Introduction to the project

This project aims at designing and executing the advanced development in embedded
systems for energy saving of street lights with light depending resistor. Nowadays, human
has become too busy and he is unable to find time even to switch the lights wherever not
necessary. This can be seen more effectively in the case of street lights. The present system
is like, the street lights will be switched on in the evening before the sun sets and they will
be switched off in morning after there is sufficient light on the roads. But the actual
timings for these street lights to be switched on are when there is absolute darkness. With
this, the power will be wasted up to some extent. This project gives the best solution for
electrical power wastage. Also the manual operation of the lighting system is completely
eliminated.
In our project we are using LDR, which varies according to the amount of light falling on its
surface, this give an indication for us whether it is a day/night time.
Here it needs no manual operation for switching ON or switching OFF the street lights. It
detects itself whether there is any need for light or not. When darkness rises to a certain
value then the streetlight is automatically switched ON and when there is other source of
light i.e. day time, the street light gets OFF. The sensitiveness of the street light canal is to
be adjusted as needed. In our project we have used four L.E.Ds to indicate the street lights
& a LDR or Photo Resistor for sensing the light intensity. This project is created in a small
size but this concept is very useful indeed very much needed in todays life. If this concept
put to work on a larger scale then it can save not only human labor but it also can save
precious amount of energy that is wasted in manual operation of switching of street light.
This device not only be used in street lights but it can only be used in Switching of Solar
street lights, in switching of lawn light e.t.c & in various other places.
Next pages contains a brief idea about the project, about its components, & uses.

Circuit Diagram

COMPONENTS USED
Component Details

Quantity

Pricing

Battery
9v
Battery Cap

1Pc.

30/-

1Pc.

5/-

Switch

1Pc.

5/-

Wires

1mt.

45/-

Resistors
W 470k
w 1k

1pc.
1pc.

1/1/-

Preset/ Trimmer
100k

1pc.

5/-

LDR

1Pc.

5/-

Capacitor
1F 63v

1Pc.

2/-

Transistors
BC547
BC557

1Pc.
1Pc.

3/3/-

LEDs

4pc.

5/-

Bread Board
1 Pc
70/______________________________________________________________
THE TOTAL COST OF THE PROJECT IS AROUND

180 RUPEES

___________________________________________________________________________________
3

WORKING PRINCIPLE
The Automatic Street Light Switching Circuit mainly uses an LDR (Light Dependent
Resistor) to sense the Sunlight or light intensity to control the circuit. We all know that
LDRS resistance changes inversely with the intensity of the light, means when light
intensity grows or during day time its resistance decreases & when light intensity falls or
during night its resistance increases.
The main working principle of the circuit is very simple. When light intensity of light or
during day time when light fall on LDR its resistance decreases & it allows current to
flow from LDR to battery & closing the circuit. Thus current does not goes up to the base
of T1.As we all know current always Flow From the lower resistance shortest path so the
maximum amount of current Flows From the LDR & closes the circuit ,there is not
enough current to activate the Transistor1 or n-p-n transistor thus the circuit doesnt
activate &LEDs do not glow. But when the light intensity Falls ,say during night time
when there is low intensity of light or there is no light falling on LDR ,the LDRs
resistance increases & the current doesnt flow through the LDR path thus it Flows From
the other path up to the transistor T1.So when current Flows From this path it supplies
enough base voltage for working of transistor T1.So when T1 activates it supplies
required negative type voltage (cause it is NPN transistor) to activate the transistor T2
(BC557).T2 is a PNP transistor , so when it gets negative voltage to its base it activates ,it
draws current From the battery itself directly and supplies it to the LEDs &LEDs glow.
We hereby used 4 bright white LED lights, which glows in the dark means in night.
So in simple words when its dark LDR becomes highly resistive & opposes the current to
flow through it so current takes other path through the transistor T1, by activating it, it
supplies negative base voltage to T2 thus activating it & then after getting required base
voltage T2 activates &draws current from the battery directly & supplies the 4 LEDs &
LEDs starts to glow. In simple this is how the circuit works. Here the capacitor is used to
store the charge for little bit of time to activate or supply the base voltage faster to T1 &
increase the efficiency & operating time of the circuit, & it also helps to prevent
dimming & low glow of LEDs. The 100k trim pot or preset & 470k resistance is used in
series to control the sensitivity of the LDR & also to limit the current to the base of T1
thus saving the circuit from high current & the other 1k resistance that is used within
the collector of T1 & base of T2 is used to save T2 from high amount of current.
So, this is the main working principle behind the circuit, detail description about the
components are explained below serially as used in the circuit.

