Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.1

Show that there is no warping in a bar of circular cross-section.

Solution:
(a) Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
but the projections on the x-y plane rotate as a rigid body, then,
u = zy

v = zx
(3.1.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is some function of x and y, called warping function, and is
the angle of twist per unit length of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
(b) From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that

xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
So from the stress-strain relationship, we have

xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
Therefore the equilibrium equations reduce to
xz yz
+
=0
x
y
This equation is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress
function ( x, y ) , so that

xz =

,
y

yz =

(3.1.2)

(c) From the displacement field and stress-strain relationship, we can obtain

xz =

w u w
+
=
y
x z x

(3.1.3)

yz =

w v w
+
=
+ x
y z y

(3.1.4)

So it forms the compatibility equation

or in terms of Prandtl stress function

yz
x

xz
= 2 ,
y

2 2
+
= 2G
x 2 y 2

(3.1.5)

(d) Boundary conditions,

d
= 0 , or = const . But for a solid sections with a single contour boundary,
ds

this constant can be chosen to be zero. Then we have the boundary condition
= 0 on the lateral surface of the bar.
(e) For a bar with circular cross-section, assume the Prandtl stress function as
3.1.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

x2 y2
+
1) which satisfies the boundary conditions stated above.
a2 a2
1
Substitute into (3.1.5), we obtain C = a 2 G
2

= C(

Then =

G 2
(x + y 2 a 2 )
2

Using (3.1.2), we have

1
xz =
= y ,
G y

and yz =

1
= x
G x

Comparing with (3.1.3) and (3.1.4), we have

xz =

w
w
y = y =>
= 0 . Thus, w = f ( y )
x
x

yz =

w
w
+ x = x =>
= 0 , Thus, w = g (x )
y
y

Hence we conclude w = const . This means that the cross-section remains plane
after torsion. In other words, there is no warping.
Therefore w( x, y ) = 0 can be verified, and it successfully expresses the
statement.
--- ANS

3.1.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.2

Show that the Prandtl stress function for bars of circular solid sections is also
valid for bars of hollow circular sections as shown in Fig. 3.34. Find the torsion
constant J in terms of the inner radius ai and outer radius a 0 , and compare
with the torsion constant obtained using (3.59) for thin-walled sections. What is
the condition on the wall thickness for the approximate J to be within 1
percent of the exact J ?

a0

ai

Figure 3.34

Bar of a hollow circular section

Solution:
Recall:
(a) Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
but the projections on the x-y plane rotate as a rigid body, then,
u = zy

v = zx
(3.2.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is a function of x and y, called warping function, and is the
angle of twist per unit length of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
(b) From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that

xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
So from the stress-strain relationship, we have

xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
Therefore the equilibrium equations reduce to
xz yz
+
=0
x
y
This equation is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress
function ( x, y ) , so that

3.2.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

xz =

,
y

yz =

(3.2.2)

(c) From the displacement field and stress-strain relationship, we can obtain

xz =

w u w
+
=
y
x z x

(3.2.3)

yz =

w v w
+
=
+ x
y z y

(3.2.4)

So it forms the compatibility equation

yz
x

xz
= 2 ,
y

2
+
= 2G
x 2 y 2
2

or in terms of Prandtl stress function

(3.2.5)

(d) Boundary conditions,

d
= 0 , or = const .
ds

--1.

To show that the Prandtl stress function for bars of circular solid sections is also
valid for bars of hollow circular sections, we have to show that the Prandtl stress
function for hollow circular sections satifies equilibrium equations, compatibility
equations as well as traction boundary conditions.
(1) Equilibrium equations
Prandtl stress functions by their definition must satify equilibrium
equations..
(2) Compatibility equations
Use the Prandtl stress function as it stated for bars of circular solid sections

= C(

x2
a0

y2
a0

1) (here we use a 0 . Assuming = C (

x2
ai

y2
ai

1)

would be fine too).

1 2
Then substitute into (3.2.5), we have C = a 0 G . Thus we have
2

Ga 0 x 2
y2
=
( 2 + 2 1) .
2
a0
a0
2

(3.2.6)

Therefore we have a stress function for bars of hollow circular sections

satisfying the compatibility equation
(3) Traction boundary conditions
3.2.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

To satisfy the traction boundary conditions we must show

d
= 0 on the
ds

traction free surfaces.

