under control.
Depending upon the application, following are the controlled parameters :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Turbine shaft speed

Exhaust-steam pressure
Automatic-extraction pressure
Inlet steam pressure
Driven-equipment discharge pressure.
Driven-equipment differential pressure
Exhaust temperature constant
Output MW constant

9.

Any combination of these factors.

8.1 Operation :
Turbine shaft speed is one of the most important parameters to be controlled. Even when the actual
output important parameter may be different as above, speed control overrides other parameters.
Turbine speed will stay constant even without governing, just as long as shaft load and throttle-valve
opening are unchanged and steam/Fuel conditions remain steady. But when shaft load increases with
constant throttle-valve opening, the turbine slows down; to return shaft speed to normal, the valve must
open wider, and admit more steam. A shaft-speed governor can make these changes automatically.
In older versions, flyweight assembly measures shaft speed. Two flyweights mounted on a plate, which
turns about a vertical axis driven by the turbine shaft through a worm and gear. Weights are pivoted so as
centrifugal force tilts them outward, they compress the stationary speeder spring and lift up the speeder
rod. Speeder-rod movement can be hooked up to open and close the turbine throttle valve, Fig.4. The
present trend for speed measurement is through speed probes, which are mounted at convenient
locations and measure against a notch or small speed gears.
8.1.1 Basic Principle :
How does a governor behave? First lets hold the weights in their innermost position- weights in- with the
speeder rod, and turn the assembly at its rated 100% speed. Well exert a downward resisting force F on
rod while weights turn through circle with radius R. These governors were developed initially for speed
control on steam turbines.
If weights move through a circle with larger radius, we find that force on speeder rod is larger , though
speed is still 100%. Force F=MR (rpm)2 where M is the flyweights mass, R is radius of their motion and
rpm the number of turns per minute.
Plotting force F against governor travel or speeder-rod position for various speeds from 98 to 102% , we
get the family of the straight-line curves in Fig 2., which ideally converge at a common point off to the
lower left of the chart. Slope of each speed curve has a scale reading in lb. force per inch of governor
travel.
A speeder spring with a scale to match the 100% curve develops the same resisting force F for a given lb.
per inch of compression or governor travel. Spring scales set at the middle of governor travel at 100%
speed would be fine as long as all factors stayed constant. But as soon as load on the unit decreased , the
shaft would speed up. Then weights would develop more force than the spring over the range of governor
travel. Weights would fly to their weights-out limit, shutting the steam valve.
As steam flow stopped, unit would slow down . Slightly below 100% speed the springs mechanical force
would overbalance the weights centrifugal force and slam them to weights-in completely opening the
steam valve. So if weight and spring scales are equal theyre continually fighting, producing wild hunting
from fully shut to wide-open throttle valve, without hope of reaching a balance. Obviously, this is no way
to govern a turbine.

8.1.2 Speed Droop :

To get out of this dilemma, spring force must grow faster than weight force as speed rises. Spring scale
should be steeper (larger) than the flyweight scale, solid black line in Fig.1. Suppose the turbine is running
at 100% speed curve. When shaft load drops , shaft speed rises. Then increased force of the flyweights
momentarily overbalances the spring force, , raising the speeder rod to decrease throttle valve-valve
opening. Decreased steam flow limits shaft speed rise, so spring force again balances the higher flyweight
force at the new higher speed . Governor cant travel to its weight-out limit because the spring exerts
greater force than the weights beyond the new point of balance. Normally dead bands are built-in which
may be adjustable within certain limits to avoid too frequent operations.
If the turbine is running at 100% speed and load rises, the shaft slows down. Then flyweights lesser force
lets the overbalancing spring force lower the speeder rod to open the throttle valve wider. Increased
steam limits the speed drop so diminishing spring force matches weight force at the lower speed Governor
wont travel to its weights-in limit because the weights exert more force than the spring below the new
balance point. At each point in governor travel the turbine runs at a definite speed , slower at full load and
faster at no load. For the spring scale in Fig.2 speed varies by 4% from full to no load. This is the
governors regulation or speed droop. Fig.4 shows speeder rod and control-valve hookup. Though most of
the speed governors operate at 4% droop, provision is normally available to adjust it within a certain
range.
Frictional effects, ignored in the ideal model, play a big part in design of a working governor. Suppose
the unit is running at 98% speed in Fig.2 at the weight in position, and then speeds up. Weights force
rises, but because of friction in the linkage and glands the governor doesnt move immediately. By the
time the turbine reaches 99 % speed, force is large enough to overcome friction and the governor travels
along the upper dotted curve.
Now lets bring speed up to 101% at point A by reducing turbine load . Next, well start to load it again ;
the turbine slows down to 99.4% speed at point B before the governor responds by moving toward its
weights-in limit along the lower dotted line. Vertical distance between upper and lower dotted lines
measures the governors dead band, which in turn defines sensitivity: speed change needed to produce a
corrective movement in governor travel.

8.1.3 Speed-output curve :

Fig.2 , shows how a governor varies shaft speed with load. A given spring scale A produces 100% speed at
full load. As turbine is unloaded the shaft speed rises until it reaches 104% speed at no load. But usually
we want to keep shaft speed constant at all loads. So a speed changer , (Fig.3) is added. It puts additional
spring force on the lever controlling the steam valve, is regulated by hand or remote-controlled motor.

Suppose we have a 100% load at 100% speed and bring load down to 75% in Fig.2. Speed rises to
101% . We would reduce this to 100% by loosening the speed - changer spring, allowing the steam valve
to close a little more. Fig.2. shows characteristics for speeder spring adjusted to hold 100% speed at 25,
50, 75 and 100% loads.

8.1.4 Relayed Governor :

Fig.4., is used where speeder rod doesnt develop enough force to move the steam valve. A floating lever
links speeder rod to a pilot valve and the servomotor that actually moves the control valve. Initial
speeder-rod movement pivots the lever on the servomotor stem and moves the pilot-valve stem. This
admits h-p oil to the spring-loaded servomotor cylinder or drains oil from it. Moving the control valve to its
new position . Motion also moves the pilot valve to neutral so it wont overshoot the new position of the
control valve.

Turbines with large steam valves need a relayed governor plus amplification., Fig.5. A cup type pilot valve
bleeds h-p oil from the line to control the first-step amplifier piston. This piston controls the pilot valve of
the main servomotor. Servomotor is not spring-loaded: to move it. H-p oil is admitted on one side, drained
from the other.
8.1.5 Isochronous Governor :
Fig.6 holds the same steady-state speed on a turbine at all loads without a speed changer. When load first
varies it produces a transient change in the shaft speed, but thats gradually eliminated as load stays
constant at its new level. On a change in load the speeder rod moves the receiving piston, and pilot valve
in turn unbalances the spring -balanced buffer piston while moving the servomotor to its new position.

8.1.6 Hydraulic Governors :

Fig 7. Has a special centrifugal pump instead of flyweights as its speed-sensing element. Oil pressure
varies as the square of the shaft speed. Governor pump controls throttled pressure developed by the main
oil pump; this acts on the bellows in the speed changer. Bellows controls the cup type valve, which is part
of the pilot valve, regulating pressure in another bellows which positions the servomotor pilot valve.

