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Duckshin Park , Taejeong Lee , Doyeon Hwang , Wonseok Jung , Yongil Lee , KiChul Cho ,
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Department of Bio and Environmental Science, Dongnam Health College, Suwon, Korea
To cite this article: Duckshin Park, Taejeong Lee, Doyeon Hwang, Wonseok Jung, Yongil Lee, KiChul Cho, Dongsool Kim &
Kiyoung Lee (2014) Identification of the sources of PM10 in a subway tunnel using positive matrix factorization, Journal of the
Air & Waste Management Association, 64:12, 1361-1368, DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2014.950766
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2014.950766
TECHNICAL PAPER
The level of particulate matter of less than 10 mm diameter (PM10) at subway platforms can be significantly reduced by installing
a platform screen-door system. However, both workers and passengers might be exposed to higher PM10 levels while the cars are
within the tunnel because it is a more confined environment. This study determined the PM10 levels in a subway tunnel, and identified
the sources of PM10 using elemental analysis and receptor modeling. Forty-four PM10 samples were collected in the tunnel between
the Gireum and Mia stations on Line 4 in metropolitan Seoul and analyzed using inductively coupled plasmaatomic emission
spectrometry and ion chromatography. The major PM10 sources were identified using positive matrix factorization (PMF). The
average PM10 concentration in the tunnels was 200.8 22.0 mg/m3. Elemental analysis indicated that the PM10 consisted of 40.4%
inorganic species, 9.1% anions, 4.9% cations, and 45.6% other materials. Iron was the most abundant element, with an average
concentration of 72.5 10.4 mg/m3. The PM10 sources characterized by PMF included rail, wheel, and brake wear (59.6%), soil
combustion (17.0%), secondary aerosols (10.0%), electric cable wear (8.1%), and soil and road dust (5.4%). Internal sources
comprising rail, wheel, brake, and electric cable wear made the greatest contribution to the PM10 (67.7%) in tunnel air.
Implications: With installation of a platform screen door, PM10 levels in subway tunnels were higher than those on platforms.
Tunnel PM10 levels exceeded 150 mg/m3 of the Korean standard for subway platform. Elemental analysis of PM10 in a tunnel showed
that Fe was the most abundant element. Five PM10 sources in tunnel were identified by positive matrix factorization. Railroad-related
sources contributed 68% of PM10 in the subway tunnel.
Introduction
In urban areas, the subway system is the most efficient and
convenient mode of commuter transportation. In Seoul, the subway system is a major form of transportation and accounts for
~36.2% of the total transportation in the city (Seoul, 2010).
Seoul is served by nine subway lines with a total of 358 stations
and transports 6.7 million passengers daily (Jung et al., 2010).
Subway passengers and workers can develop air pollution problems because the subway system is typically a confined space
exposed to pollution from various sources. The health of subway
passengers and employees is of great concern, considering the
potentially high levels of air pollution combined with prolonged
exposure times (Kim et al., 2006).
Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10
mm (PM10) is one of the major pollutants in subway environments. Many studies have reported that the PM concentrations in
1361
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 64(12):13611368, 2014. Copyright 2014 A&WMA. ISSN: 1096-2247 print
DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2014.950766 Submitted April 10, 2014; final version submitted July 4, 2014; accepted July 26, 2014.
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Park et al. / Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 64 (2014) 13611368
(2)
i1
j1
i1
j1 s
s2ij
ij
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Park et al. / Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 64 (2014) 13611368
Pb) and three anions (Cl, NO3, and SO42). Q-mode was used
to organize the samples, with the samples given in the rows and
the concentration of each sample in the columns. When there are
incomplete data sets containing data below detection limit or
missing data, there are several methods to substitute by approximated values. For this study, values below the detection limit
were replaced by of the detection limit, while unmeasured
values were replaced by the geographical average of the particular chemical species described in the previous reports (Polissar
et al., 1998; Lee et al., 2002). This individual data point weighting permits the influence of the values to be related to the level of
confidence the analyst has in the data.
To perform PMF modeling, the uncertainty of the measurements, in addition to the values discussed already, is required.
The uncertainty Sij (error) can be calculated using eq 4 (Polissar
et al., 1998):
Sij MDL=3 k Xij
(4)
between these two values of measured concentration and analytical uncertainty (Kim et al., 2005).
