Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MATERIAL BALANCE
& OIL RESERVOIRS
Gordon R. Petrie,
Thru-u.com.
Contents:
Page
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
Gas Solubility
2.4
10
2.5
11
2.6
17
2.7
19
2.8
20
2.9
26
2.10
Gascap Drive
28
A-2
31
Section 2
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.
1
Rev. 1.0
2
-
One of the major problems in Reservoir Engineering is that the object of study,
i.e. the reservoir itself, is far removed from direct observation:
-
Hence, there are usually too few independent equations linking together a
larger number of unknown variables.
2.1
-
INTRODUCTION
Modern reservoir engineering work revolves around the construction of
computerised reservoir simulators. These simulators require a very large amount
of input data, which means that many assumptions must be made. The results
obtained, therefore, often simply reflect the input data.
Material balance methods are simple analytical techniques for finding G (GIIP)
or N (STOIIP), while at the same time helping to determine and quantify
reservoir drive mechanisms.
Material balance results can then be used to fix some reservoir simulator input
parameters. Hence, reducing number of assumptions needed.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
2.2
-
The material balance equation treats the oil (or gas) reservoir as a single unit,
i.e. the reservoir properties can vary with time, but are uniform throughout the
reservoir at any given instant.
E = 35.37
p
..............................................................(1.9)
ZT
where,
p = Pressure of gas at reservoir conditions (psia).
T = Temperature of gas at reservoir conditions (R).
Z = Compressibility factor of gas at reservoir conditions (-).
NOTE -
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
2.2.1
-
In oil reservoirs the pore volume occupied by free gas is expressed in reservoir
barrels (rb) and not (CF). The Gas Formation Volume Factor Bg is therefore
related to the gas expansion factor E through the expression
Bg =
1
5.615 E
...................................................(2.1)
where,
1 SCF of
Surface gas
Reservoir
T&P
Bg rb of
free gas
Section 2
4
Rev. 1.0
2.2.2
-
In the definition of Bg the emphasis is on the ratio between the volume of free
gas (rb), under reservoir conditions, to the volume of 1 SCF of gas at surface
conditions:
That is Bg in no way accounts for the volume of gas which was once
dissolved in the oil and has since been liberated as it passes through
wellbore and surface equipment.
The Solution Gas Oil Ratio ( RS ) is the number of SCF of gas, at standard
conditions, that will dissolve in 1 STB of oil when taken down to the reservoir
and subjected to reservoir temperature and pressure:
1 STB
of oil
Reservoir
T&P
NOTE
RS SCF of
Surface gas
Oil plus
Dissolved
gas
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
2.2.3
-
The Oil Formation Volume Factor Bo (rb/STB) is the volume, under reservoir
conditions (rb), occupied by 1 STB of oil plus all the gas ( RS SCF/STB) it is
capable of dissolving at reservoir T & p:
1 STB
of oil
Reservoir
T&P
RS SCF of
Surface
dissolved gas
Bo rb of oil
plus dissolved
gas
The more dissolved gas, the larger the oil formation volume factor:
-
Low values of Bo 1.05 rb/STB suggests low volatility oil with little
dissolved gas, i.e. RS < 60 SCF/STB.
For high volatility oil Bo 2.5 - 3.0 rb/STB, RS > 2500 SCF/STB.
NOTE
As before, the oil volume factor Bo (rb/STB) cannot be calculated it can only be measured in p-v-T experiments.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
Gas is infinitely soluble in crude oil. Only the prevailing temperature and
pressure and the quantity of gas which is available limit the ultimate solubility.
undersaturated or saturated:
-
Saturated oil is one that cannot dissolve any more gas at the
prevailing T & p .
NOTE
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
An undersaturated oil implies that not enough gas has percolated through the
oil, during geological time, to saturate it at prevailing T & p :
Consider the shape of RS vs. p and Bo vs. p plots, both above the bubblepoint and below the bubble-point:
p < pbp
p > pbp
600
Above bubble-point
no gas is liberated
from solution.
Above bubble-point
no gas is liberated.