(r = ai ) =

Ga0 ai
( 2 1) = const.
2
a0
2

that is

d
| r = ai = 0
ds

that is

d
| r = a0 = 0
ds

Ga 0 a0
(r = a0 ) =
( 2 1) = 0.
2
a0
2

It shows that the B.C.s have been satisfied.

(4) Since equilibrium equations, compatibility equations and traction boundary
conditions are all satisfied, the Prandtl stress function for bars of circular
solid sections is also valid for bars of hollow circular sections.
--- ANS
2.

Compare torsion constant

(1) The torque produced by the stresses is

T = ( x
y ) dA
x
y
A

(3.2.7)

Substituting (3.2.6) into (3.2.7) and use polar coordinates to perform

integration, we have,
1

4
4
T = G ( x 2 + y 2 ) dA =G (r 2 )rdrd =G ( 2 )( r 4 ) | aai0 = G [ (a 0 ai )]
4
2
A
A
Comparing with T = GJ , we have the torsion constant J =

(a 0 ai )
4

(2) Using (3.59) in the textbook for thin-walled sections, we have the
approximate torsion constant J app =

4A

ds / t

where A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the wall section.

a + ai 2
A = ( 0
) = (a 0 + ai ) 2 , and t = a0 ai
2
4
Therefore J app =

3.

4A

ds / t

2
= 4

(a0 + ai ) 4

(a 0 + ai )

(a 0 + ai ) 3 (a 0 ai )

a 0 ai

In order to have the approximate J to be within 1 percent of the exact J , one

must have

J app J
J

0.01

3.2.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

Substituting J app and J into the above error equation, we have

J app J
J

= 4

((a 0 + ai ) 3 (a 0 ai )

(a 0 ai )
4

(a 0 ai )
4

(a 0 ai ) 2
2(a 0 + ai )
2

0.01

Because ai and a 0 are positive real number, we have

(a0 ai ) 2
2( a 0 + a i )
2

0.01

=>

ai 2
a
) 2.040816( i ) + 1 0
a0
a0

We can obtain the solution of the above equation as

a
0.8174 i 1.2235
a0
Since a0 > ai we have the solution

ai
0.8174
a0

Therefore the condition on the wall thickness t is

t = a 0 ai a 0 0.8174a 0 = 0.1826a0
(OR t = a 0 ai

1
ai ai = 0.2235a i )
0.8174

--- ANS

3.2.4

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.3

Consider the straight bar of a uniform elliptical cross-section. The semimajor

and semiminor axes are a and b, respectively. Show that the stress function of
the form
x2 y2
= C ( 2 + 2 1)
a
b
provides the solution for torsion of the bar.
Find the expression of C and show that
J=

zx =

a 3 b 3
a2 + b2

2Ty
,
ab 3

zy =

2Tx
a 3b

and the warping displacement

w=

T (b 2 a 2 )
xy
a 3b 3G

Solution:
Recall:
1. Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
but the projections on the x-y plane rotate as a rigid body, then,
u = zy

v = zx
(3.3.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is warping function, and is the angle of twist per unit length
of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
2. From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that

xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
From the stress-strain relationship, we have

xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
Therefore the equilibrium equations reduce to
xz yz
+
=0
x
y
which is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress function
( x, y ) , so that

xz =
3.

,
y

yz =

(3.3.2)

From the displacement field and stress-strain relationship, we can obtain

3.3.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

xz =

w u w
+
=
y
x z x

(3.3.3)

yz =

w v w
+
=
+ x
y z y

(3.3.4)

The compatibility equation becomes

or in terms of Prandtl stress function
4.

yz
x

xz
= 2 ,
y

2 2
+
= 2G
x 2 y 2

(3.3.5)

The boundary condition along the bounding surface is

d
= 0 , or = const .
ds

--x2 y2
+
1) . In order to show this
a2 b2
stress function provides the solution for torsion of the bar, we have to show that
this stress function satisfies the equilibrium equations, compatibility equations and
traction boundary conditions.
(1) Equilibrium equations

2y
2x

xz =
= C( 2 ) ,
yz =
= C( 2 )
x
y
a
b

(a) Let the stress function be of the form = C (

Substituting the above stress expressions into the equilibrium equations, we

have
xz yz
=0+0= 0
+
y
x
(2) Compatibility equations
x2 y2
Substituting = C ( 2 + 2 1) into (3.3.5) we get
a
b
a 2b 2
.
(3.3.6)
C = G 2
a + b2
Therefore we have a stress function satisfying compatibility equation
(3) Traction boundary conditions
To satisfy the traction boundary condition we must show

d
= 0 on the
ds

traction free lateral surface.