Table 1. Summary of the PM10 concentration and elemental composition in the subway tunnel
Concentration (mg/m3)
Percentile
Chemical species
PM10
Al
Ba
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mn
Ni
Pb
Si
Ti
Zn
Cl
NO3
SO42
Na
K
Mg2
Ca2
Average
Minimum
25
50
75
Maximum
200.75 21.99
0.36 0.11
1.19 0.25
0.22 0.30
2.35 0.38
72.51 10.37
0.60 0.12
0.15 0.15
0.23 0.13
3.03 1.18
0.04 0.01
0.51 0.34
1.45 1.47
10.17 7.68
6.54 2.07
1.32 1.67
1.40 1.33
0.95 0.54
6.15 3.03
153.40
0.18
0.79
0.00
1.56
49.14
0.35
0.00
0.03
0.47
0.03
0.15
0.05
0.95
2.58
0.05
0.04
0.20
2.05
183.66
0.28
1.00
0.04
2.05
65.72
0.52
0.08
0.10
2.43
0.03
0.32
0.81
4.80
4.40
0.66
0.61
0.62
4.24
199.21
0.33
1.14
0.08
2.35
72.67
0.60
0.08
0.23
3.02
0.04
0.43
1.28
9.05
5.35
0.77
0.94
0.84
5.25
213.78
0.39
1.41
0.21
2.66
79.15
0.67
0.17
0.29
4.12
0.04
0.58
1.38
13.88
9.14
1.31
1.24
1.12
7.03
252.11
0.75
1.80
1.18
3.31
97.66
0.90
0.62
0.59
5.22
0.06
1.99
8.84
31.62
13.95
10.23
6.03
2.79
16.69
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Park et al. / Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 64 (2014) 13611368
high, and the Cr and Ni EV were 0.7 and 0.5 respectively. The
first source could be identified as various types of oil combustion. Cr and Ni are markers of oil combustion in the fine fraction
(Lee et al., 2002; Morawska and Zhang, 2002). These markers
are emitted mainly from diesel oil or residual oil combustion. In
the profiles, Ca2 and SO42 were present at high mass fractions.
Calcium is generally emitted by the wear of brake linings, tires,
and clutch plates and by asphalt road surfaces, mainly in the
coarse mode (Monte and Rossi, 2000; Kupiainen et al., 2005).
These elements can be generated by the diesel vehicles used to
repair the subway rails at night and can enter underground subway tunnels through vents. The contribution of oil combustion to
the PM10 level in the subway tunnel was 17.0% (33.8 mg/m3).
This is similar to the contributions of outdoor-related sources,
including oil combustion and vehicles (4.0% and 6.0%, respectively) reported for PM10 in the subway tunnel (Park et al., 2013).
The second source, soil and road dust, included Ca2, K,
Mg2, Si, and SO42, which had EV > 0.5. Si was reported to be
present as a fraction >10% of a typical soil source for coarse
particles (Chow, 1995; Watson and Chow, 1994; Watson et al.,
2002). These elements in outdoor soil and road dust can enter a
subway tunnel through vents. The crustal particles originate
from unpaved roads, construction sites, and windblown soil
dust. As shown in Figure 2, soil and road dust contributed
5.4% (10.7 mg/m3) of the PM10. A previous PMF study (Jung
et al., 2010) reported a 7.210.6% contribution to the PM10 mass
concentration in subway tunnels.
The third source was rail, wheel, and brake wear, originating
mostly from indoor emissions due to the movement of trains. Fe,
Mn, Si, Ba, and Ca2 are markers of railroad operations and are
generated by the abrasion of the railroad tracks and brakes during
subway operation. Pollution related to rail, wheel, and brake
wear accounted for 59.6% (118.9 mg/m3) of the PM10 in the
subway tunnel, which was the highest of all sources identified in
this study. Rail-, wheel-, and brake-related sources have been
reported to contribute to the PM10 detected in subway tunnels
and on platforms (Gehrig et al., 2007; Jung et al., 2010; Lee
et al., 2010; Colombi et al., 2013; Park et al., 2013).