RS = RSi
RS
(SCF/STB)
300
Bubble
Point
Pressure
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Pressure (psia)
1.4
BO
(rb/STB)
1.2
1.0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Pressure (psia)
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
For an undersaturated reservoir, the instantaneous gas oil ratio (R) is the same
as the initial gas oil ratio, i.e. R = RSi ; that is, there is no free gas in the
reservoir only liquid oil with its dissolved gas is produced into the wellbore.
After some initial depletion, the pressure of the reservoir drops to its bubble
point and the oil becomes saturated. A further drop in reservoir pressure causes
gas to be released in the reservoir as free gas; i.e. it comes out of solution.
Gas then accumulates in the reservoir. When the gas saturation exceeds some
critical gas saturation, it becomes mobile and begins to flow as free gas into the
wellbore. A typical plot of the instantaneous gas oil ratio, R is shown below:
R = RSi and
instantaneous GOR is same
as initial GOR.
-
R
(SCF/STB)
R >> RSi
R = RSi
-
Bubble-point
Pressure
NOTE
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
The expression for Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place, STOIIP, at the time of
discovery is similar in form to the expression for Gas Initially In Place, G
N =
Vb (1 SWC )
Boi
....(2.2)
where,
N = Stock Tank Barrels of Oil Initially in Place (STB).
Stock Tank Barrels (STB) is the volume of oil in barrels at Standard stock tank
Conditions - taken to be 14.7 psia and 60oF.
The Pore Volume, PV, is the volume of the pore space, in reservoir barrels (rb),
which can be fluid filled PV = Vb = NBoi /(1 SWC ) .
The Oil Hydrocarbon Pore Volume, HCPV, is the volume occupied by oil only,
in reservoir barrels (rb) Oil HCPV = Vb (1 SWC ) = NBoi .
NOTE -
SWC is the water left behind in the reservoir after the accumulation of
hydrocarbons. & SWC are determined from logs/cores. Boi , is
obtained from p v T studies on oil samples at time of discovery.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
The oil material balance equation is derived in much the same way as the gas
material balance equation.
Total cumulative volumetric production of oil & dissolved gas, plus production
of free gas, LH cylinder - lower diagram, must be equal to total volumetric
expansion of pore fluids from initial conditions to the current stage of depletion
(lower volume - both cylinders, minus upper volume - RH cylinder only):
PRODUCTION
pi
RESERVOIR
PRODUCTION
p
RESERVOIR
p.
NOTE -
All that are known are measured surface production volumes. Hence,
these must be converted into reservoir volumes at current pressure p .
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
In gas reservoirs all the surface gas produced existed in the reservoir as free gas
at reservoir pressure p . For oil reservoirs, some of the surface gas is dissolved
gas and some, depending on pressure, can be free gas at reservoir pressure p .
(oil+dissolved gas) +
(rb)
N P Bo
(free gas)
(rb)
N P ( RP RS ) Bg ........................(2.3)
where,
N P = Cumulative oil produced - surface conditions (STB).
NOTE -
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
There are several effects that simultaneous lead to production of pore fluids:
-
By re-arranging equation (2.2) the oil HCPV, including dissolved gas, at initial
pressure pi is NBoi (rb). Once reservoir pressure drops to p the notional
expanded oil HCPV, including dissolved gas, would be NBo (rb).
Hence, notional expansion of all this original oil plus dissolved gas is the
difference between the notional final volume minus the actual initial volume
(rb)
N ( Bo Boi )
In addition, free gas may also be released if the pressure drops below pbp .
Hence, expansion as free gas is liberated from solution is N ( RSi RS ) SCF.
Therefore, the expansion caused by liberated gas (rb) must be
(rb)
N ( RSi RS ) Bg
(rb)
Hence, expansion of oil (and dissolved gas) plus expansion of liberated gas is
(rb)
dVo = N ( Bo Boi ) + N ( RSi RS ) Bg ................(A)
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
(B)
-
m=
(rb)
mNBoi
(rb)
mNBoi
Bg
Bgi
Therefore, the expansion of the gascap dVg after some decline in pressure is the
notional final gas volume (rb) minus the actual original gas volume (rb):
(rb)
Bg
1 ..(B)
dVg = mNBoi
B
gi
NOTE -
These expansion terms (A) and (B) are both equal to the notional
expanded volume minus actual original volume.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
(C)
-
(rb)
dVCW = cWVW p = cW
(1 + m )NBoi S p ....(C)
(1 SWC ) WC
where,
cW = Isothermal compressibility of water (psi-1).
