Section 1

CHAPTER 1
GAS RESERVOIRS
& INTRODUCTORY TOPICS
Gordon R. Petrie,
Thru-u.com.
Contents:
Page
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Estimation of GIIP
1.3
Location of Fluid-Fluid Contacts
1.4
Primary Recovery Mechanism
10
1.5
Estimation of Expansion Factor
12
1.6
Gas Material Balance
13
1.7
Plotting Production Data
20
1.8
Gas Physical Properties
26
1.9
Gas Condensation
31
Section 1
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd 2000.
1
Rev 1.0
1
-
GAS RESERVOIRS &

INTRODUCTORY TOPICS
For nearly a century there was remarkable oil price stability at around $3-$4 per
barrel. In this situation most fields were exploited with a minimum of
technology:
-
Primary recovery involved simply producing fluids to the surface using

the stored energy within the reservoir system itself.
In the event of natural pressure maintenance from the expansion of aquifer

or gascap fluids, then reasonable recoveries could be obtained.
However, in the absence of these factors, the reservoir produced by a

depletion drive type mechanism, during which average reservoir pressure
declined rapidly as pore fluids were produced.
Once the pressure dropped below the bubble-point, then free gas evolved
from the oil within the reservoir; due to the preferential flow of gas to the
wellbore the technique was known as Solution Gas Drive.
Solution gas drive was an extremely wasteful, low technology technique,

but was common practice at a time of cheap oil prices.
In such a low technology era there was a modest role for Reservoir
Engineers as part of the overall exploration & production team.
NOTE -
Since the oil price rise, from 1973 onwards, high technology recovery
techniques and the advent of computer simulation have dramatically
increased the importance of Reservoir Engineers.
Section 1
2
Rev 1.0
1.1
-
INTRODUCTION
From 1973-1986 oil prices ranged from $30-$40 per barrel. These high prices
stimulated exploration in high cost regions and encouraged the adoption of
Secondary Recovery methods (water and gas drive).
Reservoir Engineers now play a central role throughout both field appraisal and
development phases. Briefly, their pivotal relationship with the rest of the
exploration & production team can be summarised below:
GEOLOGISTS:
- Preparation of subsurface
maps.
- Location of faults and
fractures.
- Inspection of core samples,
drilling logs; lithology
determination.
- Development of depositional
and geological models.
PETROPHYSISTS:
- Inspection of drilling logs;
lithology determination.
- Log & core interpretation and
deveolopment of correlations.
- Determination of lithology, pore
fluids and saturations.
- Estimation of porosity,
permeability and net rock volume.
RESERVOIR ENGINEERS:
- Central co-ordination role for data collection and
interpretation, i.e. collection of cores and running logs.
- Fluid sampling, GIIP or STOIIP determination.
- Selection of rock and fluid input property data for reservoir
simulator runs. Well testing, pressure-depth data and analysis.
- Flowrates, PI, number/location of wells, recovery factor and
recovery timescale.
- Determination of drive mechanisms, pressure communication,
vertical layering and permeability distribution.
- History matching reservoir simulator output. Use of simulator
to predict production profiles.
- Operational and production decisions, i.e. high WOR/GOR.
ECONOMISTS:
- Project equipment costings.
- Economic studies and
determination of project viability.
- Sensitivity analysis to identify
critical factors for profitability.
- Cash flow projections, financial
controls and budget preparation.
Section 1
FACILITY ENGINEERS:
- Engineering of downhole and
surface production facilities.
- Engineering of Secondary
Recovery plant.
- Engineering of export facilities.
- Engineering of infrastructural
requirements.
3
Rev 1.0
1.2
-
ESTIMATION OF GIIP
For gas reservoirs, the equation used to estimate, G , the Gas Initially In Place,
expressed in terms of standard surface volumes, is as follows:
G = Vb (1 SWC ) Ei
................................................(1.1)
where,
G = Gas Initially In Place (SCF).
Vb = Net bulk volume of the reservoir (rcf).
= Average porosity, or fraction of Vb which is pore space (-).

SWC = Average connate water saturation, or fraction PV occupied by water (-).
Ei = Initial Gas Expansion Factor (SCF/rcf).
The net bulk volume (rcf) is Vb . The Pore Volume, PV (rcf), is the product Vb .
The Hydrocarbon Pore Volume, HCPV (rcf), is the product Vb (1 S wc ) .
The gas expansion factor ( Ei ) simply converts reservoir volumes (rcf) into
surface volumes at standard conditions (SCF). Its definition, and how to
calculate its value, will be discussed later in this section.
NOTE -
There are two principal ways of finding GIIP, G:

First, prepare a geological map and estimate Vb then solve (1.1); this is
the so-called Volumetric Method.
Second, use gas material balance equation to predict G directly from

production-decline information; see methods later in this section.
Section 1
4
Rev 1.0
1.3 LOCATION OF FLUID-FLUID CONTACTS