Zn, Cu, Cl, and Ca2 accounted for a large proportion of the
fourth source profile. Zn and Cu were present at relatively high
levels and were classified as being related to electric cables. Zn
and Cu are markers of subway operations and are generated by
abrasion of the power supply lines during subway operation
(Park et al., 2012). Pollution related to electric cable wear
accounted for 8.1% (16.2 mg/m3) of the PM10 in the subway
tunnel.
The fifth factor was characterized as secondary aerosols
based on presence of NO3 and SO42. This source might
include local and regional sources because formation of particulate SO42, NO3, and NH4 from gaseous SO2, NO2, and NH3
requires time. In this study, the NH4 content was not measured,
but it is likely that the NO3 and SO42 ions bonded with NH4,
resulting in formation of nitrate and sulfate particles. Once
released to the ambient atmosphere, these are converted predominantly to NH4NO3 and (NH4)xSO4 (x 0 to 2) via homogeneous or heterogeneous photochemical processes (Watson and
Chow, 1994; Khoder, 2002; Wilson et al., 2002). Nitrate and
sulfate aerosols were also present in significant amounts in
0.23*
0.09*
0.38*
0.45*
0.48
0.25
0.28
0.08*
0.67*
0.66*
0.22*
0.21*
0.25*
0.14*
0.16*
0.13*
0.23*
0.03
0.78*
0.44*
0.05*
0.11
0.03*
0.19*
0.64*
0.15
0.22
0.03*
0.14*
0.15
0.11*
0.01*
0.12*
Ba
Ba
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mn
Ni
Pb
Si
Ti
Zn
Cl
NO3
SO42
Na
K
Mg2
Ca2
Al
0.11
0.16*
0.27*
0.87*
0.01
0.57
0.07*
0.14
0.02
0.06
0.02
0.14*
0.26*
0.16
0.07
Cr
0.62*
0.37*
0.03
0.21*
0.28*
0.63*
0.06
0.03
0.08
0.13*
0.07
0.16*
0.05
0.03*
Cu
0.86*
0.17*
0.04*
0.21*
0.51*
0.04*
0.01*
0.12
0.17*
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.12
Fe
Mn
0.25
0.15
0.03*
0.33*
0.12*
0.17*
0.06*
0.11*
0.05*
0.08
0.26
0.13
0.03
0.55
0.21*
0.15*
0.04
0.11*
0.11*
0.09*
0.18*
0.10
0.03
Ni
0.07
0.15*
0.16*
0.01*
0.05*
0.43*
0.19*
0.11
0.22
0.11
Pb
0.16*
0.00*
0.03
0.07*
0.10*
0.11
0.01
0.22*
0.17*
Si
0.40*
0.05*
0.32*
0.42*
0.09
0.07*
0.10*
0.16*
Ti
0.35*
0.32*
0.36*
0.21*
0.08*
0.15*
0.25*
Zn
0.16*
0.20*
0.63
0.04
0.11*
0.12*
Cl
0.74*
0.14*
0.13
0.13
0.04
NO3
0.27*
0.10
0.04*
0.06
SO42
0.15
0.08*
0.26*
Na
0.57*
0.55*
0.76*
Mg2
Park et al. / Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 64 (2014) 13611368
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Park et al. / Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 64 (2014) 13611368
PMF analysis of PM in the subway tunnel was used to determine the importance of internal sources. The sources can be
apportioned by comparing outdoor and tunnel PM. In further
studies, outdoor aerosols should be collected near the subway
stations to compare the composition of indoor and outdoor
aerosols. To understand subway tunnel emission sources in
more detail, it is necessary to investigate additional chemicals,
such as carbon compounds and other inorganic elements, and to
develop more marker species for specific sources. Although we
identified five sources of PM10 in the subway tunnel using PMF
modeling, this was based on measurements made during the fall,
not the other three seasons. As the primary sources of PM10
might differ seasonally, further research on the sources of PM10
in the tunnel according to season is needed.
Conclusion
Park et al. / Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 64 (2014) 13611368
Funding
The work described in this paper was supported by research
grants on the Basic Research Project of Korea by Ministry of
Science, ICT, and Future Planning, and Railway Technology
Research Project by Minister of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport (14RTRP-B081249-01).
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