Since the boundary of the cross section is given by the equation

3.3.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

x2 y2
+
1 = 0 ,
a2 b2
x2 y2
+
1) = 0 on the free surface and therefore
a2 b2
d
it satisfies the required condition
=0
ds
it is easy to see that = C (

Since equilibrium equations, compatibility equations and traction boundary

conditions are all satisfied, the stated stress function provides the solution
for torsion of the bar.
--- ANS
(b) Torsion constant J
(1) We have the torque produced by the stresses is

T = ( x
y ) dA
x
y
A

(3.3.7)

x2 y2
+
1) into (3.3.7), then we have,
a2 b2
2x
2y
x2 y2
T = ( x(C 2 ) y (C 2 ))dA = C ( 2 + 2 )dA
a
b
b
A
A a

Substituting = C (

Note that the integral part of the above equation is the area of the elliptical
cross-section. It can be easily obtained that

(
A

x2 y2
+ )dA = ab
a2 b2

So we have the torsion T = Cab

By substituting C and utilizing T = GJ , we have

J=

Cab
=
G

(G

a 2b 2
)ab
a 3b 3
a2 + b2
= 2
G
a + b2

(3.3.8)
--- ANS

(2) xz =

2y
T
2y
2Ty

= C( 2 ) =
( 2)=
,
y
ab b
b
ab 3

(3.3.9)

2x
2Tx
= C ( 2 ) = 3
x
a
a b

(3.3.10)

and yz =

--- ANS
(c) The warping displacement can be derived from (3.3.3), (3.3.4), (3.3.9), (3.3.10)
From (3.3.9) and (3.3.10), we have xz =

2Ty
2Tx
and yz =
.
3
Gab
Ga 3 b

T
T (a 2 + b 2 )
Also we need to know =
=
GJ
Ga 3b 3
So from (3.3.3) and (3.3.4), we can rewrite in
3.3.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

w
2Ty
T (a 2 + b 2 ) y T (b 2 a 2 ) y
= xz + y =
+
=
x
Gab 3
Ga 3b 3
Ga 3 b 3

(3.3.11)

w
2Tx
T (a 2 + b 2 ) x T (b 2 a 2 ) x
= yz x =

=
y
Ga 3 b
Ga 3 b 3
Ga 3b 3

(3.3.12)

From (3.3.11), we can obtain

T (b 2 a 2 )
w( x, y ) =
xy + f ( y )
Ga 3 b 3
Then differentiating (3.3.13) with respect to y, we have

(3.3.13)

w( x, y ) T (b 2 a 2 )
x + f ( y ) .
=
y
Ga 3b 3
Comparing this equation with (3.3.12) we have f ( y ) = 0 , that is f ( y ) = const .
For a symmetric cross-section w(0,0) = 0 , that is, f ( y ) = 0.
Thus, the warping displacement is
w( x, y ) =

T (b 2 a 2 )
xy.
Ga 3 b 3
--- ANS

And it is easy to also find that the warping function

T (b 2 a 2 )
xy.
3 3
w( x, y )
a2 b2
= Ga2 b 2
= 2
( x, y ) =
xy

a + b2
T (a + b )
Ga 3 b 3

3.3.4

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.4 A thin aluminum sheet is to be used to form a closed thin-walled section. If the
total length of the wall contour is 100 cm, what is the shape that would achieve
the highest torsional rigidity? Consider elliptical (including circular), rectangular,
and equilateral triangular shapes.
Solution:
(a) We denote GJ as torsional rigidity, for the same material in comparison, only
the torsion constant J needs to be taken into consideration.
For the closed thin-walled section, the torsion constant J is
J=

4A

(3.4.1)

ds / t

where A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the wall section.