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT THE COMPONENTS USED

1.BATTERY:-

A battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical cells

that converts stored chemical energy into electrical energy. There are two types of
batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once
and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to
be recharged and used multiple times . It consist a number of voltage
cells. A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to
electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic
cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive
electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged
ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell
includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate,
i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery,
cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized
(electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are
electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different
electrolytes. A separator between half-cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of
the electrolytes. Each voltaic cells consist of two half cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cation. For 9v power supply we can use
6pcs 1.5v dry cell batteries or one 9v dry cell 6F22 type batteries. Here we have used a
9v dry cell 6F22 type battery.

2.SWITCH:-In electronics switch is

an electrical component that can break

an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from
one conductor to another. Switch is a manually
operated electromechanical device with one or more sets
of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits.
Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either "closed"
meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow
between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated
and the switch is non conducting. The mechanism actuating the
transition between these two states (open or closed) can be
either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for
"on" or push-for "off") type. A simple on-off type switch can be used to switch the
power supply to a circuit.

In the simplest case, a switch has two conductive pieces, often metal, called contacts,
connected to an external circuit, that touch to complete (make) the circuit, and
separate to open (break) the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its resistance
to corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch
from working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical
conductivity, hardness (resistance to abrasive wear), and mechanical strength, low cost
and low toxicity. Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals. They may
be designed to wipe against each other to clean off any contamination.
Nonmetallic conductors, such as conductive plastic, are sometimes used. To prevent
the formation of insulating oxides, a minimum wetting current may be specified for a
given switch design.
The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations. The
number of "poles" is the number of separate circuits which are controlled by a switch.
For example, a "2-pole" switch has two separate identical sets of contacts controlled by
the same knob. The number of "throws" is the number of separate positions that the
switch can adopt. A single-throw switch has one pair of contacts that can either be
closed or open. A double-throw switch has a contact that can be connected to either of
two other contacts; a triple-throw has a contact which can be connected to one of
three other contacts, etc. When used with mains electricity this type of switch must be
in the live wire to isolate the circuit immediately, but it is better to use a SPST (Single
Pole Single Throw) switch to isolate both positive and negative connections. So we
herby used a SPST type switch to isolate the circuit from battery.

3.PRESET:-

A trimmer or preset is a miniature adjustable electrical component. It

is meant to be set correctly when installed in some device, and never seen or adjusted
by the device's user. Resistors are one of the most common
electronic components. A resistor is a device that limits, or resists
current. The current limiting ability or resistance is measured in
ohms, represented by the Greek symbol Omega(). Variable
resistors or presets (also called potentiometers or just pots or
called trim pots) are resistors that have a variable resistance. You
adjust the resistance by turning a shaft. This shaft moves a wiper
across the actual resistor element. By changing the amounts of resistor between the
wiper connection and the connection (s) to the resistor element, you can change the
resistance. You will often see the resistance of resistors written with K (kilo ohms) after
the number value. This means that there are that many thousands of ohms. For
example, 1K is 1000 ohm, 2K is 2000 ohm, 3.3K is 3300 ohm, etc. You may also see the
suffix M (mega ohms). This simply means million. Resistors are also rated by their power
handling capability. This is the amount of heat the resistor can take before it is
destroyed. The power capability is measured in W (watts) Common wattages for
6