-
The Volumetric Method for finding Vb starts with a contour plot shown below:
GWC
The green lines or contours connect lines of constant

elevation to a marker bed usually sealing shale.
These are similar to contour lines on a map except

shallowest contours are at the top and deepest
contours at the base. Such a map indicates structure.
The orange line represents the GWC. This diagram

should be prepared by geologists/petrophysists.
This contour plot is then converted into an net

isopachous map; i.e. contours are now isopachs or
lines of constant net formation thickness. The zero
isopach corresponds to the GWC.
From isopachous map Vb is found. However, errors in locating the GWC will
cause errors in Vb . This will lead to knock-on errors in GIIP or G. Consider two
types of trapping structure below:
WELL
WELL
Sealing
Fault
GWC
GWC
(a)
(b)
In the case of (a) most wells penetrating this structure will pass through the
GWC. Hence cores/logs will identify the GWC. However, in the case of
structure (b) the GWC cannot be located by logs/cores.
NOTE -
In such cases only the Gas Down To depth (GDT) is known. The GWC
must be inferred by pressure-depth measurements.
Section 1
5
Rev 1.0
Accurate knowledge of the hydrostatic pressure gradient for water in the

vicinity of the hydrocarbon deposits is vital. For normally pressured sands the
pressure-depth relation for water is given by
dp
pW = W D + 14.7 .....(1.2)
dD
where,
pW = Pressure in water bearing sand at any depth (psia).
D = Depth of interest (ft).

dpW
= Water hydrostatic pressure gradient (psi/ft).
dD
If the water bearing sand is abnormally pressured, for whatever reason,

equation (1.2) must be modified as shown below
dp
pW = W D + ( p A + 14.7) ....(1.3)
dD
where,
p A = Abnormal pressure factor (psi).
p A is positive for overpressured and negative for underpressured sands. For a
sand to be abnormally pressured, it must be sealed by impermeable strata,

otherwise the abnormal pressure will equilibrate vertically or aerially.
NOTE -
Once the pressure-depth line for water is constructed, the pressuredepth line for the gas column may also be constructed.
Where the two lines intersect identifies the depth of the GWC.
Section 1
6
Rev 1.0
Consider some typical values for fluid hydrostatic pressure gradients. Obviously
actual values will be affected by a variety of factors such as depth, GOR,
temperature, salinity, composition, etc.
dpW
= 0.44 .............................(1.4)a
dD
dpO
= 0.32 .....................(1.4)b
dD
dpg
= 0.07 .............................(1.4)c
dD
Consider the case where an exploration well has been drilled up-dip in a target
structure shown below. A DST survey has been carried out at 5900 ft; the
measured pressure and density of the gas was 2721.7 psia, and 0.07 psi/ft
respectively.
Other measurements in surrounding water-bearing sands indicate that they are

normally pressured and the calculated hydrostatic pressure gradient of 0.44
psi/ft is consistent with the known salinity/temperature in this region.
5800 ft
2566.7 psia
Sealing
Fault
2714.7 psia
5900 ft
WELL
0.07 psi/ft
pg = 2721.7 psia
dp g
= 0.07 psi/ft
dD
D = 5900 ft
GDT
6020 ft
0.44 psi/ft
6200 ft
Section 1
2742.7 psia
GWC
7
Rev 1.0
From the DST test the pg = 2721.7 psia @ 5900 ft. From the gas sample the
downhole hydrostatic pressure gradient is calculated from the measured gas

gravity to be (dpg / dD ) = 0.07 psi/ft.
Hence, since any hydrocarbon column must be overpressured with respect to the
surrounding water-bearing sands, the constant for the hydrostatic pressure
gradient equation can be found. The equation for pg is therefore
pg = 0.07 D + 2308.7 .......................................................(A)
Substituting D = 5900 ft into above expression returns the measured DST

pressure within the gas at this depth. The water bearing sands are known to be
normally pressured. The equation for pW is therefore
pW = 0.44 D + 14.7 ......................................................(B)
These two lines could be drawn on a pressure-depth graph. The point of

intersection will indicate the depth of the GWC. The same result can be
obtained algebraically from (A) and (B) without drawing the graph.
At GWC, pg = pW , and depth of the GWC is easily found by equating (A) and
(B); assuming only gas below the GDT depth. The GWC is at 6200 ft.
NOTE -
GDT from cores/logs is known to be 6020 ft. However to estimate

Vb & G using Volumetric Method the depth to the GWC is needed.
Using hydrostatic pressure information the GWC can be located at

6200 ft. This assumes there is no oil between 6020 & 6200 ft!
Section 1
8
Rev 1.0
The crest of the structure is at 5800 ft. The pressure immediately above the
sealing shale, in the water bearing sand, can be found from equation (B).
Substituting D = 5800 ft into (B) yields pW = 2566.7 psia.
The pressure immediately below the sealing shale in the gas reservoir can be
found from equation (A). Substituting D = 5800 ft into (A) yields
pg = 2714.7 psia; neglecting for the time being the shale thickness.
On drilling a crestal well through the sealing shale the formation pressure will
rise suddenly from 2566.7 psia to 2714.7 psia.
Hence, the drilling overbalance will be reduced by 148 psi, which may be
sufficient for the well to kick and take an influx.
If drilling were taking place in a new region the water pressure gradient may be
unknown. Consider now that the surrounding water bearing sands are actually
overpressured by 10 psi. Equation (B) now yields
pW = 0.44 D + 24.7 .........................................................(C)
NOTE -
In this case the GWC would be at 6173 ft instead of 6200 ft. Ignoring
this overpressure would have the effect of overestimating Vb & G .
One significant question from this exercise is how can the presence or
absence of an oil column be determined below the GDT depth?
The only way to answer this question is to drill an exploration well

down-dip or plug-back and sidetrack the existing well.
It is not always best idea to drill an exploration well targeted at the

crest of the structure!
Section 1
9
Rev 1.0
1.4
-
PRIMARY RECOVERY MECHANISM

This section and the next one deal with Primary Recovery. That is, the situation
where the energy stored within the fluid itself is used to produce the
hydrocarbons to the surface.
Later sections deal with Secondary Recovery, where external energy is used to
displace the oil out of the pore space and to the surface. The most common
secondary recovery methods are water or gas drive.
In the case of Primary Recovery, the quantity of interest is the Isothermal