We now have a thin aluminum sheet with its thickness t , all shapes of products
made from this aluminum sheet will have the same thickness, t . Also, the total
length of the wall contour is 100cm. Then

ds / t

is the same for all shapes of the

cross-section. Consequently, only A needs to be taken into consideration in the

evaluation of the torsional rigidity.
(b) Comparison of A
(1) Elliptical cross-section
For the elliptical cross-section, the cross-sectional area is
A ellp = ab ,

(3.4.2)

where a and b are the semimajor and semiminor axes, respectively.

Unfortunately, the length of the perimeter of an elliptical cross-section is
much more complicated to evaluate. The formula for the length of the
perimeter can be found from many math handbook It is

L = 4a

/2

1 k 2 sin 2 d ,

a2 b2
= eccentricity
a
For the purpose to just comparing the area enclosed by the centerline of the
wall section, We approximate the perimeter with
where k =

a2 + b2
2
By changing the form of (3.4.3) se have
L = 2

3.4.1

(3.4.3)

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

L 2
L
) a 2 = C 2 a 2 , where C = 2( ) 2
2
2
Substituting (3.4.4) into (3.4.2) we have,
b = 2(

(3.4.4)

A ellp = a C 2 a 2
We can find the optimum solution by

A
= 0 , by some operations leads to
a

A
C 2 2a 2
= 0 , therefore we have a =
=
a
C 2 a2

C2
for a, b > 0
2

C2
=a
(3.4.5)
2
That means the optimum cross-section for elliptical shapes is a circle.
Substitute it back to (3.4.4), we have b =

C2
L
2 L 2
=
( ) =
2
2 2
2
Finally, for a circle, the area enclosed by the centerline is
Then from (3.4.5) we have a = b =

Acir = a 2 = (

L 2
) = 0.0796 L2
2

--- ANS
(2) Rectangular section
For rectangular section, the perimeter is
L = 2( p + q ) ,

(3.4.6)

where p and q are length and width, respectively.

The cross-sectional area of rectangular sections is simply,
A rec = pq ,

(3.4.7)

Substituting (3.4.6) into (3.4.7), we have

L
A rec = pq = p ( p )
2

We use

A
= 0 to find the optimal solution,
p

A L
L
= 2 p = 0 , we have p = , and from (3.4.6), it is clear that
p 2
4
p=q=

L
, i.e., the optimal cross-section for rectangular shapes is a square.
4

Finally, for a square thin-walled section, the area enclosed by the centerline
is Asqu = pq = (

L 2
) = 0.0625 L2
4

3.4.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

--- ANS
(3) Equilateral triangular section.
For a equilateral triangle, the length of the lateral side is l =

L
.
3

The area enclosed by the centerline of this triangular thin-walled section is

Atri =

3 2
3 L 2
l =
( ) = 0.048 L2
4
4 3

--- ANS
(c) Comparison
From the results above we can easily tell
A cir > A squ > A tri

Consequently we can conclude that the shape achieving the highest torsional
rigidity is a CIRCLE.
--- ANS

NOTE: It is interesting to compare in details with variables

q
b
and
from 0~1.
a
p

(We here assume a>b and p>q)

For ellipse, A ellp = ab = ab

1
1
a2 + b2
ab
L
)(2( ) 2 ) =
(
) L2
( 2
2
2
2
2
2 b a
a +b
a +b
+
a b

q
( p + q)
1
pq
L
p
= pq = pq
=
( )2 =
L2
2
2
q
4
( p + q)
( p + q) 2
(1 + ) 2
p
2

For rectangle, A rec

For equilateral triangle, A tri =

We can illustrate

3 2
L
36

q
A
b
in terms of
and
, and have the plot of torsional rigidity
2
p
a
L

of different shapes vs. variable aspect ratios.

3.4.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.4.4

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.5

The two-cell section in Fig.3.35 is obtained from the single-cell section of

Fig.3.36 by adding a vertical web of the same thickness as the skin. Compare the
torsional rigidity of the structures of Figs. 3.35 and 3.36 with L1 = L2 = 10cm
and L1 = 5cm , L2 = 15cm , respectively.

t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.35 Two-cell thin-walled section

Figure 3.36

Single-cell section

Solution:
We denote GJ as torsional rigidity. For the same material in comparison, only the
torsion constant J needs to be considered.
(a) Single-cell thin-walled section
The torsion constant J is
J=

4A

(3.5.1)

ds / t

where A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the wall section.