8.2 Generator Load Division :

Fig.8. depends directly on the governor droops of the turbines that drive the generators. Paralleled
synchronous generators run at the same speed just as if they were connected mechanically. When load
rises, speed falls until total output of all units meet s the new demand . In Fig.8 two machines A and B
have the droops shown by the black curves. At 100% speed A carries 43% load and B40% load. If load
rises until speed falls to 99% , A carries 72% load and B 80% load. To restore speed to 100% with this
same division ,speed changers on both units are adjusted to lift both curves the same amount

Returning to 100% speed in Fig.8, suppose we want to drop load from the total 40 + 43 % to 63%. If B is
to take all the reduction, its droop must be lowered to the red curve. In general , unit with least droop will
always take largest share of the total load during frequency variation.
8.3 Speed Monitoring :(with electromagnetic transmitter) :
Purpose - Turbine operation requires accurate sensing and remote indication of turbine speed. One or
more contactless electromagnetic transmitters pass the speed to an indicator. The speed can also be used
as an input signal for any open or closed-loop control functions.
Construction and mode of operation - A steel disk is bolted onto the impeller of the hydraulic speed
transmitter (3). A number of slots or holes are equally spaced around the circumference of this disk. When
the steel disk rotates before the transmitter, the transmitter generates a frequency directly proportional to
the speed of the turbine rotor. In a following converter, the transmitter frequency is converted into a speed
-proportional current, which is either displayed or used for other open or closed-loop control functions.
8.3.1 Hydraulic Speed Transmitter :
Purpose - The hydraulic speed transmitter produces a primary oil pressure acts as an actual value for the
measuring transducer of the hydraulic speed governor.
Design - The speed transmitter is fitted to the reduction gear unit at the front bearing housing. A
gearwheel on the transmitter drive shaft (6) engages with a pinion on a shaft in the reduction gear unit
driven by the turbine rotor. This enables the higher speed of the turbine rotor to be adapted to the
required transmitter speed. The impeller (4) is bolted to the other end of the drive shaft.
Mode of operation - The oil pocket of the impeller is constantly supplied with pressure oil P. Excess oil
drains away via an annular collar around the inner wall of the impeller oil pocket. This ensures an even
thickness of oil in front of the radial impeller passages at all times. As the impeller rotates, a pressure is
produced in the radial passages appropriate to the centrifugal action. The pressure level is determined
purely by the impeller speed since all other parameters likely to influence the pressure remain unchanged.
The speed transmitter is largely unaffected by temperature fluctuations since the temperature scarcely
influences the specific weight of the oil.
The rotary action of the impeller is also transferred to the oil leaving the radial passages. A guide or
throttle ring, which surrounds the impeller, prevents the rotary motion of the oil being extended to the
entire primary oil pocket since this could result in pressure fluctuations in the primary oil circuit.
8.4 Speed Governing System (Generator Drive - SR IV) :
General - This is a typical Electro-hydraulic governing system developed by M/S Siemens and installed at
25 MW Siemens turbine generator in Energy Centre Patalganaga. ( Refer Schematic diagram Fig. 9 )
Function - The speed governor maintains the turbine speed constant according to its characteristic.
Depending on the characteristics of the controlled system a transducer with either proportional or
proportional-differential characteristics is used. The comparison of the reference value and actual value in
the speed governor produces a secondary oil pressure at the output. This acts as a signal on the pilot
valve in the servo valve at the actuator, which determines the position of the control, valves according to
the magnitude of the secondary oil pressure.
Construction - The speed governor comprises primarily a body containing the starting device *), the
transducer, the reference spring and the set value-actual value comparator. To this basic unit various types
of starting control, reference setter and amplifier *) can be added. The signal input of the starting setter
can be either manual, electric or pneumatic. The amplifier can have up to three outputs and also different
signal biasing (electric or pneumatic.)
Mode of Operation :

P Transducer - The primary oil pressure produced by the speed transmitter on the turbine rotor acts as
the signal input for the transducer (speed actual value). The primary oil B enters the space surrounding
the transducer and exerts a pressure on it.
PD Transducer - The primary oil pressure produced by the speed transmitter on the turbine rotor acts as
the signal input for the transducer (speed actual value). The primary oil B1 enters the space surrounding
the transducer, whereas primary oil B2 flows through a hole into the gallery and thence into the
transducer space . Primary oil B2 has a delayed action compared with primary oil B1. This is achieved by
means of a throttle and accumulator in a second primary oil circuit (see Governing System Diagram 9).
The accumulator decouples the primary oil B1 and primary oil B2 action at transducer. The throttle
provides primary oil B1 and B2 action at the measuring converter differing in time so that, for example, if
there is a rise in pressure in the primary oil system the governor temporarily overdrives in the close
direction, i.e. the secondary oil pressure falls more sharply than is actually demanded by the control
deviation. The equalization in pressure between primary oilB1 and primary oil B2 returns the secondary oil
pressure to the value corresponding to the prevailing droop setting.
Set Value - Actual Value Comparator - The force exerted by the transducer on the comparator arm is
opposed by the reference spring . Under steady-state conditions the spring force balances the force of the
transducer. One end of the comparator arm is pivoted in the bottom end of the starting device rod by
means of a pin. The comparator arm is deflected if the equilibrium of the forces is disturbed due to a
change in reference value(spring force) or actual value sleeve on a follow-up piston . The follow-up piston
is held against the prevailing secondary oil pressure C by a tension spring in a bushing . The ends of the
tension spring are held in caps, each of which has an adjusting screw. The secondary oil pressure
established in the spring compartment acts as a signal on the pilot valve of the actuating mechanism and
thus determines the position of the control valves.
Amplifier - The secondary oil circuit is fed from the trip oil circuit via an orifice plate. In the follow-up
piston and the sleeve there are drain slots through which a volume of oil corresponding to the over-lap of
the slots can escape. If the comparator arm falls due to a drop in primary oil pressure the sleeve moves
down-wards, reducing the over-lap of the drain slots. As a result the pressure in the spring compartment
of the follow-up piston rises and the follow-up piston is forced further downwards by the increasing spring
force until a new equilibrium has been established between the secondary oil pressure and the spring
force . The flexible suspension of the follow-up piston from a spring produces a linear relationship between
the secondary oil pressure and the stroke of the comparator arm according to the spring characteristic. If
the primary oil pressure rises the process described occurs in the opposite manner with the result that the
secondary oil pressure falls.
Reference Setter - The reference setter can be used to adjust the reference spring via the push rod and
therefore also the comparator arms. This temporarily changes the secondary oil pressure and hence the
turbine speed and the primary oil pressure. The change in the turbine speed causes a different equilibrium
of forces to be established at the comparator arm.
If the generator is paralleled with a supply system of constant voltage and frequency the turbine speed is
kept constant by the system. Therefore, adjusting the reference value with the reference setter simply
changes the secondary oil pressure and hence the power output.
Functional Check - A functional check of the governing system can be performed using the tapered
handle of the acceleration system. It moves the comparator arm upwards, overriding all other control
factors, until the pilot of the arm is at the point of action of the reference spring and the transducer. The
sleeve of the follow-up piston falls and the secondary oil pressure rises, causing the control valves to lift.
If the acceleration system is actuated for a sufficient time the Overspeed safety device will trip the
turbine.
An important part of the turbine control system is the speed governing circuit. The circuit comprises the
speed pick-up (1110) , hydraulic governor (1100) with proportional action, the control valve actuator
(1900) and the control valves (0800).
The principal parts of the hydraulic governor are the transducer (1120), the reference value adjuster
(1130) and the amplifier(1600) with one or more follow-up pistons. The secondary oil pressure produced
at the output of the amplifier as a result of the force balance between the transducer and the spring of the