Coefficient of Compressibility, which is defined as
c=
1 V
V p
......(1.5)
T
Since a fluid will expand as the pressure falls the partial derivative is negative.
Hence, a negative sign is needed to keep the compressibility coefficient a
positive number. For reservoir engineering purposes (1.5) is usually written as
dV = cVp
NOTE -
..(1.6)
The negative sign can be dropped so long as the fluid expansion dV

and the pressure drop p are both taken as positive.
Above equation states that production (LHS) equals expansion (RHS).
Section 1
10
Rev 1.0
Primary production in a gas reservoir is affected by two main factors, namely

expansion of gas in the reservoir and expansion of water in the aquifer:
-
There are also other more minor effects due squeezing of the pore space
itself; as the pore pressure declines, the overburden pressure remains
constant. There is also the expansion of small amounts of connate water.
Gas production:
dV = dVg + dVW
Gascap expansion:
dVg = cgVg p
Aquifer expansion:
dVW = cW VW p
The subsurface expansion of these two fluids must be equal to the cumulative
volume of pore fluid production, or
dV = cgVg p + cW VW p
NOTE
..(1.7)
cg >> cW so that primary recovery will only be significantly affected

by water expansion if the aquifer is large with good hydraulic
diffusivity.
Section 1
11
Rev 1.0
1.5
-
ESTIMATION OF EXPANSION FACTOR

The real gas law can be used to determine gas volumes under any combination
of temperature, pressure, or composition. The well-known expression is
pV = ZnRT ..................................................................(1.8)
Taking n moles of gas, equation (1.8) can be used to predict the volume under
reservoir conditions ( VRES ). Equation (1.8) can then be used to give the new
volume of the same n moles at standard surface conditions ( VSC ). Hence
E=
VSC Z SC nRTSC
=
VRES
pSC
E=
pTSC Z SC
pSCTZ
ZnRT
or,
The subscript SC means Standard Conditions. The unsubscipted variables are

at Reservoir Conditions. Substituting PSC = 14.7 psia, TSC = 520 R and Z SC = 1
gives the analytical expression for E (SCF/rcf) shown below
E = 35.37
p
ZT
..................................................(1.9)
where,
p = Pressure of gas at reservoir conditions (psia).
T = Temperature of the gas at reservoir conditions (R).
Z = Compressibility Factor of the gas at reservoir conditions (-).
Section 1
12
Rev 1.0
1.6
-
GAS MATERIAL BALANCE

Recall GIIP (G) can be calculated by the Volumetric Method or by suitable
analysis of the Gas Material Balance equation. Both methods are used.
The Material Balance equation can be used not only to find G, but also to
determine the drive mechanism (the method involves graphically history
matching known production data). There are two main cases to consider:
-
Little or no natural water influx.
Significant expansion of water from adjoining aquifer into reservoir.
1.6.1
-
Gas Material Balance Schilthuis Form
The Material Balance equation involves the following: determine the total
volumetric expansion of pore fluids from initial conditions to the current stage
of depletion; equate this expansion with cumulative volumetric production.
PRODUCTION
Consider initial condition with

reservoir charged at initial
pressure pi .
At this stage no fluids have been

produced.
At later stage, reservoir pressure

has depleted to lower
pressure p .
Cumulative production must

equal expansion of original pore
fluids from pi to lower pressure
pi
RESERVOIR
PRODUCTION
p
RESERVOIR
p.
Section 1
13
Rev 1.0
Ignoring water influx, the derivation of the gas material balance commences by
first re-arranging equation (1.1) to get an expression for Pore Volume PV
PV = Vb =
G
...(1.10)
Ei (1 SWC )
Expansion of the gas dVg (rcf) from initial reservoir pressure pi to any lower
pressure p , at some future stage of depletion, is simply the notional expanded
volume (rcf) of all the original gas at lower pressure less initial gas volume (rcf)
dVg =
G G
.(A)
E Ei
where,
G = Gas Initially In Place or GIIP (SCF).
Ei = Gas expansion factor at initial pressure pi (SCF/rcf).

E = Gas expansion factor at any later stage of depletion (SCF/rcf).
Expansion connate water dVCW (rcf) from initial reservoir pressure pi to any
lower pressure p , at some future stage of depletion, is therefore given by
dVCW = cWVW p = cW
G
SWC p ..(B)
Ei (1 SWC )
where,
cW = Isothermal compressibility of water (psi-1).
p = Pressure drop from pi to p (psi).
SWC = VW or connate water volume (rcf).