We have A = ( L1 + L2 ) L3 = 20 10 = 200cm 2 . The torsion constant J can be
simply derived as
3.5.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

J 1cell =

4A

ds / t

4[( L1 + L2 ) L3 ] 2
4(200) 2
=
= 800cm 4
2( L1 + L2 + L3 ) / t 2(20 + 10) 0.3

(b) Two-cell thin-walled section

(1) General Form
We denote the shear flow on the left cell by q1 , and the shear flow on the
right cell by q 2 . The shear flow in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2
Also, we have the torque for two-cell section
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2

(3.5.2)

where A1 = L1 L3 , A 2 = L2 L3
The twist angle of the section is obtained from eirher cell. For left cell we
have
1
qds
1
(3.5.3)
1 =
=
(q1 ( 2 L1 + L3 ) + (q1 q 2 ) L3 )

cell 1 t
2GL1 L3 t
2G A1
and for the right cell
1
qds
1
2 =
=
(q 2 ( 2 L2 + L3 ) ( q1 q 2 ) L3 )

2GL2 L3 t
2G A 2 cell 2 t

(3.5.4)

Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
1 = 2 =
(3.5.5)
From (3.5.3) to (3.5.5), we derive the relation between q1 and q 2 ,

L3 L3
+ )
L1 L2
q2 =
q
L3 L3 1
(2 + 2 + )
L2 L1
(2 + 2

(3.5.6)

Substituting (3.5.6) into (3.5.2) and using J =

(2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2 )

J=
G

1
(q1 (2 L1 + L3 ) + (q1 q 2 ) L3 )
2GL1 L3 t

T
and (3.5.3), we have
G

4 L1 L3 ( L1 L3 q1 + L2 L3 q 2 )t
(2q1 L1 + 2q1 L3 q 2 L3 )
(3.5.7)

(2) Case 1: L1 = L2 = 10cm and L3 = 10cm

From (3.5.6), q 2 = q1 , then substituting into (3.5.7) we have
4 L L ( L L q + L2 L3 q 2 )t
= 800cm 4
J 2 cell 1 = 1 3 1 3 1
(2q1 L1 + 2q1 L3 q 2 L3 )
3.5.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

--- ANS
(3) Case 2: L1 = 5cm , L2 = 15cm and L3 = 10cm

10 10
+ )
5
15 q = 1.25q
From (3.5.6), q 2 =
1
10 10 1
(2 + 2 + )
15 5
(2 + 2

Then substituting into (3.5.7) we have

4 5 10(5 10q1 + 15 10 1.25q1 ) 0.3
= 814.2857cm 4
J 2 cell 2 ==
(2q1 5 + 2q1 10 1.25q1 10)
--- ANS
(c) Comparison
From the results above we have
814.2857 cm 4 = J 2 cell 2 > J 2 cell 1 = J 1cell = 800cm 4

Adding a vertical web does not significantly improve the torsional rigidity.
--- ANS

3.5.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.6

Find the torsional rigidity if the side wall of one of the two cells in Fig. 3.35
(with L1 = L2 = 10cm ) is cut open. What is the reduction of torsional rigidity
compared with the original intact structure?

t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.35 Two-cell thin-walled section
Solution:
We denote torsional rigidity by GJ as.
(a) Closed sidewall
From the solution of Problem 3.5, we have the torsion constant J 2 cell 1 of the
case with L1 = L2 = 10cm
4 L L ( L L q + L2 L3 q 2 )t
= 800cm 4
J 2 cell 1 = 1 3 1 3 1
(2q1 L1 + 2q1 L3 q 2 L3 )
So we have the original torsional rigidity GJ 2 cell 1 = 800G

(3.6.1)

(b) With one side wall cut open

Assuming that the cell is cut open as shown in the figure, the torsional rigidity can
be derived from
GJ cut open = GJ cell not cut + GJ cell cut

(1)

(3.6.2)

Where
3.6.1

(2)

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

J cell not cut =

4( A not cut ) 2

ds / t

=> J cell not cut =

, and A not cut = L2 L3

(3.6.3)