reference value determines the position of the control valves (0800) via the servo valve and control valve
actuator (1900).
8.4.1 Mode of Operation :
The speed pick-up (1110), driven by the turbine rotor, produces a primary oil pressure, which increases as
the square of the turbine speed (speed actual value) which is used as the signal input for the transducer
(1120) . Thus, any speed deviation results in movement of the comparator arm that is connected to the
transducer by an interference fit. The force exerted on the comparator arm by the transducer opposes the
reference value spring.
The stroke of the comparator is converted in the follow-up piston amplifier into a proportional oil pressure
(secondary oil pressure ). The system comprises a preliminary throttle and follow-up pistons and is fed
from the emergency trip oil circuit via the preliminary throttle.
If for example, the comparator arm moves downward in response to a fall in primary oil pressure (speed
reduction) the sliding sleeve on the follow-up piston is displaced downwards. The overlap and, thus, the
drain cross-sectional area is reduced , i.e. the throttling effect of the drain slot in the follow-up piston is
increased. Consequently ,less oil also flows via the follow-up piston into the oil drain. Following reduction
of the draining oil, the loss in pressure at the preliminary throttle also decreases. The resulting increase in
secondary oil pressure causes the follow-up piston to follow the movement of the sliding sleeve until the
hydraulic force, resulting from the secondary oil pressure times the effective surface on the follow-up
piston is equal to the force of the follow-up piston spring.
The change in pressure is determined by the stroke of the follow-up piston and by the characteristic of its
spring. There is a proportional relationship between the stroke and secondary oil pressure.
Control Valves Opening or Closing :
The secondary oil pressure acts as a signal on the underside of the pilot valve in the servo valve of the
control valve actuator (1900). The pilot valve temporarily assumes a position corresponding to the
secondary oil pressure in order to direct pressure oil to either the top or bottom of the actuator piston.
The piston is thus removed upwards or downwards, thereby operating the control valves (0800).
Simultaneously, the pilot valve is moved to the middle position via the mechanical feedback.
If the equilibrium at the comparator arm is disturbed as a result of a drop in speed (change in actual
value) the secondary oil pressure increases. The pilot valve in the servo valve is lifted until equilibrium
between the secondary oil pressure and the spring of the feedback system on the actuator is restored.
Pressure oil can now enter the space above the piston depending upon the magnitude of the secondary oil
pressure, whereas the space below the piston is connected to the oil drain (refer also to the diagram : the
lower rectangle moves to a position between the oil connections). The piston is forced downwards and
opens the control valves. The feedback system on the actuator returns the pilot valve to the original
position shown in the diagram, thus stabilizing the position of the piston. If the control valves are required
to close ,i.e. the primary oil pressure increases, the procedure described is performed in a similar, but
opposite, manner.
Speed Adjustment :
The speed can be adjusted between approximately 85 and 107%, referred to the rated speed. This is
effected using the reference value adjuster. When the force of the reference value spring is changes
(change in the reference value), the speed/power characteristic is modified. This results in the speed and
the power output changing when the machine is running alone and the power output only changing when
the machine is running in parallel. The slope of the characteristic and thus the proportional range is
determined by the reference value spring constant. Slight changes are also possible by adjusting the
feedback at the actuator.

FIG. 10 - Speed Governing System

0800 Control valves
1100 Speed governor
1110 Speed pick-up
1120 Transducer
1130 Reference value adjuster
1600 Amplifier
1800 Starting gear
1900 Valve actuator
2200 Emergency trip gear
5620 Damping device
B Primary oil
C Secondary oil
D Steam
E Trip oil
T Drain oil
8.4.2 Gas Turbine Control Systems Mark-V Controls :
General - The gas turbine has a number of control and protection systems designed for the reliable and
safe operation of the unit. This section presents the general operating characteristics of turbine control
and protection. For settings and adjustments refer to the Control Specifications included in the manual.
The Turbine Control System Program Diagrams , sent to the installation , will provide additional
information.
Mainly startup, speed, acceleration, synchronization, and temperature control do control of the turbine.
When it is necessary for the turbine control to alter the turbine operating conditions because of changes in
load or ambient conditions, it is accomplished by modulating the flow of fuel to the turbine. For example, if
the exhaust temperature starts to exceed its permitted value for a given operating condition , the
temperature control circuit will cause a reduction in the fuel supplied tot he turbine and thereby limit the
exhaust temperature.
Protection systems are provided to prevent abnormal conditions, which could result in damage to the
turbine. The critical operating parameters monitored by the protection system are temperature, speed ,
vibration and flame. Over temperature and overspeed systems are provided as independent backup
systems for the temperature control and speed control systems. Vibration detection and protection is
activated by abnormal turbine vibration amplitude reaching a preset level. The flame detection and
protection system is activated if flame is not established during startup or if flame is lost during operation.
Each protection system has redundant channels of operation. Each of the channels operates independently
and will trip the unit if its signal corresponds to a trip condition.
8.4.2.1 Speedtronic Design :

The SPEEDTRONIC system is a microcomputer control system that provides the analog and digital signals
required to control and protect the operation of the gas turbine.
Operating conditions of the turbine are sensed and utilized as feedback signals to the SPEEDTRONIC
control system. There are three major control loops --- startup, speed and temperature , which may be in
control during turbine operation.
The minimum value select circuit connects the speed , temperature and startup control output signals to
the FSR controller. The action of this circuit is similar to a low voltage selector. The lowest voltage output
of the control loops is allowed to pass the gate to the fuel control system as the controlling FSR voltage.
Fuel Stroke Reference (FSR) is the command signal for the fuel. Switching between the control modes of
speed , temperature and startup control takes place without any discontinuity. The controlling FSR will
establish the fuel input to the turbine at the value required by the system, which is in control. Displays on
the turbine control panel<I> station CRT indicate which of the control systems is controlling FSR.
This part explains the function of each control and protection system, with descriptions of how electrical
circuits and control devices operate together as systems. Reference to four sets of control system
documents is necessary for a complete understanding of turbine control. These are the Control
Specifications , the Device Summary , the Schematic Piping Diagrams and the Turbine Elementary
Diagram.
8.4.2.2 Control Specifications :
The Control Specifications consist of several multi-paged documents. The master document is Specification
Control - Control System Settings. It contains control settings defining the operational limits for each
turbine, calculated for the intended site conditions and fuel analysis submitted. The settings drawing
references the other control specification drawings as well as the Device Summary and the Turbine Control
System Program Diagram. The Control Specifications should be consulted before attempting to make
adjustments or operate the gas turbine. Users should therefore ensure that service manuals containing
up-to-date revisions are available to operating personnel.
8.4.2.3 Speed Control :
General - The speed control system is designed to control the speed and load of the turbine, operating in
response to the actual turbine speed signal and the called-for speed reference. While on speed control
mode message "DROOP SPEED" (or "ISOCH SPEED") will be displayed.
Speed Signal - The speed of the turbine is measured by three magnetic sensors. These magnetic pickup
sensors (77NH-1, 2 , and 3) are high output devices , consisting of a permanent magnet, surrounded by a
coil and hermetically sealed case. The pickups are mounted in a ring around a 60-toothed wheel on the
gas turbine compressor rotor shaft. With the 60-tooth wheel, the frequency of the voltage output in Hertz
is exactly equal to the speed of the turbine in revolutions per minute. The voltage output is a direct
function of the speed of the wheel and is affected by the clearance between the teeth of the wheel and the
trip of the magnetic pickup.
Clearance between the outside diameter of the toothed wheel and the tip of the magnetic pickup should
be kept within the limits specified on the Control Specifications. If the clearance is not maintained within
the specified limits, the pulse signal can be distorted causing generation of an erroneous speed signal.
Turbine speed control will then operate in response to the incorrect speed feedback signal.
The signal from the magnetic pickups is brought into the analog input modules. One magnetic pickup to
each controller RST where it is modified by the speed control software.
Droop Operation - Droop speed control is based on the fact that the power grid to which the generator is
connected , will hold a synchronous generator speed at grid frequency.
( Refer Fig. 10 )The speed control software will change command voltage (FSR) in proportion to the
difference between the actual turbine generator speed and the called-for speed reference (TNR). Once the
generator breakers are closed on the power grid, speed is held relatively constant at synchronous speed ,
fuel flow in excess of that necessary to maintain full speed no load , will result not in increased speed , but