Ei (1 SWC )
Section 1
14
Rev 1.0
As pore pressure declines, overburden pressure remains constant and grain

pressure increases; the result is a shrinkage in Pore Volume dV f (rcf). This
squeezing of the PV has the same effect as expansion of pore fluids.
dV f = c f VPV p = c f
G
p ..(C)
Ei (1 SWC )
Now the basis of the material balance is to equate this expansion of the pore
fluid, and compression of pore volume, to cumulative production. Hence (A),
(B), (C) must all appear on the RHS of material balance expression.
Notice dVg & dVCW & dV f must all be multiplied by the gas expansion factor
E , in order to keep volumes in (SCF) throughout.
(SCF)
(SCF)
(SCF)
(SCF)
G G
G
G
GP = E + cW
SWC p E + c f
p E
E Ei
Ei (1 SWC )
Ei (1 SWC )
where,
GP = Cumulative gas produced at the surface (SCF).
Re-arranging the above expression gives the usual form of the gas material
balance equation assuming no natural water influx.
GP = G G
NOTE -
E
E cW SWC + c f
+ G
Ei
Ei (1 SWC )
p ..(1.11)
Above expression ignores water influx and therefore applies to a

volumetric depletion-type reservoir with no pressure maintenance.
Section 1
15
Rev 1.0
Next take the more general case of natural water influx into the HCPV from an
adjoining aquifer. The following small adjustments need to be made to our
hydraulic model:
-
A second aquifer chamber must be attached to the RHS of the

Reservoir chamber. It contains water at the same pressure as the oil in
the reservoir, but there is a partially closed valve between them.
As the piston rises on LHS (production), expansion of the oil takes place
as before. However, now water enters the reservoir chamber through the
partially closed valve from the aquifer chamber.
Hence, an extra expansion term needs to be added to the RHS of the

material balance equation to account for the expansion of the aquifer fluid.
The last term on RHS takes below care of this natural water influx term:
G G
G
G
GP = E + cW
p E + (5.615 We )E
SWC p E + c f
E Ei
Ei (1 SWC )
Ei (1 SWC )
where,
We = Cumulative water influx into HCPV (rb).
5.615 = Conversion factor (rcf/rb)
And re-arranging the above expression as before leads to the general Schilthuis
form of the Gas Material Balance equation, which includes water influx:
E
E cW SWC + c f
5.615 We
GP = G G + G
p +
G
Ei
Ei (1 SWC )
Ei
NOTE -
.(1.12)
Above expression applies to natural waterdrive gas reservoirs.
Section 1
16
Rev 1.0
A number of simplifications and re-arrangements are usually applied to

the above general expression:
The connate water expansion and pore volume shrinkage term is usually
negligible often contributing around only 1% to the RHS of the material
balance equation.
The exception is in shallow unconsolidated sands g where high formation

compressibility, c f , can result from a compaction-drive mechanism.
Assuming that this term can be ignored then equation (1-12) reduces to,
after some re-arrangement
GP
E 5.615 We
= 1 1
G
G
Ei
Ei
.(1.13)
Substituting equation (1.9) into the above twice ( E and Ei ), then cancelling out
common terms (reservoir always assumed isothermal), leads to
G
1 P
p pi
G
=
5
.
615
We
Z Zi 1
G
Ei
NOTE -
.(1.14)
The above two equations are the most commonly applied Gas Material
Balance equations. They include natural water drive effects but exclude
pore shrinkage and connate water expansion effects.
Section 1
17
Rev 1.0
1.6.2
-
Gas Material Balance Havlena & Odeh Form
With the Schilthuis formulation of the gas material balance equation all the
terms have units of (SCF). On the other hand, the Havlena & Odeh form applies
to the same basic equation, but uses reservoir volumes (rcf) instead.
In the Schilthuis form, the We term is actually ( We WP BW ) or net water influx;

WP is cumulative volume of water produced at surface (STB) and BW is water
formation volume factor (rb/STB). In gas reservoirs, with little produced water,
We is often close to ( We WP BW ).
The basic Havlena & Odeh formulation is obtained from equation (1.12). The
WP term is brought to the LHS, while the We term is kept on RHS
rcf
rcf
rcf
rcf
rcf
1 1 G cW SWC + c f
GP
+ 5.615 WP BW = G +
p + 5.615 We ..(A)
E
E Ei Ei (1 SWC )
Next, Havlena & Odehs method involves defining the following groups:
F=
GP
+ 5.615 WP BW = Production gas + water (rcf).(B)
E
Eg =
1 1
= Expansion of gas (rcf/SCF)..(C)
E Ei
E fW =
1 cW SWC + c f
p = Expansion of connate water/shrinkage

Ei (1 SWC )
of pore volume (rcf/SCF)(D)
Section 1
18
Rev 1.0
Substituting (B), (C) & (D) into (A) leads to basic Havlena & Odeh formulation
F = G (Eg + E fW ) + 5.615 We
...(1.15)
Again E fW , for reasons already discussed, can often be neglected, leading to
5.615 We
F
=G+
Eg
Eg
NOTE -
...(1.16)
Both equation (1.16), Havlena & Odeh formulation, or equation (1.14),

the Schilthuis formulation, can be used to represent productionpressure history in a graphical form.
Such plots serve three vital purposes. First, production-pressure data

can be tested against particular assumptions, GIIP can be verified and
checked against the value obtained from the Volumetric Method.
Second, the existence and strength of natural water drive can be

verified. Moreover, models for We can be tested - Aquifer fitting.
Third, this independently verified value of G and aquifer model can

now be raised to the status of known in the reservoir simulator. The
simulator can then be used to history match other field unknowns.
Section 1
19
Rev 1.0
1.7
-
PLOTTING PRODUCTION DATA