4(10 10) 2 0.3

= 300cm 4
2(10 + 10)

and
1 3
J cell cut = bi t i
i 3

(3.6.4)

1
=> J cell cut = (10 + 10 + 10) 0.33 = 0.27cm 4
3

So, from (3.6.2) we get

GJ cut open = GJ cell not cut + GJ cell cut = 300.27G

---ANS
(c) The reduction of torsional rigidity is obtained as
GJ 2 cell 1 GJ cut open 800 300.27
R=
=
= 0.625 = 62.5%
GJ 2 cell 1
800
--- ANS

3.6.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.7

Find the torque capability of the thin-walled bar with the section shown in Fig.
3.36. Assume that the shear modulus G = 27GPa and the allowable shear
stress of allow = 187 MPa .

t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.36 Single thin-walled section
Solution:
Since the thickness of all walls are equal to t = 0.3cm , we can obtain the allowable
shear flow from allowable shear stress, that is

qallow = allowt = 187 106 0.003 = 5.61 10 5

N/m

Then we have the torque capability as

Tallow = 2 Aqallow = 2( 0.1 0.2 ) 5.61 10 5 = 22440 N m

--- ANS

3.7.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.8

A two-cell thin-walled member with the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.37 is

subjected to a torque T. The resulting twist angle is 3o / m . Find the shear
flows of the applied torque, and the torsion constant. The material is aluminum
alloy 2024-T3.

Figure 3.37

Two-cell section

Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the twist angle . For aluminum
alloy 2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E
72
G=
=
= 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) We denote the shear flow on the left cell q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell
q 2 . The shear flow in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , are the positive directions
as shown in the figure above.
Also, we have the torque for two-cell sections
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2

where A1 = A2 =

d 2

( 0.5 )2

= 0.098 m 2 ,
8
8
The twist angle of the left cell is
s
s
1
1
qds
1 =
=
( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))

t12
2G A1 cell1 t
2G A1 t1
where s1 =

d
2

(3.8.1)

(3.8.2)

= 0.785 m is the length of the left side wall, and s12 = 0.5m is

the length of the vertical web.

The twist angle of the right cell is
s
s
1
1
qds
2 =
=
( 2 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))

t12
2G A 2 cell 2 t
2G A 2 t 2

3.8.1

(3.8.3)

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

Again, we have s2 =

d
2

= 0.785 m , the length of the right side wall.

Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition

1 = 2 = = 3o / m = 0.0524 rad / m

(3.8.4)

From (3.8.2) to (3.8.4) and noting that A1 = A 2 , we derive the relation between
q1 and q 2 by substituting all the known quantities,
0.785398
0 .5
0.785398
0 .5
q1 +
q12 =
q2
q12
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.002
Substituting q12 = q1 q 2 , in the equation above, we obtain

q2 = 1.687 q1

(3.8.5)

Back substituting into (3.8.2) and (3.8.4), we have

( 785.398 250( 1.69732 1 ))
1 = 0.0524 rad / m =
q1
2( 27.0677 10 9 )( 0.098175 )
From which we obtain
q1 = 453,500 N / m
Subsequently from (3.8.5) we obtain
q2 = 1.687 q1 = 765000 N / m
--- ANS
(c) The applied torque
From (3.8.1), we compute the applied torque

T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = 2( 0.098 )( 453500 + 765000 )

= 239300 N m = 2.393 10 5 N m
--- ANS
(d) The torsion constant J
From the fundamental relationship of torque and twist angle, we have T = GJ
So the torsion constant can be derived as
T
239300
J=
=
= 1.69 10 4 m 4
G ( 27 10 9 )( 0.0524 )
--- ANS

3.8.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.9

For the bar of Fig. 3.37, find the maximum torque if the allowable shear stress is
allow = 187 MPa . What is the corresponding maximum twist angle ?

Figure 3.37

Two-cell section

Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the twist angle . For aluminum
alloy 2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E
72
G=
=
= 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) We denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 and that on the right cell as q 2 .
The shear flow in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 . The positive directions for the
shear flows are shown in the figure above.
The torque for two-cell section is
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2

where A1 = A2 =

d 2

( 0.5 )2

(3.9.1)
= 0.098 m 2 ,

8
8
The twist angle of the left cell is
s
s
1
1
qds
1 =
=
( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))

cell1 t
t12
2G A1
2G A1 t1
where s1 =

d
2

= 0.785 m is the length of the left side wall, and s12 = 0.5m is

the length of the vertical web.