variable resistors are 1/8W, 1/4W, 1/2W and 1W. Anything of a higher wattage is
referred to as a rheostat.
Construction:- Potentiometers comprise a resistive element, a sliding contact
(wiper) that moves along the element, making good electrical contact with one part of
it, electrical terminals at each end of the element, a mechanism that moves the wiper
from one end to the other, and a housing containing the element and wiper.
The resistive element of inexpensive potentiometers is often made of graphite. Other
materials used include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic,
and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermets. Conductive track
potentiometers use conductive polymer resistor pastes that
contain hard-wearing resins and polymers, solvents, and
lubricant, in addition to the carbon that provides the conductive
properties. The tracks are made by screen-printing the paste
onto a paper-based phenolic substrate and then curing it in an
oven. The curing process removes all solvents and allows the
conductive polymer to polymerize and cross-link. This produces
a durable track with electrical resistance which is stable
throughout its working life. Low-resistance wire-wound
potentiometers may be made with resistive wire close-wound round a former with a
slider jumping from turn to turn.
Some potentiometers are designed to be operated by the user of equipment, and are
fitted with a slider or rotating shaft which extends outside the housing of the equipment
using it and is fitted with a knob; a familiar example is the volume control knob of
analog audio equipment. Others are enclosed within the equipment and are intended to
be adjusted to calibrate equipment during manufacture or repair, and not otherwise
touched. They are usually physically much smaller than user-accessible potentiometers,
and may need to be operated by a screwdriver rather than having a knob. They are
usually called "preset potentiometers". Some presets are accessible by a small
screwdriver poked through a hole in the case to allow servicing without dismantling.
User-accessible rotary potentiometers can be fitted with a switch which operates
usually at the anti-clockwise extreme of rotation. Before digital electronics became the
norm such a component was used to allow radio and television receivers and other
equipment to be switched on at minimum volume with an audible click, then the
volume increased, by turning a knob.
Applications:- Potentiometers are widely used in electronics wherever adjustments
has to be made in the circuit, Potentiometers or trimmers are widely used in audio
control circuits , television circuits, smps circuits, etc.These are widely used in each &
every kind of circuits where ever adjustments are needed. This trimmer or preset
valued 100k is used in our circuit with a series resistance of 470k to control the
sensitivity of LDR & to control the base voltage to T1.
7

4.RESISTORS:-

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is
indirect proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the
voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the
circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented by Ohms law:
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of
the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically,
Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant,
independent of the current. Resistors are common
elements
of electrical
networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment.
Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a
high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can
also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required
precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the
chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the
resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are
also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated
power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in
power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger
and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid
to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these
specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise
amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The
unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular
technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form
factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is
relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
8

Units:-The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg
Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified
and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1
m = 103 ), kilo ohm (1 k = 103 ), and mega ohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in
common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured
in Siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, Siemens is the reciprocal
of an ohm:
.
Electronic symbol and nation: The symbol used for a resistor in a circuit
diagram varies from standard to standard and country to country. Two typical symbols
are as follows.

American-style symbols.
(c) potentiometer

(a) resistor,

(b) rheostat

(variable

resistor),

and

IEC-style resistor symbol

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The European
notation avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI
prefix symbol for the particular value. For example, 8k in a circuit diagram indicates a
resistor value of 8.2 k. Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0.
When the value can be expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead
of the decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 , and 18R indicates 18 . The
use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter 'R' circumvents the problem that decimal
separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a printed circuit diagram.

Theory of Operation:The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I),
where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical
computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a
12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 mill amperes) occurs
across that resistor.