The gas material balance equation using the Schilthuis formulation (1.14),
ignoring pore and connate water effects, but including natural water drive is
G
1 P
p pi
G
=
Z Z i 1 5.615 We
G
Ei
...(1.14)
If the gas reservoir was of a volumetric depletion type (1.14) becomes
p pi GP
= 1
...(1.17)
Z Zi
G
1.7.1
-
P/Z Type Plot
Equation (1.17) shows that, for a volumetric depletion type reservoir, i.e. no
water influx, a plot of p/Z versus GP must be a straight line as shown below:
pi

Zi
*
*
By examining (1.17), when cumulative

production GP = 0 , then p / Z = pi / Z i .
As gas is produced, then p / Z vs GP

production data must fall on a straight line.
If reservoir pressure could be depleted to zero

then GP = G .
Hence G can be found by extrapolating

production-pressure data to zero pressure.
Volumetric
Depletion
*
*
p

Z
0
0
Section 1
(GP )
20
Rev 1.0
The problem with the ( p / Z ) versus GP plot is that even when the reservoir has
natural waterdrive, the production-pressure data can appear to plot up as a
straight line:
-
This is because initially We can be quite small. Hence, during this early
period, data will only deviate slightly from a straight line.
Later the points only gradually deviate from a straight line, with the result
that the engineer is often tempted to draw the best straight line through the
points. The error only becomes noticeable only after several years.
Consider a p/Z versus GP plot for a natural waterdrive reservoir:
pi

Zi
EXTRAPOLATION
OF ALL AVAILABLE
DATA.
*
*
p

Z
Examining the production-pressure data points

closely they are aligned on a slight S shape.
This is not immediately apparent if the axes are

scaled as shown.
The solid line shows that after a couple years

of production data the points appear to lie on a
straight line. The value of GIIP = G .
*
EXTRAPOLATION
OF EARLY DATA
ONLY.
obtained by the volumetric method.

-
0
0
NOTE -
(GP )
G is usually much larger than the figure
If the axes were scaled better, or the data was

considered over a longer period of time, the
non-linear nature of the plot becomes apparent.
Not only is GIIP ( G ) overstated, but also the reservoir drive is

wrongly predicted to be a volumetric depletion type.
Notice, extrapolation of early data points only (dotted line) give a

better valued for G , although it is still too high.
A more sensitive type of pressure-production plot is needed.
Section 1
21
Rev 1.0
1.7.2
-
Havlena & Odeh Type Plots
The basic expression on which the Havlena & Odeh plot is based is
equation (1.16).
5.615 We
F
=G+
..(1.16)
Eg
Eg
In analysing pressure-production data from a gas reservoir the first step should
be to produce a plot of ( F / E g ) versus GP , as shown below:
If the gas reservoir is truly a

volumetric depletion type, the data
will plot as a horizontal straight line
as shown. The intercept will be G .
Curve A is typical of a gas reservoir

with a modest aquifer response.
Curve B is typical of gas reservoir

with large aquifer response.
Curves A and B could be extrapolated

back to find G on y-axis, but since
curves are highly non-linear, this
procedure is unreliable.
E
g
Volumetric Depletion
0
0
(GP )
The purpose of this plot is to determine the reservoir drive mechanism:

-
If production-pressure data plots as a straight line there is no waterdrive.

Any deviation above the straight-line case indicates water influx.
The shape of the curve qualitatively indicates the strength of the aquifer.
However to find the correct model for We requires another plot.
Section 1
22
Rev 1.0
The next question, assuming the field has an active waterdrive, is to find an
appropriate mathematical model for the aquifer. The Havlena & Odeh plot is
shown below:
AQUIFER MODEL GIVING

TOO LOW A VALUE FOR We.
( F / E g ) data is plotted versus

(5.615 We BW / Eg ) data.
AQUIFER
MODEL OK
F
Eg
AQUIFER MODEL GIVING
TOO HIGH A VALUE FOR We.
If a straight line is obtained of

slope 45o, then the correct
aquifer model has been applied.
The intercept of this straight line

is GIIP, G .
Lines deviating above or below

from this case indicate wrong
aquifer model.
5.615 We
Eg
The procedure is to first assume a mathematical model for the aquifer; that is
model predicts We as a function of pressure decline. Next, use productionpressure data from field observations to predict We from the assumed model.
-
If above plot is non-linear then the assumed aquifer model is predicting

the wrong value of We . The aquifer model is then altered in some way and
another history match is attempted.
The process is repeated until the correct model is identified. That is the
predicted production-pressure- We data falls on above straight line.
NOTE -
This history matching must be carried out under the guidance of

geologists & petrophysicists; they will assist with a logical & scientific
identification of the aquifer models geometry and properties.
Section 1
23
Rev 1.0
1.7.3
-
p/Z Plot for General Waterdrive Case
Equation (1.14) gives the general gas material balance for the waterdrive case.
Obviously in the absence of water drive the denominator inside the brackets
reduces to unity. In this case p/Z versus GP must plot as straight line.
G
1 P
p pi
G
=
5
.
615
We
Z Zi 1
G
Ei
....(1.14)
For waterdrive the term after the minus sign on the denominator represents the
fraction of the HCPV invaded by water. The term in parenthesis is then always
bigger for the waterdrive case, than for the volumetric depletion case.
pi