increased power produced by the generator. Thus the speed control loop really acts as a load control loop
and the speed reference is a convenient control of the desired load on the turbine generator unit.
The speed control is proportional and it changes FSR in proportion to the difference between turbine speed
and the reference. Thus any change in actual speed (grid frequency) will also cause a proportionate
change in unit load. This proportionality is adjustable to the desired regulation or "Droop", see the Turbine
Elementary and Control Specifications.
If the entire grid system tends to be overloaded , grid frequency (or speed) will decrease and cause a FSR
increase in proportion to the droop setting. If all units have the same droop, all will share a load increase
equally. Load sharing is the main advantage of this method of speed control.
If 4% droop is selected , only a 1-% change is speed will produce a change in fuel flow equivalent to 25%
of rated load.
This results in fast system response to transient changes and helps hold system frequency.
Normally 4% droop is selected and the setpoint is calibrated such that 104% setpoint will generate a
speed reference, which will produce a FSR resulting in base load at design ambient temperature. On units
having a peak temperature control point 104% setpoint corresponds to peak load. The adjustments
required on the speed control loop are covered in detail in the control Specifications.
When operating on droop control the full-speed-no-load setting calls for a FSR value, which is sufficient to
maintain full compressor speed with no generator load. Changes in speed will then cause the amplifier to
control fuel according to the droop setting.

Fig. 10- Speed Logic Control

8.4.2.4 Acceleration Control :
Included in the speed control software is another function acting to differentiate the speed signal.
The differential signal , acceleration , is compared to a fixed signal at the summing junction to modulate
FSR if the acceleration rate specified in the Control Specifications is exceeded. See the Turbine Control
System Programme and Control Specifications. The acceleration control usually acts only during portions
of startup but can at any time the acceleration rate is exceeded.
Synchronizing - Automatic synchronizing is accomplished using synchronizing algorithms programmed
into the RST software. The inputs are transmitted from an interface module. The interface module

contains an isolation transformer for the generator and line input signals and the breaker closing relay the
synchronizing software is part of the SPEEDTONIC Mark-V computer. See Figure SCPR-3.
For synchronizing the gas turbine is brought to 100.3% speed the matching circuit in the synchronizer will
adjust the turbine speed to reduce the slip frequency and permit synchronizing , if the system frequency
has varied enough to cause an unacceptable high slip.
For added protection a synchronizing check relay is provided in the generator panel. It is used in series
with both the auto synchronizing relay and the manual breaker close switch to prevent large out-of-phase
breaker closures.
8.4.2.5 Isochronous Control :
When a gas turbine is applied in a system where the speed is not dictated by the system, isochronous
speed control is used on the gas turbine. In this mode of operation the speed signal is compared with the
speed reference signal and the error is fed through an integrator. This type of control will change FSR as
necessary , to balance the actual turbine speed signal with the setpoint signal at the summing junction. As
long as a difference between signals exists , the integrator will continue to increase or decrease FSR until
there is no error signal. This is a fast acting system, which will hold turbine speed steady in spite of load
changes. The load demanded by the system will cause the speed control to change FSR as a speed error
exists, thus power demand is developed by the needs of the system and cannot be controlled by the gas
turbine control.
The speed control system on this gas turbine can readily be switched to operate as an isochronous control.
When isochronous is selected, L831ISOK picks up setting the isochronous setpoint. This mode of governor
control changes FSR at an increasing rate for a speed error. When selected FSRN1 integrates to the droop
control value for bumpless transfer.
8.4.2.6 Preset Control :
In the Preset control mode, the machine load is pre-set i.e. it can be selected between 1 MW to rated
capacity and the set point can be changed as per the requirement. In this mode, the machine load derived
from output transducer is compared to the set point and corrective signal is given to raise or lower the
load. The dead band in this case is 0.5 MW and the rate of rise/fall of load is 0.1 MW / sec. When the
machine is on pre-set mode, if any manual/auto command is given to raise lower the load, it will go to the
droop mode.

Fig.11 - Pre-Set Load Control

9.0 Condition Monitoring

Condition monitoring is done to monitor the critical parameters in order to predict the behaviour of the
machine :
The supervisory equipment, consisting of alarms and measuring devices, gives a visual indication of the
system parameters. The alarm devices initiate visual or audible signals in the event of a controlled
quantity falling below or exceeding the predetermined limit values. In many cases the measuring and
alarm devices combined to form one supervisory unit.
Closely associated with the supervisory equipment are regulating system, automatic controls and
protective devices which provides for a reduction of the manual supervisory work.
9.1 Following Parameters are Monitored in a Generator :
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Winding temperature
Slot temperature
Cooling air / cooling water
Tube oil temperature
Rotor grounding system
Vibration levels.

9.1.1 Winding Temperature Monitoring :

Stator winding temperature monitory is essential to meet damage to inter turn and winding insulation and
this is done with help of RTD. The monitoring details of RTD are similar to these of slot temperature
monitoring as given below:
9.1.2 Slot Temperature Monitoring :

The slot temperatures are measured with resistance temperature detectors (RTD). The platinum
measuring wire is embedded in a moulded plastic body, which provides insulation and mechanical
strength.
The RTD are embedded directly in the stator slots between the bottom and top bars at points where the
highest temperatures are expected.
The RTD are characterised by a constant temperature vs. resistance characteristic, high mechanical
strength and insensitivity to electrical and magnetic fields.
Stator teeth and core temperatures are measured with RTD. The elements are embedded in insulation
through and inserted in core.
9.1.3 Cooling Air / Cooling Water :
The heat losses arising in the generator interior are dissipated to the secondary coolant (cooling water)
through air. Direct cooling of the rotor essentially eliminates hot spots and differential temperatures
between adjacent components, which could result in mechanical stresses, particularly to the copper
conductors, insulation and rotor body. Indirect air-cooling is used for the Stator winding.
The temperatures of the hot and cold air are measured by RTD upstream and downstream circuit of the
coolers. Separate RTD are provided downstream of the cooler for measuring cold air temperature.
Temperature detectors located in the generator interior are mounted in airtight protective tubes. The RTD
cables are brought to the terminal board and fixed to the terminal blocks.
9.1.4 Lube Oil Temperature Monitoring :
The generator rotor is supported at two journal bearings.
The oil required for bearing lubrication and cooling is obtained from the turbine oil supply system and
supplied to the lubricating groove in the bottom-bearing sleeve. The upper bearing sleeve consists of a
wide over flow groove through which oil is distributed over the shaft journal and fed to the lubricating gap
caught by wipers collected into bearing pedestal and returned to the turbine oil tank.
The temperatures of each bearing are monitored by one double-element RTD. The RTD is screwed in
position on side of the lower bearing sleeve from outside with the detector extending to the babbitt liner.
Grounding brushes are fitted to the turbine end bearing cover of the generator to remove the static
charges of the shafts.
The brush holders are arranged with 900 displacement which ensures that at least one brush will make
contact with the rotating shaft journal.
The generator bearing temperatures are measured with RTD located in the bearing lower halves. The
actual measuring point is located at the babbitt / steel interface.
9.1.5 Rotor Grounding System Monitoring :
The field ground fault detection system detects high-resistance and low-resistance ground faults in the
generator field circuit. It is very important for safe operation of a generator because a double earth fault
causes thermal unbalance due to the decrease of resistance of one pole coil and increase of field current,
winding temperature and vibrations. It is therefore an essential requirement that even simple ground
faults should activate an alarm and corrective measures be initiated, if possible, before the fault can fully
develop.
For this reason, the field ground fault detection system consists of two stages.