Series Parallel Resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the
voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential
difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total
resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:

So the equation will be:-

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same
resistance R is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference
(voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors
then add to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance
(Req) of the network can be computed

10

So the Equation will be like:The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines
"||" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used
instead of "||", in case the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case
of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same
resistance R, is given by R/N.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be
broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

It is to be Calculated as:-

Power Dissipation In resistances:The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network)
is calculated as:

The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other
forms can be derived.
The total amount of heat energy released over time can be determined from the
integral of the power over that period of time:

11

Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. The vast
majority of resistors used in electronic circuits absorb much less than a watt of
electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their
discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as
1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt.
Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in
power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred
to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings
of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and tend not to use the
preferred values, colour codes, and external packages described below.

12

If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to
the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the
reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms.
Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where
it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are
flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.
Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it
can safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board,
ambient temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly.
Rated power dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25 C in free air.
Inside an equipment case at 60 C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor
dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be
outside the safe operating area and may prematurely fail. Because of this, it is not
uncommon to use resistors with rated power dissipation in excess of what is electrically
called for.

Construction:- Resistors are typically formed from

carbon encased in lacquer but may be made from conductors
or semiconductors. Wire-wound ones are made from coils of
metal wire and are extremely accurate and heat resistant.
Carbon film resistors are made from carbon on a ceramic
cylinder and photoresistor, also called photocells, are made
from materials such as cadmium-sulphide.

Applications & Uses:- Resistors are one of the three basic electronic components.
They restrict the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Fixed resistors have a fixed value
of resistance, and are used in almost every electronic circuit for lots of different
reasons. Because resistors convert electrical energy into heat they form heating
elements in irons, toasters, heaters, electric stoves, hair dryers and similar devices.
Their resistive properties cause them to generate light and are used to create filaments
in light bulbs.
As voltage dividers, resistors are placed in series with each other. Their function is to
produce a particular voltage from an input that is fixed or variable. The output voltage
is proportional to that of the input and is usually smaller. Voltage dividers are useful for
components that need to operate at a lesser voltage than that supplied by the input.
Resistors also help filter signals and are used in oscillatory circuits in televisions and
radios. Here two fixed resistor is used in the circuit first one is 470k resistor used in
series with the trimmer & other one is 1k used within collector of T1 & base of T2 to
limit the voltage to the base of T2.

13

5. PHOTORESISTOR (LDR):A photoresistor or light dependent resistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases
with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. It
can also be referred to as a photoconductor or CdS device, from "cadmium sulfide,"
which is the material from which the device is made and that actually exhibits the
variation in resistance with light level. Note that although CdS is a semiconductor, it is
not doped silicon.
A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device
is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor
has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic
devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon
must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap. Extrinsic
devices have impurities, also called dopants, and added whose ground state energy is
closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower
energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to
trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus
atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an
example of an extrinsic semiconductor. Photoresistor are basically photocells.
As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made from a piece of
exposed semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide that changes its electrical
resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few
hundred Ohms when light falls upon it by creating hole-electron pairs
in the material. The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity
with a decrease in resistance for an increase in illumination. Also,
photo resistive cells have a long response time requiring many
seconds to respond to a change in the light intensity.
Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide
(PbS), lead selenide (PbSe), indium antimonite (InSb) which detect
light in the infra-red range with the most commonly used of all photo
resistive light sensors being Cadmium Sulphide (CdS). Cadmium
sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells because its spectral
response curve closely matches that of the human eye and can even be controlled using
a simple torch as a light source. Typically then, it has a peak sensitivity wavelength (p)
of about 560nm to 600nm in the visible spectral range.
14

The Light Dependent Resistor Cell

The most commonly used photoresistive light sensor is the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide
photoconductive cell. This light dependent resistor has a spectral response of about
610nm in the yellow to orange region of light. The resistance of the cell when
unilluminated (dark resistance) is very high at about 10M's which falls to about
100's when fully illuminated (lit resistance). To increase the dark resistance and
therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path forms a zigzag pattern across the
ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very low cost device often used in auto
dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning the street lights "ON" and "OFF",
and for photographic exposure meter type applications.