Also we have the twist angle of the right cell as
s
s
1
1
qds
2 =
=
( 2 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))

cell 2 t
t
2G A 2
2G A 2 t 2
where s2 =

d
2

(3.9.2)

(3.9.3)

= 0.785 m is the length of the right side wall.

(c) Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
3.9.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

1 = 2 =

(3.9.4)

From (3.9.2) to (3.9.4) and note that A1 = A 2 , we derive the relation between q1
and q 2 by substituting all the known quantities,
0.785398
0 .5
0.785398
0 .5
q1 +
q12 =
q2
q12
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.002
In view of the relation q12 = q1 q 2 we obtain

q2 = 1.687 q1

(3.9.5)

Back substituting (3.9.5) into (3.9.2) and (3.9.4), we have

(785.398 250(1.69732 1))
q1 , and then
=
2( 27.0677 10 9 )(0.098175)

q1 = 8662000
Subsequently,
q2 = 1.687 q1 = 14 ,600 ,000
q12 = q1 q2 = 5 ,953,000
Note the units are

(3.9.6)
(3.9.7)
(3.9.8)

in rad / m , and q1 , q2 , q12 are in N/m.

(d) Stress in the wall

From the above quantities of shear flow, we can then compute the shear stress in
q
. We have
t
q
8662028
1 = 1 =
= 8.66 10 9
t1
0.001

each wall by =

(3.9.9)

2 =

q2 14615612
=
= 4.87 10 9
t2
0.003

(3.9.10)

12 =

q12 5953584
=
= 2.98 10 9
t12
0.002

(3.9.11)

(e) From the above stresses (3.9.9) to (3.9.11), because the negative value just denote
the negative direction, the maximum absolute magnitude of shear stress is
1 = 8.66 10 9 allow = 187 106
Therefore the maximum twist angle is
max = 0.0216 rad / m = 1.24o / m
--- ANS
(f) The maximum torque can be solved by using (3.9.1), (3.9.6), (3.9.7) and the
maximum twist angle, that is
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = 2( 0.098 )( 8662000 + 14600000 )( 0.0216 )

= 98700 N m
--- ANS

3.9.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.10

Find the shear flow and twist angle in the two-cell three-stringer thin-walled
bar with the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.38. The material is Al2024-T3. The
applied torque is 2 10 5 N m .

Figure 3.38

Two-cell three-stringer thin-walled section

Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the applied torque. For aluminum
alloy 2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E
72
G=
=
= 27GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.33)
(b) Denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell as
q 2 ; both are considered positive if counterclockwise. The shear flow in the
vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , which is positive if it is in the same direction as q1 .
We have the torque for the two-cell section as
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2

where A1 =
and A 2 =

d 2
8

(1.2) 2
8

(3.10.1)
= 0.565 m 2 ,

bh 2(1.2)
=
= 1 .2 m 2
2
2

The twist angle of the left. cell is

s
s
qds
1
1
1 =
=
( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))

t1
2G A1 cell1 t
2G A1 t1
where s1 =

d
2

(3.10.2)

= 1.88 m is the length of the left half circular wall, and

s12 = 1.2m is the length of the vertical web.

The twist angle of the right. cell is

3.10.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

s
s
s
1
1
qds
=
( 2 q 2 + 3 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))

cell 2 t
t1
t3
2G A 2
2G A 2 t 2
Again, we have s2 = 2 m , the length of the lower wall,

2 =

(3.10.3)

and s3 = 2 2 + 1.2 2 = 2.33 m , the length of the inclined wall of thickness t3 in

the right cell.
Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
1 = 2 =
(3.10.4)
Solving the two equations, (3.10.2) and (3.10.4), we obtain
1 1.885
1 .2
1
2
2.332
1 .2
(
q1 +
q12 ) =
(
q2 +
q2
q12 )
0.565 0.005
0.005
1.2 0.007
0.007
0.005

Eliminating q12 from the equation above using q12 = q1 q 2 we obtain

q2 = 1.132q1
(3.10.5)
(c) To find the shear flow , we back substitute (3.10.5) into (3.10.1) and have
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = ( 2 A1 + 2.265 A2 ) q1