If the field ground fault detection system detects a ground fault, an alarm is activated at R e < 80k ohms
(1st stage). If the insulation resistance between the generator field circuit and ground either suddenly or
slowly drops to Re < 5 k ohms the unit is shut down (2nd stage)
Grounding brushes are fitted to the turbine end bearing cover of the generator to remove the static
charges of the shafts.
The brush holders are arranged with 900 displacement which ensures that at least one brush will make
contact with the rotating shaft journal.
9.1.6 Vibration Level Monitoring :
The vibration pickup for measurement of the absolute bearing vibration converts mechanical vibration into
an electrical signal in a seismic type transducer operating on the permanent magnet and magnetic flux
return path elements are solidly connected to the sensor casing. The plunger coil is suspended in the
sensor casing by means of a spring.
The maximum velocity of the absolute vibration is measure by means of the transducer, which is attached
to the bearing housing. Vibrations in the bearing housing produce a relative movement between the
permanent magnet and the plunger coil, which induces a voltage in the coil proportional to the vibration
velocity.
The output signal of the transducers is integrated amplified and then displayed and recorded as peak-topeak maximum.
9.2 Possible Faults & Remedies :
The details give herein on faults, their possible causes and the corrective measures cannot be considered
complete in every respect since all possible troubles cannot be covered in advance. In most cases, the
operator will have to decide on the measures to be taken. The individual measures required depend on the
mode of operation. Unless corrective measures can be taken in accordance with the following instructions,
the turbine generator should be shutdown. If required, the services of the manufacturer should be
requested.
9.2.1 Unbalanced Load :
Due to unequal phase loading of the system connected to generator.
Remedy - If the generator is operated with unbalanced load due to particular system conditions, care
must be taken that the continuously permissible unbalanced load is not exceeded .
The unbalanced load is defined as the ratio of negative sequence current to the rated current. The
permissible rated stator current should not be exceeded in any stator phases. When the unbalanced load
is higher than the continuously permissible unbalanced load steps should be taken for bringing about a
uniforms system load. The generator should be shut down if it is impossible to distribute the system load
more uniformly over the three phases.
Check whether unequal stator currents are due to unbalanced load. If it has been established that the
unequal stator currents are not due to unbalanced load then the unit shall be shut down. After the unit
has been shut down, first check the busbars at the terminal bushings for proper connection and reliable
contact making. If no defect is detected and if the unequal currents are not due to poor condition of the
contacts in the bus duct, the soldered connections of the Stator winding should be examined. It is also
advisable to check the Stator winding for inter turn faults.
9.2.2 Difference in Slot Temperature :
Between slot top and bottom bars of Stator winding.

Remedy - The embedded RTD should be checked when different slot temperature is indicated while stator
currents are of equal magnitude in the three phases. Such check should only be made with the generator
at rest and in non-excited condition. The check should include resistance measurements as well as testing
of the detector lead, the measuring point selector switches and the indicators. Care should be taken
during resistance measurements of the embedded RTD to ensure that they are not heated as this will
falsify the results. In many cases, a fault can be cleared by recalibration of the RTD. Considerable errors in
indication may result from faulty or blown spark gap fuses at the terminal boards of the RTD. Blown fuses
should be replaced.
9.2.3 High Hot Air Temperature and / or High Cold Air Temperature :
Remedy - A rise of the cooling air temperature will require a higher cooling water flow for removal of the
loss heat. The cooling water flow should be increased. If this measure is not successful, the cooler should
be vented via the vent valves.
9.2.4 Sudden Deterioration of Rotor Running Conditions :
Remedy - Check whether the deteriorated running condition originated from the turbine or whether the
generator bearings are damaged. A deterioration of the running condition may be caused by a change in
the balancing condition or by a rotor-winding short. Unload and shut down turbine generator as soon as
possible if cause cannot be located and corrected for severe condition. Since it is very difficult in most
cases to find a definite causes, it is advisable to obtain the help of manufactures product service
personnel.
9.2.5 Faulty Cooler :
Remedy - A rise of the cooling water temperature will require a higher cooling water flow for removal of
the loss heat. The cooling water flow should be increased. If this measure is not successful the cooler may
be contaminated and should be cleaned on its waterside. Reduce the generator load and clean the cooler.
If cleaning of the waterside does not bring about the desired results, cleaning the cooler on its airside will
be required. To do this, shut down generator and remove cooler. Prior to performing such work the vents
on cooler gaskets should be checked.
When a disturbed heat removal capacity of the coolers is detected during operation, particular attention
should be given to proper venting of the coolers.
9.2.6 Generator Bearing Temperatures Vary :
Remedy - Temperature variations at the generator bearings may be due to different cause.
Turbogenerator can be kept in operation as long as permissible bearing temperature is not exceeded.
When a variation is noted, the operating temperatures should be carefully monitored to ensure the limit
temperature is not exceeded.
If a deviation occurs, first check cold oil temperature (after cooler) and bearing oil pressure for deviation
from normal.
If bearing temperature exceeds permissible value, Turbogenerator should be shut down.
9.2.7 Excitation Circuit :
Fuse indicator operated
Cause - Failure of diodes such that load operation of generator in no longer possible.
Remedy - The Gas turbine generator must be shut down and the defective fuses and diodes replaced with
new ones. Work on the exciter should be performed with the field ground fault detection system shut
down measuring brushes lifted off the sliprings. Remove entire shaft assembly of the rotating rectifier
wheels. Rotate entire shaft assembly of turbogenerator until defective fuse is brought to an accessible