15

Application:- Photoresistor come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium

sulphide cells can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street
lights, clock radios, alarm devices, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and solar road
studs etc.
They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent
lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction and are also used in bed lamps
etc.
Lead sulphide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light dependent resistor) are
used for the mid infrared spectral region. Ge: Cu photoconductors are among the best
far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared
spectroscopy. Here this photoresistor or LDR is used to sense the difference between
night & day, thus controlling the circuit & help to glow the lamps automatically.

6.CAPACITOR:-

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two

terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical
conductors separated
by
a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common
construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer
of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts
of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the
conductors, a static electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate
and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in
the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by
a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early
means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in
a breakdown
voltage,
while
the
conductors
and leads introduce
an
undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output
of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in
16

electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for
many other purposes

Theory of Operation:- A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a nonconductive region. The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms,
the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air,
paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the
conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no
net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors
thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric
develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that
one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the
device.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An
ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio
of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance
to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Application & uses of Capacitors:- Capacitors are normally used in each &
every type of circuits. We also used 1F 63v electrolytic capacitor in our circuit to
increase its operating time & to prevent dimming or low glow of LEDs in low intensity
of light. Here the capacitor stores charge & supplies it immediately to T1 after intensity
of light decreases & activates the circuit very fast & also prevents dim glow of LEDs.
The capacitors also normally used in Energy storage, Power Factor Correction, In Noise
Filters, & also in Starters.

17

7.TRANSISTOR:- The design of a transistor allows it to function as an amplifier

or a switch. This is accomplished by using a small amount of electricity to control a gate
on a much larger supply of electricity, much like turning a valve to control supply of
water.
Transistors are composed of three parts a base, a collector, and an emitter. The base
is the gate controller device for the large electrical supply. The collector is the largest
electrical supply, and the emitter is the outlet for that supply. By
sending varying levels of current from the base, the amount of
current flowing through the gate from the collector may be regulated.
In this way, a very small amount of current may be used to control a
large amount of current, as in an amplifier. The same process is used
to create the binary code for the digital processors but in this case a voltage threshold
of
five
volts
is
needed
to
open
the
collector
gate.
Semi-conductive materials are what make these the transistor possible. Most people
are familiar with electrically conductive and non-conductive materials. Metals are
typically thought of as being conductive. Materials such as wood, plastics, glass and
ceramics are non-conductive, or insulators. In the late 1940s a team of scientists
working at Bell Labs in New Jersey, discovered how to take certain types of crystals and
use them as electronic control devices by exploiting their semi-conductive properties.
Most non-metallic crystalline structures would typically be considered insulators. But
by forcing crystals of germanium or silicon to grow with
impurities such as boron or phosphorus, the crystals gain
entirely different electrical conductive properties. By
sandwiching this material between two conductive plates
(the emitter and the collector), a transistor is made. By
applying current to the semi-conductive material (base),
electrons gather until an effective conduit is formed allowing electricity to pass.
There are two main types of transistors-junction transistors and field effect transistors.
Each works in a different way. But the usefulness of any transistor comes from its
ability to control a strong current with a weak voltage. For example, transistors in a
public address system amplify (strengthen) the weak voltage produced when a person
speaks into a microphone. The electricity coming from the transistors is strong enough
to operate a loudspeaker, which produces sounds much louder than the person's voice
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JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
A junction transistor consists of a thin piece of one type of semiconductor material
between two thicker layers of the opposite type. For example, if the middle layer is ptype, the outside layers must be n-type. Such a transistor is an NPN transistor. One of
the outside layers is called the emitter, and the other is known as the collector. The
middle layer is the base. The places where the emitter
joins the base and the base joins the collector are
called junctions.
The layers of an NPN transistor must have the proper
voltage connected across them. The voltage of the base
must be more positive than that of the emitter. The
voltage of the collector, in turn, must be more positive
than that of the base. The voltages are supplied by a
battery or some other source of direct current. The emitter supplies electrons. The
base pulls these electrons from the emitter because it has a more positive voltage than
does the emitter. This movement of electrons creates a flow of electricity through the
transistor
The current passes from the emitter to the collector through the base. Changes in the
voltage connected to the base modify the flow of the current by changing the number
of electrons in the base. In this way, small changes in the base voltage can cause large
changes in the current flowing out of the collector.
Manufacturers also make PNP junction transistors. In these devices, the emitter and
collector are both a p-type semiconductor material and the base is n-type. A PNP
junction transistor works on the same principle as an NPN transistor. But it differs in
one respect. The main flow of current in a PNP transistor is controlled by altering the
number of holes rather than the number of electrons in the base. Also, this type of
transistor works properly only if the negative and positive connections to it are the
reverse.