Zi
p

Z
1
2
The dotted line represents the

no waterdrive case.
For waterdrive the pressure at

a given GP must be higher
than without waterdrive case.
Solid lines 1, 2, 3 represent

increasing strength of aquifer.
Hence, aquifer 1>aquifer

2>aquifer 3.
p

Z ABAN
(GP )ABAN
(GP )
For moderate aquifer responses (curves 2 and 3), GP at abandonment pressure

increases as compared to the no waterdrive case.
Section 1
24
Rev 1.0
However, for strong aquifer case (case1), although the pressure in the reservoir
is higher for given values of GP , nevertheless the ultimate recovery at
abandonment is lower:
Produce gas at as high a rate as
possible, so that We is minimised.
Convert downdip gas producers

to water production. This also
minimises We. by siphoning off
water to surface.
NEW
GWC
As water influx enters the reservoir there

is a trapped residual gas saturation in the
flooded portion of the reservoir;
S gr 0.30 0.40 .
This residual gas saturation is immobile.
Abandonment does not now occur when

pressure drops below sales contract level.
Abandonment occurs when water

breakthrough occurs at crestal producing
wells.
Recovery is limited because gas is trapped

in flooded section at S gr and because
part of the reservoir is unswept by water
influx.
ORIGINAL
GWC
The Sweep Efficiency EV , defined as the fraction of the Moveable Gas Volume
that is contacted by water influx, is generally about 0.65 - 0.75 at abandonment.
Both EV and ( p / Z ) ABAN versus GP relation are given below:
EV =
5.615 We
G
(1 S gr SWC )
Ei (1 SWC )
p

Z ABAN
..(1.18)
GP
pi
G
=
...(1.19)
Z i S gr
1 EV
+
EV 1 S
EV
WC
Where the straight line, described by equation (1.19), intersects the non-linear
pressure-production curve denotes abandonment point. A high gas offtake
rate blows down pressure rapidly, limits We and trapped/by-passed gas.
Section 1
25
Rev 1.0
1.8
-
GAS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The real gas law and the analytical expression for the gas expansion factor have
already been discussed:
pV = ZnRT ................................................................(1.8)
E = 35.37
p
.................................................(1.9)
ZT
To use either of the above expressions the compressibility factor is needed at

pressure p and temperature T . As we shall see Z is also a function of gas
composition.
1.8.1
-
Compressibility Factor - Z
In most Reservoir Engineering problems the reservoir temperature T is

constant. Hence, Z is needed as function of pressure and composition. There
are three main ways of finding compressibility factor:
Experimental measurement.
From manual graphical correlation knowing composition.
From computerised EOS correlation knowing composition.
The laboratory method involves taking a gas sample and choosing suitable
experimental equipment/methods so that equation (1.8) can be solved. In this
way the isothermal Z vs. P relationship can be physically measured.
Although this experimental method is accurate, Z is more usually predicted

from knowledge of gas composition. One of the most widely used manual
method is the correlation by Standing & Katz.
Section 1
26
Rev 1.0
Standing & Katz correlation involves the following:
Obtain a sample of gas and analyse hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon

components (often H2S , CO2 and N2). C7+ fraction is often found.
Correlation can also be used if only the gas gravity g is known.
Calculate psuedo-critical pressure p pc and the psuedo-critical

temperature Tpc as follows:
p pc = yi pci ....(1.20)
Tpc = yiTci .....(1.21)
Note, yi is the gas phase mole fraction, pci the critical pressure and Tci
the critical temperature of component i .
Once the psuedo-critical properties of the mixture have been calculated

from (1.20) and (1.21) the psuedo-reduced pressure p pr and pseudoreduced temperature Tpr are calculated from equations below:
p pr =
p
........(1.22)
p pc
Tpr =
T
..........(1.23)
Tpc
Enter Standing & Katz correlation and determine Z . Note, p pr and Tpr can
also be found from g - apply corrections for CO2 H2S & N2.
NOTE
If C7+ fraction has been found its MW and g must be measured
Section 1
27
Rev 1.0
1.8.2
-
Gas Density and Gas Gravity
Density is mass divided by volume. The mass is simply the number of moles,
n , times the molecular weight of the gas, MWg . The real gas law (1.8) gives
the volume. After cancelling out the number of moles, n , we get
g =
MWg p
ZRT
.........(1.24)
The gas gravity, g , is the ratio of the density of the gas at p & T , to the
density of air at the same p & T ; usually atmospheric pressure and 60oF are
used for p & T . Hence, g (60/60, air = 1) is given by
MWg