position; while rotating the shaft, visually check all fuses in both wheel. To remove defective fuse, detach
contact splice strap of the heat sink by unscrewing lock nut.
Unlock and unscrew the screws attaching the fuse to the wheel on front side. A continuity test of the fuse
will indicate whether fuse failed due to an electrical or mechanical fault. A mechanical fault is unlikely.
If fuse failed electrically, the defective diode should be located by measurements. To do this, disconnect
flexible lead from the three-phase power lead. In cases where two diodes are mounted in each heat sink,
both flexible leads must be disconnected. A controlled DC voltage source of not less than 1000V with
constant output voltage must be available for the measurements. Apply DC voltage to diode in reverse
direction. Use another connection to tie the rectifier wheel to the voltage potential. Connect a microammeter for determination of reverse current in circuit between the voltage source and the diode
connection.
To obtain the blocking characteristic of a diode, increase applied voltage in steps up to a maximum level of
100V and determine the reverse current for each step. At least three measurements are necessary for
plotting the characteristic, the recommended voltage steps being 500V, and 750V and 1000V the
maximum permissible reverse current at 1000V amounts to 200A. If this limit is exceeded the diode must
be replaced.
If the shaft assembly cannot be shut down for several hours, e.g. because cool down of turbine is still in
progress, the measuring set-up described above can probably not brief periods only to enable a
replacement of the diode(s) in the respective branch circuit. Plotting the blocking characteristic and
assessing the reusability of the diode(s) should be cautiously unscrewed from the heat sink using the
special diode wrench.
Before installing new diodes and fuses, the following checks must be made:
After cleaning the heat sink, the insulation resistance between isolated heat sink and wheel must be
measured using a 500 to 1000 volt megger. Insulation resistance should be more than 10 Meg. ohms.
Fuses and diodes are both individually tasted at BHEL factory. Checking the characteristic data before
installing new diodes and fuses will thus not be required. Only make sure that each replacement diode is
of the same type as the defective diode (observe forward direction).
Before installing any replacement diodes, apply a lubricant (Teflon Spray) to the threads and coat
diode/heat sink contact surface with a contact agent (silicon paste). Diodes should be screwed into the
heat sink by hand and then torqued to 10kgm. Use self-locking nuts for attaching the flexible leads to the
three-phase power lead.
Be sure that the contact surface (front face) of use bears flush against the contact surface of wheel. After
the fuse has been properly screwed onto the wheel and strap of the heat sink check clearances between
fuse and wheel using a feeler gauge. If a distance of more than 0.1 mm is measured between fuse and
wheel, fuse should be re-mounted after any required retouching work, e.g. refilling of bore in fuse strap.
Finally, the font-side set screw should be locked. If several fuses and diodes are to be replaced, this
procedure should be replaced, this procedure should be repeated.
No replacement of fuses of diodes must take place without checking. Running behaviour of the exciter will
be affected by an exchange of diodes and fuses because of small differences in the weights of replacement
parts.
Prior to re-assembly of the exciter enclosures, insulation resistance of exciter, including rotor winding,
should be checked. If measured by a megger applying a measuring voltage of 500 Volts, insulation
resistance must not be below 1 Mega ohm.
After installation of the enclosures and reactivation of field ground fault detection system, the generator
may again be placed in service.
9.2.8 Stroboscope Defective :

Remedy - Check to ensure that supply voltage is available .If no voltage is available, check cable and
fuse. Replace printed circuit board if necessary.

10.0 Maintenance of Generators

The Turbogenerator and its auxiliaries require continuous maintenance and supervision to assure reliable
operation and serviceability of the complete plant. Maintenance and monitoring are required both during
operation and standstill.
Some maintenance work should preferably be performed with the unit at rest, e.g. in the case of any
special conditions being noted in the operating log. While other maintenance work may be carried out
during normal operation.
The maintenance work required on the generator described is specified in detail in the following.
10.1 Monitoring the Temperature of Components :
It is important that all temperatures remain within the specified upper and lower limits. If a temperature
deviation is observed the cause must be determined immediately and the original temperature restored.
If there exists the danger of overheating a corresponding load reduction should be made. The
temperatures between the top and bottom bars of the Stator windings are measured with resistance
temperature detectors (RTD).
The RTD are embedded in the windings and distributed uniformly over the three phases. The RTD in the
Stator windings should transmit approximately identical values for identical current in all three phases. If
different temperatures are indicated with identical currents in the three phases, a check should be
performed to determine if the RTD are correctly calibrated and / or compensated. Differences in the
temperature indication up to 50 C may be due to tolerances in the slot RTD compensating resistors and
tolerances caused by difference in the contact at the measuring point selector switch. Other small
temperature differences may be due to different mounting conditions at the RTD.
10.2 Monitoring the Cooling Air & Cooling Water Temperatures :
Sleeve bearings are displayed in control The temperatures of the cooling air in the generator is measured
with one RTD before and after each cooler indicate the temperature of the air used for generator cooling.
The cooling water supply to the individual cooler sections should be adjusted so that the air outlet
temperature at all cooler sections are approximately identical. The setting of the cooling water flow should
be made by changing the adjustment of the cooling water outlet valves. The cooling water inlet valves at
the individual cooler sections should be fully opened.
To prevent undue stressing of the generator, it is desirable to maintain a constant temperature in the
generator; it is desirable to maintain a constant temperature in the generator by control of the cooling
water flow.
In addition to the air temperature, the cooling water temperature is also measured. The cooling water inlet
temperatures of all cooler section should be measured in the common cooling water inlet pipe, while the
cooling water outlet temperature should be measured separately for each cooler section in the cooling
water outlet pipe after each cooler section.
10.3 Grounding Brushes :
The carbon brushes should be checked at regular intervals. During operation, the useful length of each
individual carbon brush can be determined by a visual inspection. For limits of wear, see Description (1).
The carbon brushes should be replaced with new ones having contact faces, which match the rotor shaft
contour.

Maintenance Intervals
Work Required
Check
Grounding
Brushes

Daily

Weekly

Yes

Every 6
Months

Quarterly
a

Yearly
a

Special measures should be taken to prevent corrosion damage to the coolers [1]. Cooler sections having
no cooling water flows for some time may be subject to standstill corrosion. In addition to many other
corrosive influences, such as the different elements of the cooling water, locally differing deposits, raw
materials, etc, there exists the danger that microorganisms on the tube walls may die and decay due to a
loss of fresh water supply (lack of oxygen). Ammonia is formed such decay which may lead to stress
corrosion cracking. Corrosion damage can only be properly prevented if the cooler is drained on the
waterside, cleaned, completely dried and maintained in a dry condition. With the generator in commercial
operation, such measures are often unfeasible, particularly in the cases of short outages. In such cases
the measures outlined below should be taken.
10.4 Coolers :
During normal operation, the cooling water flows through all cooler sections. Since the coolers are
designed for 100% capacity at maximum cooling water temperature, the condition may raise that the
coolers are frequently supplied with smaller cooling water flows for long periods. Depending on the purity
of the cooling water, this may result in deposits due to the lower water velocity in the cooler. To prevent
cooler damage, it is therefore recommended to rinse the coolers should be frequently cleaned with
brushes. For heavy cooler contamination and if operational restrictions and shut downs are undesirable, it
is recommended to install a continuous cooler water purification system.
Maintenance Intervals
Work Required
Check Air
Cooler Vents

Daily

Weekly

Yes

Every 6
Months

Quarterly
a

Yearly
a

10.5 Monitoring Rotor Vibrations :

The vibration of the generator rotor should be monitored and any change should be carefully observed.
Should a change in vibration characteristic be noted, it is recommended to have the manufacturers
product service personnel to determine the cause and assist in correcting any problems.
10.6 Measuring Insulation Resistance :
The insulation resistance of the rotor winding toward ground should be measured once a year.
During normal operation, no service or maintenance work is required on the bearing of the generator,
however, bearing vibrations, bearing temperatures, oil temperatures and oil pressure should be
continuously monitored.
The generator bearings require particular attention during each new start-up following a shutdown. Careful
monitoring will also be necessary within the first few minutes after run up until the normal operating
values are reached. If the operating values prevailing after a restart exceed the permissible limit value,
the unit should be shut down.
Maintenance Intervals
Work Required
Measuring IR

Daily
a

Weekly
a

Every 6
Months

Quarterly
a

Yearly
Yes

Value
Check Gen.
Bearing
Insulation

Yes

The temperature of the lubricating oil supplied to the bearing is controlled by the cooling water flow to the
bearing oil cooler. The temperatures of the generator room.