(1 + m )NBoi
VW =
SWC or connate water volume (rb).
(1 SWC )
(D)
-
(rb)
dV f = c f VPV p = c f
(1 + m)NBoi p ...(D)
(1 SWC )
where,
c f = Isothermal compressibility of formation (psi-1).
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
(E)
-
where,
We = Cumulative water influx from adjoining aquifer (rb).
WP = Cumulative water produced at the surface (STB).
N P Bo + ( RP RS ) Bg = N ( Bo Boi ) + N ( RSi RS ) Bg
B
c + SWC cW
+ mNBoi g 1 + (m + 1) NBoi f
p + We WP BW
B
(1 SWC )
gi
..(2.4)
All the volume factors are functions of pressure so the material balance may be
solved at any stage so long as p is known. The results obtained from material
balance equation then become inputs for computer simulation runs.
NOTE -
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
Havlena and Odeh showed that the material balance equation could be
simplified and represented graphically:
-
First, Havlena & Odeh defined F in much the same way as for gas reservoirs
F = N P (Bo + ( RP RS ) Bg ) + WP BW .......................(2.5)
Notice Eo is net expansion of oil plus dissolved gas & free gas (rb/STB),
between pi and lower pressure p . Next, define Eg as per gas reservoir
Bg
1 ....(2.7)
E g = Boi
B
gi
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
Expansion , E fW , is again defined in much the same way as for a gas reservoir
c f + SWC cW
E fW = (m + 1) Boi
p .......(2.8)
(
1
)
S
WC
Now (2.5), (2.6), (2.7) and (2.8) are substituted into equation (2.4), to give the
general Havlena & Odeh formulation of the oil material balance equation
F = N ( Eo + mEg + E fW ) + We
...(2.9)
NOTE -
The unknowns on the RHS depend very much on the drive mechanism.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
The analysis below is quite similar to that given for a gas reservoir. Assume
reservoir has no gascap then equation (2.9) reduces to, after re-arrangement:
F
We
=N+
(Eo + E fW )
(Eo + E fW ) ......(2.10)
This plot helps to qualitatively identify the drive mechanism. Even though
no gascap has been assumed, the approach still works with a gacap.
E +E
fW
o
Volumetric Depletion
0
0
NOTE -
(N P )
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
There are two cases: one, either the reservoir is at a pressure above the bubblepoint; or, two the reservoir pressure is below bubble-point, where a Solution
Gas Drive mechanism is operative:
2.8.1
-
In this case oil is undersaturated and normally there is no gascap. If there is also
negligible natural water drive, then the assumptions are:
m = 0
We = WP = 0
RP = RS = Rsi
The last assumption is a consequence of the oil being above its bubble-point.
Hence, all the gas at the surface must have been dissolved gas; that is there is no
free gas present. Recall above pbp the GOR remains constant at RSi .
Such a simple case does not require Havlena & Odeh plot, so simplifying the
general material balance equation (2.4) leads to
c f + S WC cW
N P B o = N ( B o B oi ) + NB oi
p
(1 S WC )
The pore volume and connate water expansion term cannot be ignored.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
( B Boi ) c f + SWC cW
+
N P Bo = NBoi o
p
(1 SWC )
Boi p
co =
1 V Bo Boi
=
Vo p
Boi p
Hence, substituting the above equation into the previous one leads to
c f + SWC cW
N P Bo = NBoi co +
p
(1 SWC )
N P Bo = NBoi cEFF p
(2.11)
where,
cEFF = co + c f
NOTE -
1
SWC
+ cW
(1 SWC )
(1 SWC )
(2.12)
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
Notice that the cEFF weights compressibility of each component, be it oil, pore
space or connate water, in accordance with that fraction of the HCPV, which the
component in question actually occupies.