........(1.25)
=
g = g
28.97
a p, T
Where the factor (28.97) is the molecular weight of air. Equation (1.24) is used
to find gas density at any temperature, pressure and composition as follows:
If the composition of the gas has been analysed then MWg is readily
calculated from:
MWg = yi MWi
Section 1
28
Rev 1.0
Once MWg is known, then g is recovered from (1.24) notice Z can be

found using Standing & Katz correlation. Consult the standard reference
textbooks for these correlations.
Alternatively, if the gas gravity g has been measured, then MWg is first
obtained from equation (1.25) and then g from equation (1.24) notice
Z can be found from Standing & Katz by looking up p pr and Tpr if g is
known. These charts are presented in the standard reference textbooks.
Remembering that the density of air at standard conditions is 0.0763 Ib/cu. ft,
then the density of gas at standard conditions is simply
( )
g SC
= 0.0763 g ....(1.26)
To calculate the gas hydrostatic gradient (psi/ft) at any temperature and

pressure, the starting point is to express the gas density in terms of the gas
gravity. That is substitute equation (1.25) into equation (1.24)
g =
28.97 g p
ZRT
........(1.27)
If standard field units are used, then substitute R = 10.73 (ft3)(psia)/(Ib-mol)(R)

into denominator, and recognising that, in order to change (Ib/cu ft) into (psi/ft),
then equation (1.27) needs additionally to be divided by 144, giving
0.01875 g p
dp
=
ZT
dD g
Section 1
....(1.28)
29
Rev 1.0
1.8.3
-
Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility
The definition of the coefficient of isothermal compressibility was given earlier

by equation (1.5). The real gas law, i.e. equation (1.8), is stated as
ZnRT
p
V =
The partial derivative can be obtained by differentiating the above expression
Z
1 Z
= nRT 2 +
p p
T
p
Substituting real gas law and above expression into equation (1.5), then
cancelling common terms gives
cg =
1
1 Z
p
Z p
At reservoir temperatures the partial derivative ( Z / p ) tends to be so small

that, as a first approximation, it can be ignored. Hence, we get
cg
1
p
.(1.29)
where,
C g = Isothermal compressibility of the gas (psia)-1. Not to be confused with
Z , which is the gas compressibility factor.
Section 1
30
Rev 1.0
1.9
-
GAS CONDENSATION
Everything discussed so far assumes that the gas produced is dry within the
reservoir and dry at the surface. Dry in this context does not refer to water but
implies an absence of liquid hydrocarbons.
Consider a typical p T diagram for hydrocarbon gas; remember the gas is a

mixture of several individual components and so a two-phase envelope will be
produced:
Critical
Point
The BPC is 100% liquid.

First bubble of vapour
formed just inside envelope.
The DPC is 0% liquid. First

drop of liquid formed just
inside envelope.
Critical Point is where BPC

and DPC meet.
Note lines of constant liquid

0% - 100%.
CT is Cricondentherm.
Above this temperature twophase behaviour is
impossible.
p
LIQUID
Bubble Point
Curve
100
CT
75 50
25
GAS
Dew Point
Curve
TR
Reservoir temperature is TR and reservoir pressure is initially at point A. As

pressure falls, it does so isothermally - along the dotted line. This line is to the
right of the Cricondentherm and the two-phase envelope.
NOTE -
This type of reservoir is called a dry gas reservoir. That is, there is no
deposition of liquid hydrocarbons, condensate, within the reservoir
itself.
Section 1
31
Rev 1.0
1.9.1
-
Dry Gas Reservoirs Surface Condensate
Consider the same situation as before, i.e. a dry gas reservoir A. However,
now the surface separator is operating at point S as shown in p T diagram
below:
If reservoir conditions are

initially at A then as pressure
falls no liquid drop out will
occur within reservoir.
However, for separator

conditions at S condensate
liquid will drop out in the
surface separator.
Such surface condensate

normally occurs in most dry
gas reservoirs.
A
LIQUID
S
GAS
T
All the equations derived thus far assume dry gas in the reservoir and dry gas in
surface separation equipment.
The question is how do we include the liquid condensate volumes produced at

the surface into the gas material balance equation?
The answer is first to convert daily liquid condensate collected at the surface,
N P , which is usually expressed in STB, into Ib-moles of liquid ( n )
n=
N P 5.615 o 62.43
.........................................(A)
MWo
Section 1
32
Rev 1.0
Mass conservation requires that Ib-moles of liquid at the surface be equal to Ibmoles of gas in the reservoir. Then simply convert this Ib-moles of gas at
reservoir conditions into SCF of gas at surface conditions, GP
n=
GP pS GP 14.7
=
= 0.002635 GP ..........(B)
RTS
10.73 520
Equating the above two equations and solving for GP leads to
0.002635 GP =
N P 5.615 o 62.43
MWo
GP = 1.33 105
N P o
MWo
.................(1.30)
where,
GP = Gas equivalent to surface liquid condensate (SCF).
N P = Liquid condensate collected at surface (STB).
o = Liquid condensate gravity ( =1.00 water).