11.0 Generator Overhauling

"Overhauling" means capital overhauling where each and every part of the equipment is inspected (after
its complete dismantling) and abnormalities whatever observed are rectified with the view to bring back
the equipment to its original condition for totally trouble free and safe operation. It differs from routine
preventive and breakdown maintenance where inspection is limited to important part or parts which are
likely to fail or have failed.
11.1 General Requirements :
Before commencement of overhauling activity, the following preparatory jobs and availability of facilities in
working condition should be completed / ensured:
1.
2.

Operation / maintenance instruction manuals, as built installation

interconnection drawings and other documents of the equipment are
available.
Detailed scheduling of jobs listing out all activities and resources
requirements.

3.

Right type of instruments, testing equipment, tools and tackles, and

consumable (such as white spirit, solvents, tintless muslin cloth etc.)
should be arranged as per job requirements, based on instruction
manuals.

4.

Test procedures and Pre-commissioning checks as specified in OISD137 should be followed.

5.

Testing instrument such as milli - volt, milli ohm meters, ducters,

motorised megger, High Voltage Testing kit etc.

6.

Lifting facilities such as overhead crane, slings etc.

7.

Stands for keeping generator and exciter rotors.

8.

Planning and scheduling the jobs with other groups (such as

mechanical) to avoid any interference.

9.

Spares (such as gaskets, carbon brushes, insulating materials,

insulation varnishes etc.)

10. Temporary site office with facility to record all the measurements, test
results, consumption of man-hours, spares and consumables etc. for
future reference.
11. Other preparatory items such as rotor lifting beams and other special
tools as recommended by manufacturer.
12. Jigs, fixtures and such devices required for overhauling.

13. Personnel engaged to handle the job are experienced and skilled.
14. Usage of spring washers and double nuts for securing locking of
terminals.
15. In case of water cooled equipment, cooling water is isolated and cooler
drained.
16. Disconnect the fire extinguisher system integral to the generator.
17. Whenever paint has come off or pulled off or any signs of corrosion
observed all such metallic structures should be painted.
18. All values (such as drain / sampling and isolation values) should be
serviced for proper operation.
19. Incoming electric power and auxiliary supplies are de-energised and
are positively isolated (from all possible sources) locked out (through a
permit system) throughout the duration of overhauling work and a
caution board indicating the nature of work should be displayed near
the isolating point.
20. While using flammable materials (such as solvent), following
precautions should be taken:
a.

No hot job is going on nearby.

b.

Area is well ventilated.

c.

Winding is protected from such inflammable materials.

d.

Other precautions such as periodic tests to ensure absence of gas

concentration.
The fitting of anti-friction bearing shall be carried out by process of
controlled heating only (preferably by induction heating) Oil, grease
lubricant specified shall be of proper grade and free of contamination.

21. All works should be carried out with covered enclosures for weather
and environmental protection, to avoid entry of moisture,
contamination, dust etc. in the equipment being overhauled. The work
should not be planned in open, in rainy season and in the water logged
areas.
22. Use of any combustible material like bamboo, coir rope and tarpaulin
should be avoided.
23. Fasteners should be checked before use and be replaced if necessary.
24. Additional checks as required depending upon are quenching medium
of Breakers, such as SF6, vacuum etc. as per manufacturers
recommendations.
25. All safety and operational interlocks should be checked for proper
operation. Control circuit operations shall be checked by simulating
fault conditions.

26. In case of equipment used in hazardous areas during overhauling, only

approved types of gaskets, fasteners, seals and other accessories
should be used, appropriate to the area classification.
27. Frequency of overhauling shall be generally as recommended by
manufacturer. Frequency may be after every 32000 operating hours.
Note : After dismantling of the equipment, all components be visually inspected and abnormalities
observed be recorded, and corrective action taken. Thereafter during overhauling the sequence of
activities and checks as listed under following sections / sub-sections should be adhered to.
11.2 Generator And Auxiliaries :
General requirements should be taken care of before commencing overhauling activities.
Pre shut down jobs and preliminary checks :
1.
2.

Record vibration level at various loads.

Other relevant parameters / operation records be collected when the
turbine is brought down after cutting off from busbar.

3.

Note the insulation resistance of the generator immediately after

putting the machine on barring gear and repeat the same every six
hours till winding temperature is stabilised.

4.

Megger the DC system after removing slipring brushes and record the
value only 100 Volt megger.

1.
2.

Remove protection cover and blow off dust with dry compressed air.
Measure air gap at Main pole and Auxiliary pole.

3.

Open terminal connections and mark polarity.

4.

Mark the brush staggering holder alignment and neutral position and
remove carbon brushes and brush holders.

5.

Decouple exciter from the Generator and open the foundation bolts.
Lift the exciter body and place the same at the working place.

6.

Open the bearing cover and remove the bearings.

7.

Remove rotor (Armature) from the stator (field) and takeout the
coupling flange.

8.

Clean the winding of the rotor, using dry compressed air, finally with
approved cleaning agent.

9.

Measure and record diameter of Commutator. Check if commutator has

become oval. If there is abnormal pitting on the surface arrange
turning if necessary. Under-cutting the mica and chamfering bars of
the commutator will be necessary after turning.

11.2.1 Excitor :

10. Varnish the rotor after heating it. Use Flood light/oven/infra red lights
for heating and use recommended grade of varnish only. Dry up the
rotor.

11. Remove end cover of Stator (field). Take out the insulating sleeve for
the brush arm and clean with approved cleaning agent.
12. Check for any abnormality on the poles, field winding and inter pole
windings and clean the coil with brush/cloth, approved cleaning agent,
if necessary, to remove dust from the winding.
13. Check tightness of connection, measure and record winding resistance
for the main and inter pole windings.
14. Paint the exciter body and its protection cover.
15. In case of brushless exciters, inspect and clean diode wheels, fuses
and plug connections, if any, besides the stator and rotor.
11.2.2 Generator Rotor Removal :
1.
2.

Remove slipring brush holder assembly, measure and record diameter

of both positive and negative rings. Check for any abnormal
wear/pitting on the surface.
Replace the shaft seal at outer covers.

3.

Disconnect and tag the slip ring terminals.

4.

Measure air gap between the stator and rotor at 4 points diametrically
opposite and at right angle. This should be done for both turbine end
and exciter end.

5.

Open bearing cover, check for clearances and abnormally, if any, on

the bearing surface.

6.

Decouple the generator and record alignment readings.

7.

Remove bearings after ensuring that stator is not injured by threading

out of rotor by inserting packing material (such as leatheriod etc.)

8.

Remove and place the rotor on the stand specially provided for

9.

Check the rotor for any sign of overheating, mechanical abrasion,

loose wedges etc. and clean it with compressed air and cloth.

10. Check the rotor end rings for any damage or crack by ultrasonic
inspection method, or any other Non-destructive method.
11. Check fan blades and hubs for erosion and cracks.
12. Check that balancing weight is secured firmly.
13. Measure insulation resistance of the rotor winding and complete it with
design data.
14. Clean the rotor, and apply finish coat as recommended by the
manufacturer. Dry up the rotor.
15. While measuring IR values, electronic circuits, if any, should be kept
isolated.

11.2.3 Removal of Generator from Foundation :

1.
2.

Ensure that the base channel of the Generator and body have match
marks for reference alignment.
Open / Remove the foundation bolts.

3.

Disconnect the main cable / flexible links and tag them.

4.

Remove RTD and space heater connections and remove thermometers

if any.