The values must be compared and reasons found for any discrepancies.
Remember, so long as good records are kept and sound average reservoir
pressures have been observed, the material balance equation provides
active STOIIP, which is contributing to pressure-production history.
It may be that, for instance, there are errors in geologic maps, or missing
faults, or the presence of tight zones, which are not contributing to
production.
Once the value for N is settled and agreed, the reservoir simulators input file
can be updated and better prediction made. At this stage the recovery factor can
be estimated from the expression:
N P Boi
=
cEFF p
N
Bo
NOTE
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
2.8.2
Few reservoirs are now produced in this way. Although, it was the preferred
method when oil prices were low. It is a highly wasteful drive mechanism:
-
Also, since gas acts as the non-wetting phase, the relative permeability to
oil becomes quite small. Hence, a sharp decline in well PI often occurs.
Assuming the reservoir was initially undersaturated, the first step is to examine
the pressure-production history, above and below the bubble-point, in order to
determine whether or not the field is a volumetric depletion type.
As before, ignore gascap expansion, so that Havlena & Odeh formulation gives
F = N ( Eo + E fW ) + We .....(2.9)
or
F
We
=N+
(Eo + E fW )
(Eo + E fW ) ......(2.10)
NOTE -
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
F = N ( Eo + E fW ) .....(2.13)
and
c f + S WC cW
N P B o = N ( B o B oi ) + NB oi
(1 S WC )
p ..(2.14)
For volumetric depletion drive reservoir below the bubble-point, there is free
gas present and, in addition, E fW may be ignored, which results in
F = NEo
........(2.15)
and
NOTE -
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
Equation (2.17) below, again shows that the more gas remaining in the
reservoir, s g , the higher will be the recovery factor N P / N
N B
S g = 1 1 P o (1 SWC ) .(2.17)
N Boi
A typical production profile for a solution gas drive reservoir is shown below:
Bubble-point
Pressure
pi
pb
R the
instantaneous
GOR
R = RSi
% Watercut
Time
The best ways to improve recovery are by water and/or gas injection into the
reservoir. Often recovery factor can be improved to around 50%.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
2.9
-
F = N ( Eo + E fW ) + We
.....(2.18)
The general Schilthuis material balance expression, equation (2.4), can also be
simplified and written term by term in exactly the same way as (2.18) above
c f + SWC cW
N P Bo + WP BW = N ( Bo Boi ) + (m + 1) Boi
(1 SWC )
p + We .(2.19)
Re-arranging equation (2.18) which is the simpler of the two equations to deal
with, gives
We
F
...(2.20)
=N+
( Eo + E fW )
( Eo + E fW )
NOTE -
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
We - too small
We - Correct
F
( Eo + E fW " )
o
45
We - too large
If the pressure-production- We
We
( Eo + E fW )
Once the correct aquifer model has been identified, backward extrapolation of
the straight line to the ordinate will yield, as intercept, STOIIP ( N ), units for
N will be (MM STB). A natural water drive reservoir is shown below:
pi
Reservoir Pressure
Pressure decline is
moderated by water influx
and may eventually stabilise.
% Watercut
GOR R RSi
Time
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
2.9
-
GASCAP DRIVE
Consider a gascap drive reservoir without any natural water influx then, in the
presence of a highly compressible gascap, the generally small pore shrinkage
and water expansion effects can be ignored.
In the presence of a gascap the oil is generally at or near its bubble-point so that
any drop in pressure generally leads to free gas accumulating in the oil column.
This can cause problems associated with measuring reservoir pressure.
The general Havlena & Odeh expression, equation (2.9), and the general
Schilthuis material balance expression, equation (2.4) become in this case
F = N ( Eo + mEg )
....(2.21)
and
Bg
1 .(2.22)
N P Bo + ( RP RS ) Bg = N ( Bo Boi ) + N ( RSi RS ) Bg + mNBoi
B
gi
There are two Havlena & Odeh plots, both of which are recommended in view
of the uncertainty associated with average reservoir pressure determination.