MWo = Liquid condensate molecular weight (lbs/Ib-mol).
NOTE -
The above quantity GP is added to the actual cumulative gas

produced GP .
The same gas material balance equations can then be used as if all the
gas in the reservoir appeared as only as dry gas at the surface.
Section 1
33
Rev 1.0
1.9.2
-
Gas Condensate Reservoirs
If reservoir conditions are such that the gas in the reservoir is initially at point
B then, as pressure declines isothermally, conditions in the reservoir
eventually enter two-phase region:
B
p
In the case of a dry gas reservoir, the temperature

in the reservoir exceeds the cricondentherm.
- As pressure declines no phase change occurs
within reservoir fluid.
CP
-
In the case of a gas condensate reservoir, the

reservoir temperature is between the critical
temperature and the cricondentherm.
- As pressure declines reservoir fluid eventually
reaches dew-point pressure.
The liquid volume deposited in reservoir is small so

that it is usually immobile. Hence, this valuable
liquid hydrocarbon remains trapped in reservoir
pore volume.
Such a reservoir is called a Gas Condensate reservoir. As the pressure decreases

within two-phase region, there is an increase in percentage liquid; a
phenomenon called Retrograde Condensation.
The dry gas material balance equation can be used in this case
G
1 P
p pi
G
=
5
.
615
We
Z Zi 1
G
Ei
NOTE -
..(1.14)
Two-phase Z-factor, determined experimentally in transparent gas

condensate p v T studies, must be used in above equation.
Section 1
34
Rev 1.0
1.9.3
-
Dry Gas Recycling
Dry gas recycling is an elegant way of recovering valuable liquid condensates at

the surface, by preventing them from being deposited & trapped in the reservoir.
Wet Gas
Produced
for Surface
Separation.
Recovered
Condensate to
Stock Tank.
Dry Gas Reinjected after

Condensate
Removal.
Wet gas is produced to surface

and separated.
Valuable liquid condensate is

recovered to Stock Tank.
Dry gas is separated and reinjected into reservoir.
Reservoir pressure is maintained

above the dew-point pressure.
Hence, no liquid condensate in

reservoir pore volume.
Once dry gas breakthrough into

production well, reinjection is
stopped and reservoir is depleted
as in dry gas case.
Hence, gas condensate is produced and recovered at the surface. Once all the
wet gas is swept out, re-injection is stopped and dry gas is produced in the
normal way. This is called dry-gas recycling.
B
p
Maintain reservoir pressure

above the dew point pressure
during re-injection phase.
Stop re-injection once dry gas

breakthrough occurs;
pressure then falls along
dotted line.
The two-phase envelope is

shifted to the left
(condensates extracted).
So temperature now is greater

than cricondentherm.
CP
Dew Point Pressure
NOTE -
Treat this as dry gas reservoir and calculate GP during recycling

phase.
Section 1
35
Rev 1.0

Section 1

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Section 1

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CHAPTER 1

Location of Fluid-Fluid Contacts

Primary Recovery Mechanism

Estimation of Expansion Factor

Gas Material Balance

Plotting Production Data

Gas Physical Properties

GAS RESERVOIRS &

Primary recovery involved simply producing fluids to the surface using

In the event of natural pressure maintenance from the expansion of aquifer

However, in the absence of these factors, the reservoir produced by a

Solution gas drive was an extremely wasteful, low technology technique,

Vb = Net bulk volume of the reservoir (rcf).

= Average porosity, or fraction of Vb which is pore space (-).

There are two principal ways of finding GIIP, G:

Second, use gas material balance equation to predict G directly from

1.3 LOCATION OF FLUID-FLUID CONTACTS

The green lines or contours connect lines of constant

These are similar to contour lines on a map except

The orange line represents the GWC. This diagram

This contour plot is then converted into an net

Accurate knowledge of the hydrostatic pressure gradient for water in the

D = Depth of interest (ft).

If the water bearing sand is abnormally pressured, for whatever reason,

p A is positive for overpressured and negative for underpressured sands. For a

sand to be abnormally pressured, it must be sealed by impermeable strata,

Other measurements in surrounding water-bearing sands indicate that they are

downhole hydrostatic pressure gradient is calculated from the measured gas

pg = 0.07 D + 2308.7 .......................................................(A)

Substituting D = 5900 ft into above expression returns the measured DST

pW = 0.44 D + 14.7 ......................................................(B)

These two lines could be drawn on a pressure-depth graph. The point of

GDT from cores/logs is known to be 6020 ft. However to estimate

Using hydrostatic pressure information the GWC can be located at

pW = 0.44 D + 24.7 .........................................................(C)

The only way to answer this question is to drill an exploration well

It is not always best idea to drill an exploration well targeted at the

PRIMARY RECOVERY MECHANISM

In the case of Primary Recovery, the quantity of interest is the Isothermal

The negative sign can be dropped so long as the fluid expansion dV

Above equation states that production (LHS) equals expansion (RHS).

Primary production in a gas reservoir is affected by two main factors, namely

cg >> cW so that primary recovery will only be significantly affected

ESTIMATION OF EXPANSION FACTOR

The subscript SC means Standard Conditions. The unsubscipted variables are

GAS MATERIAL BALANCE

Little or no natural water influx.

Significant expansion of water from adjoining aquifer into reservoir.

Gas Material Balance Schilthuis Form

Consider initial condition with

At this stage no fluids have been

At later stage, reservoir pressure

Cumulative production must

Ei = Gas expansion factor at initial pressure pi (SCF/rcf).

p = Pressure drop from pi to p (psi).

SWC = VW or connate water volume (rcf).

As pore pressure declines, overburden pressure remains constant and grain

Above expression ignores water influx and therefore applies to a

A second aquifer chamber must be attached to the RHS of the

Hence, an extra expansion term needs to be added to the RHS of the

Above expression applies to natural waterdrive gas reservoirs.

A number of simplifications and re-arrangements are usually applied to

The exception is in shallow unconsolidated sands g where high formation

Gas Material Balance Havlena & Odeh Form