Working principle of an N-P-N Transistor:N-p-n transistor is made by sandwiching thin layer of p-type semiconductor material
between two layers of n-type semiconductor. It has three terminals, Emitter, Base and
collector. The NPN transistor has two supplies; one is connected through the emitter
base and one through the collector base. The supply is connected such that emitterbase are forward biased and collector base are reverse biased. It means, Base has to be
more positive than the emitter and in turn, the collector must be more positive than
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the base. The current flow in this type of transistor is

carried through movement of electrons. Emitter emits
electrons which are pulled the base as it is more
positive. These end up in the collector as it is yet more
positive. In this way, current flows in the transistor.
Transistor can be used as an amplifier, a switch etc.
Here we have used an NPN transistor that is T1 or BC
547 which gets positive charge to the base after there
is low intensity of light & it activates & start drawing
electrons through emitter & supplies it through
collector to T2 s base.

Working Principle Of a P-N-P Transistor:The PNP transistor works essentially the same as the NPN transistor. However, since
the emitter, base, and collector in the PNP transistor are made of materials that are
different from those used in the NPN transistor, different current carriers flow in the
PNP unit. The majority current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. This is in
contrast to the NPN transistor where the majority current carriers are electrons. To
support this different type of current (hole flow), the bias batteries are reversed for the
PNP transistor. A typical bias setup for the PNP
transistor is shown in figure.
Notice that the procedure used earlier to properly
bias the NPN transistor also applies here to the
PNP transistor. The first letter (P) in the PNP
sequence indicates the polarity of the voltage
required for the emitter (positive), and the
second letter (N) indicates the polarity of the base
voltage (negative). Since the base-collector
junction is always reverse biased, then the
opposite polarity voltage (negative) must be used
for the collector. Thus, the base of the PNP
transistor must be negative with respect to the
emitter, and the collector must be more negative than the base. Remember, just as in
the case of the NPN transistor, this difference in supply voltage is necessary to have
current flow (hole flow in the case of the PNP transistor) from the emitter to the
collector. Although hole flow is the predominant type of current flow in the PNP
transistor, hole flow only takes place within the transistor itself, while electrons flow in
the external circuit. However, it is the internal hole flow that leads to electron flow in
the external wires connected to the transistor.
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Here we have used PNP transistor that is BC557 to supply the required voltages to
LEDs. When there is low intensity of light or proper darkness T2 (BC557) gets negative
voltage or good to say electron supply from T1 to its base & its emitter base junction is
forward biased & base collector junction is reverse biased through LEDs. So it starts to
draw positive charge from batteries through emitter & supplies it to collector thus
glowing all the LEDs.