These plots should be as follows:
-
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
Plot F vs. ( Eo + mE g ) .
1
-
( Eo + mEg )
Slope - mN
Eo
N
Eg
Eo
NOTE -
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
A typical plot showing the production features of a gascap drive reservoir with
little or no natural water influx is given below:
pi
Reservoir Pressure
R the instantaneous
GOR
R = RSi
% Watercut
Time
The recovery depends on many factors such as: gascap size; permeability
distribution; potential for gravity segregation of gas.
GOR development for gascap reservoir is less pronounced than for volumetric
solution gas drive reservoir. Pressure maintenance is better and higher pressures
tend to keep more gas in solution.
Working over high GOR wells which breakthrough to gas up-dip is generally
more successful for gascap drive than solution gas drive. Recompleting up-dip
wells and concentrating oil production from down-dip wells can facilitate high
oil production rates at moderate GOR.
NOTE -
For gascap reservoirs with strong water drive Havlena & Odeh can be
used if some of the potential unknowns ( N , m,We ) can be fixed.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
APPENDIX 2
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
APPENDIX 2
(I)
-
We = c Wp
where,
c = Total Compressibility of aquifer, cW + c f (psi-1).
W = Total volume of water in aquifer (rb).
Taking a radial geometry the total volume of water in the aquifer is then
W =
f (re2 ro2 )h
5.615
ro
-
f =
re
Section 2
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32
Rev. 1.0
The above is the very simplest type of aquifer where the pressure is transmitted
everywhere throughout the aquifer instantaneously. It is rarely applicable except
where the aquifer is small approximately the same size as the reservoir.
More realistically the aquifer is much larger than the reservoir so that pressure
response is unsteady-state.
As the reservoir pressure depletes the pressure wave gradually travels through
the aquifer, so that is never experiences as low a pressure as the reservoir itself.
The most realistic method of calculating water influx from a large active aquifer
is that of Hurst and van Everdingen. However, the method is time-consuming to
apply and simpler techniques have evolved which produce similar answers.
One popular method was developed by Carter & Tracy. This method, which is
very easy to use, is described here. In Module-2, the Hurst and van Everdingen
approach is presented with worked examples.
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
The Carter & Tracy Method uses the Constant Terminal Rate (CTR) solution of
the diffusivity equation. The basic expression for We is given below
U p j (We ) j 1 Pj
(t D ) j (t D ) j 1 ..(I)
Pj (t D ) j 1 Pj
(We ) j = (We ) j 1 +
where,
(We ) j
(W e ) j 1
(tD ) j
NOTE -
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
Now, the expression for dimensionless time t D (-) can be evaluated at any time
period. For equation (I) it must be evaluated twice, first at the (jth-1) time
period, then at the subsequent jth time period. For any time period t D is
0.00634 k
t ..(III)
t D =
2
cro
where,
0.00634 = Dimensionless time constant where t is expressed in days.
2.309 = Dimensionless time constant where t is expressed in years.
(tD ) j
Pj = ao + a1 (t D ) j + a2 ln (t D ) j + a3 ln (t D ) j ..(IV)
Section 2
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Rev. 1.0
Pj = a1 +
2 a3 ln (t D ) j
a2
+
.(V)
(t D ) j
(t D ) j
reD
ao
a1
a2
a3
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
0.10371
0.30210
0.51243
0.63656
0.65106
0.63367
0.40132
0.14386
0.82092
1.66657
0.68178
0.29317
0.16101
0.10414
0.06940
0.04104
0.02649
3.68 104
-0.04579
-0.01599
0.01534
0.15812
0.30953
0.41750
0.69592
0.89646
0.28908
-0.01023
-0.01356
-0.06732
-0.09104
-0.11258
-0.11137
-0.14350
-0.15502
0.02882
This is the cumulative water influx (rb) into the reservoir system up to the jth
time increment, assuming that the cumulative water influx up to the (jth-1) time
interval, (We ) j 1 , has been found for the previous calculation cycle.
Section 2
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