5.

Lift the Generator using appropriate lifting device provided for the
purpose and shift to working place.

1.
2.

Measure the Insulation resistance, Polarisation Index, Winding

resistance and Tan (for generator of 6.3 kV and above) of Stator.
Clean stator windings and ventilating ducts with dry compressed air.

3.

Inspect for defects like

4.

Discoloration of winding (for hot spots),

5.

Loose missing slot wedges,

6.

Intercoil spacers on overhangs,

7.

Broken overhand coil bindings for end supports.

8.

Protective coatings on the core steps at slot ends.

1.
2.

Dismantle Brush Holder and clean it thoroughly.

Check for any damaged Holder, worn-out springs and replace with new
ones.

3.

Check and adjust spring tension.

4.

Clean Brush-arm with white sprit and put a coat of varnish. Measure
Insulation Resistance between Holder and Arms.

5.

Clean End Cover with cloth and petrol and paint if necessary.

11.2.4 Generator Stator :

11.2.5 Brush Assembly :

11.2.6 Generator Assembly :

1.

2.

Arrange heating to improve Insulation Resistance of the winding using

approved method of heating such as by welding generator or infrared
lamps. Turn the rotor every hour to avoid localised heating. Measure
temperature and insulation resistance (IR) every half and hour.
Restrict temperature upto 800 C.
Stop heating if IR value is stabilised. In case welding generator is use,
the heating current should be regulated only through regulator of
welding generator and not through any switch. the drying out activity
should be taken-up as a last activity just prior to final assembly.

3.

Coat of air drying varnish of recommended type shall be applied.

4.

Place the generator on the foundation after placing packing material in

the bottom of stator.

5.

Insert rotor inside the stator carefully. Put packing material (such as
leatheroid etc.) in the air gap between stator and rotor for protection.

6.

Ensure that the Bearing has been cleaned, uneven surface, if any, has
been removed by scrapping, and Bearing insulation is taken care,
wherever provided.

7.

Align the Generator with Turbine. Check air gap and ensure it tallies
with original gap. Box up the bearings.

8.

Check the pedestal pipe flange insulation and also the same for pipe
connection and bolt. Replace if necessary. Box up the bearing.

9.

Connect all RTD, Thermometer, Generator terminals, slipring

connections and space heaters.

10. Fix inner and outer End Cover.

11. Reassemble Slipring Brush Assembly and replace the carbon brushes
with new duly grinded ones.
11.2.7 Exciter Assembly :
1.
2.

Insert the armature in the field taking due care. Adjust air gap under
main & inter pole.
Check the pedestal pipe flange insulation and also the same for pipe
connection and bolt. Replace if necessary. Box up the bearing.

3.

Align and couple the Exciter with Generator. Make cable connections
taking care of polarity.

4.

Fix up the Brush Assembly taking care of staggering need. Measure

gap between the Commutator and the Brush holder. fix up carbon
brushes after proper bedding.

5.

Check Neutral axis electrically by standard method and adjust the arm
accordingly.

11.2.8 Air Chamber and Bus Duct :

1.
2.

Check for any leakage of water and other abnormality and clean the
chamber.
Clean Air Cooler. Test the cooler for any leakage by pressure test as
recommended.

3.

Open the Bus duct and clean, check tightness of connection. Now,
megger the Bus duct and the Cable between Bus duct and Generator
breaker separately. In case of low IR values, megger the insulators/
CTs and PTs separately and find out defect and rectify.

4.

Check the condition of gaskets of bus duct covers and replace if

necessary.

5.

Water drainage and seal should be checked for proper functioning.

6.

Check Space Heaters if provided in the bus duct and ensure their
proper working.

7.

Check space Heater of Generator inside air duct and ensure the
interlock.

8.

Check all other interlocks also, if provided.

9.

Paint the bus duct if necessary.

10. Make connections of the cable with bus duct and generator flexible link
and take combined insulation Resistance followed by High Voltage Test
conducted at working voltage.
11. Check the CO2 piping and nozzles and clean them if necessary.
11.3 Final Checking :
1.
2.

Check RTD (Resistance Temperature Detectors), if any, for proper

functioning.
Ensure that the relays have been checked by secondary injection
method. Check the protection and interlocks by simulation test.

3.

Measure the IR (Insulation Resistance) value.

4.

IR value is below permissible limits, drying out operation should be

carried out. This drying out operation( As described below) should
be carried out by short circuit method. A coat of air drying varnish of
recommended specs can be applied if necessary.

5.

Carry out open circuit and short circuit characteristic tests and
compare results with original one.

6.

Check for final Tan and PI (Polarisation Index) values.

11.4 Drying of Winding :

Often a low field insulation reading is the result of a moisture collection in and around the brush gear
assembly. Heat lamps properly utilised can often remedy this situation. This area should be cleaned of any
dirt and carbon particles which accumulated during operation and lower the apparent insulation resistance
of the field.
If the field is extremely wet, a stationary D.C. dry out should be employed for 48 hours prior to the
reduced speed dry out.
The generator may be dried out by the short circuit method as explained below. The output terminals of
generator are short circuited by conductors of adequate cross section. Recommended current density in
these conductors is 34A/mm2. If this short circuit connection for inevitable reason is located after the main
circuit breaker of the generator, this circuit breaker must be secured against accidental opening - by
disconnecting the trip coil connections, and in case of air blast breakers , by cutting off the compressed air
supply in addition. Earthing of neutral and potential transformers are disconnected.
Current transformers used for differential protection should be short-circuited on the secondary terminals
(this is necessary only if the short circuit comes in the protective zone of relays). Current transformers for
the panel indicating instruments however are kept connected so as to be able to check up the magnitude
of the stator current on short circuit.

After bringing the rotor to the rated speed, the generator is very carefully and slowly excited in steps so
that the stator current reaches its rated value in about 3 to 8 hours or even more depending up on the
moisture contents of the insulation and the size of the machine. If a winding has absorbed considerable
moisture, it must be heated slowly only by the ventilation process.
The flow of cooling water should be continuous and controlled to give the required temperature rise in the
prescribed time. The temperature should not exceed 90 C and 70 C for stator winding and the exhaust
side of the cooling air respectively.
When a generator is however, in fully assembled condition the rotor should be turned during the drying
procedure. It will have to be ensured for interconnections of the three phases that the magnetic fields set
up in the stator winding balance each other. When no suitable measures are taken in this respect, the
turning gear may be destroyed owing to the large forces effective between stator and rotor. The
connection of the stator winding for balancing the magnetic fields is shown in the illustrations.

Fig.1 - Stator winding Connections for Drying with DC

Sources supplying a current amounting to about 1/4 to 1/3 of the rated generator current suffice for drying
the stator winding with dc. The voltage required is very low and may be approximately 5 to 15 V. A
winding temperature of 75C should be exceeded. As in normal operation, the winding temperature is
measured through the resistance temperature detectors embedded in the slots. A sufficient exchange of
the air within the generator housing should be ensured during the drying period.

This can be effected by opening all connections and inspection holes. It is advisable to accelerate the
exchange of the generator air by means of blowers or with clean compressed air. The steady-state winding
temperature of 75C should be reached not earlier than after six hours. The stator should thus be heated
slowly by gradually raising the dc current and continuous supervision of the slot temperature. Each stator
end should be provided with a space heater.
When the space heaters are switched on, the temperature in the generator interior can be maintained at a
value above ambient temperature. This prevents the formation of a moisture film on the surface of the
stator and rotor windings.