Applications & uses:- The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have
made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced
electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier
and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry
out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function.
The transistor is used in amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter
configuration. Simple circuit using a transistor. The essential usefulness of a transistor
comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to
control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called "gain".
A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; this is called an
"amplifier". Or, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit like an
electrically controlled "switch", where the amount of current is determined by other
circuit elements. The transistor is also used as switch in various kinds of circuits it also
used as amplifier, frequency generator, and wave generator in various circuits.
Here we have used two transistors, one is BC547 (NPN) & other one is BC557 (PNP).
These two transistors used as switch here, T1 that is BC547 is a NPN transistor so when
it is dark it gets voltage at its base that is positive & its emitter is connected to negative
pole of battery. So the Base Emitter Junction is forward biased so it starts conducting
electrons & it supplies electrons through collector to the base of T2 that is
BC557(PNP).T2 s Base emitter junction is forward biased but base collector junction is
reverse biased through LEDs. So when it gets negative base voltage so it starts conduct
holes that is protons or positive charge through emitter to collector & LEDs are
connected to its collector so they get positive charge then the starts to glow. So like
this one transistor is used as a switch to activate the other one.

8.LED:-

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used

as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.
Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted lowintensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible; ultraviolet, and
infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

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When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to

recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons.
This
effect
is
called
electroluminescence and the colour of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy gap of
the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in
area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated
optical components may be used to shape
its radiation pattern. LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent light sources
including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness,
smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively
expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
The current/voltage characteristic of an LED is similar to other diodes, in that the
current is dependent exponentially on the voltage. This means that a small change in
voltage can cause a large change in current. If the maximum voltage rating is exceeded
by a small amount, the current rating may be exceeded by a large amount, potentially
damaging or destroying the LED. The typical solution is to use constant-current power
supplies, or driving the LED at a voltage much below the maximum rating.

Operation:- A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible light when
forward biased. When light emitting diode is forward biased the electrons from the ntype materials cross the pn junction and recombine with holes in the p type material.
Recall that these free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy level
than the holes in the valence band. When recombination takes place, the recombining
electrons release energy in the form of heat and light. In Germanium and Silicon diodes
almost the entire energy is give up in the form of heat and emitted light is in significant.
However, in materials like gallium arsenide, the numbers of photons of light energy is
sufficient to produce quit intense visible light.

Advantages:- The light-emitting diode (LED) is a solid state light source. LEDs have
replaced incandescent lamps many applications because they have the following
advantages:
1. Low Cost
2. Longer life (more than 20 years).
3. Fast on-off switching Time.
4. Low Power Consumption.
22

Applications & Uses:The LED is a low-power device .The power rating of a LED is of the order of mill watts.
This means that it is useful as an indicator but not good for illumination. Probably the
two most common applications for visible LEDs are (1) as a power indicator (2) sevensegment displays.
Here we have used a total of four LEDs in series-parallel connection to Represent Street
lights.

9.BREAD BOARD:A Breadboard is used to build and test circuits quickly before finalizing any circuit
design. The bread board has many holes into which circuit components like ICs and
Resistors e.t.c. can be inserted.
The bread board has strips of metal which
run underneath the board and connect
the holes on the top of the board. Note
that the top and bottom rows of holes are
connected
horizontally
while
the
remaining
wholes
are
connected
vertically.
To use the bread board, the legs of components are placed in the holes. Each set of
holes connected by a metal strip underneath forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit
where two components are connected. Connections between different components
are formed by putting their legs in a common node.
The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections.
The rest of the circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together
with jumper wires. ICs are placed in the middle of the board so that half of the legs are
on one side of the middle line and half on the other. Here in our project we have used
Bread board as it is easy to use, convenient, & good to show & understand projects. But
it is not recommended for commercial use.

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References
Books That Helped Us:

Principle Of Electronics By B.L Theraja

Industrial Electronics & Control By Biswanath Paul
An Integrated Course In Electrical Engineering By J.B Gupta
Industrial Electronics By S.N Biswas
Special Thanks To The Electronics For You (EFY) Magazine

Websites That Supplied The Contents & Give Ideas:

www.wikipedia.org
www.wikianswers.com
www.yahooanswers.com
www.answers.com
www.howstuffworks.com
Special Thanks To The Search Engine Giant www.google.com to
Supply Us Required Information & Pictures.

THANK YOU
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