=> q1 =

T
2 105
=
= 51966 N / m
2 A1 + 2.265 A2 (2)(0.565) + (2.265)(1.2)
--- ANS

From (3.10.5),
q2 = 1.132q1 = 58844 N / m
--- ANS
(d) For the twist angle, we can utilize the shear flows and equations (3.10.2) and
(3.10.4) to get,

1.885
1.2
(
+
(1 1.132)) 51966
1
s1
s12
0
.
005
0
.
005
= 1 =
( q1 + (q1 q2 )) =
--- ANS
t1
2(27 109 )(0.565)
2G A1 t1
= 5.86 10 4 rad / m = 0.0336o / m

3.10.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.11

What is the maximum torque for the structure of Fig. 3.38 if the allowable twist
angle is 2 o / m ?

Figure 3.38

Two-cell three-stringer thin-walled section

Solution:
(a) Assume the material used is still Aluminum alloy 2024-T3. For aluminum alloy
2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E
72
G=
=
= 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) Denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell as
q 2 . Both are assumed positive in the counterclockwise direction. The shear flow
in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , from bottom to top.
The torque for two-cell section is
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2

where A1 =
and A 2 =

d 2
8

( 1.2 )2
8

(3.11.1)
= 0.56 m 2 ,

bh 2(1.2)
=
= 1 .2 m 2
2
2

The twist angle of the left cell is

s
s
qds
1
1
1 =
=
( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))

cell1 t
t1
2G A1
2G A1 t1
where s1 =

d
2

(3.11.2)

= 1.88 m is the length of the left half circular wall, and

s12 = 1.2m is the length of the vertical web.

The twist angle of the right cell is
s
s
s
1
1
qds
2 =
=
( 2 q 2 + 3 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))

cell 2 t
t1
t3
2G A 2
2G A 2 t 2
3.11.1

(3.11.3)

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

where s2 = 2 m is the length of the lower straight wall of thickness t2, and
s3 = 2 2 + 1.2 2 = 2.33 m is the length of the inclined wall of thickness t3.

Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
1 = 2 =
(3.11.4)
From (3.10.2) to (3.10.4), we can derive the relation between q1 and q 2 by
substituting all the known quantities,
1
1.88
1 .2
1
2
2.33
1 .2
(
q1 +
q12 ) =
(
q2 +
q2
q12 )
0.566 0.005
0.005
1.2 0.007
0.007
0.005

Substituting q12 = q1 q 2 into the above equation, we obtain

q2 = 1.13q1

(3.11.5)

(c) Since we have the condition allowable = 2o / m = 0.035rad / m , and, thus,

1 = 2 = < allowable = 0.035rad / m . By equations (3.11.2),

1.88
1.2
+
( 1 1.13 )) q1
1
s1
s12
0
.
005
0
.
005
= 1 =
( q1 +
( q1 q2 )) =
t1
2G A1 t1
2( 27 10 9 )( 0.565 )
(

= 1.13 10 8 q1 ( rad / m ) < allowable = 0.035 ( rad / m )

We then have q1 3,095,000 N / m
(d) To find the maximum torque, we can use equation (3.11.1)
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = ( 2 A1 + 2.264708 A2 )q1
< [( 2 )( 0.56 ) + ( 2.26 )( 1.2 )] 3 ,095 ,000 = 1.19 107 N m

Therefore the maximum torque is

Tmax = 1.19 107 N m

--- ANS
It should be noted that under this torque the shear stress has already exceeded the
yield condition of Al 2024-T3. Consequently, this solution may not be of practical
significance if allowable stress condition is to be satisfied too.

3.11.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.12

The two shafts of thin-walled cross-sections shown in Fig. 3.39a and b,

respectively. Contain the same amount of aluminum alloy. Compare the
torsional rigidities of the two shafts without end constraints.

(a)
Figure 3.39

(b)
Cross-sections of two shafts

Solution:
(a) Fig. 3.39a is a cross-section of an open thin-wall, its torsional rigidity is GJ a
1
1
GJ a = G biti 3 = 3( )( 200 )( 3 )3 G = 5400G mm4
3
i 3
--- ANS
(b) Fig. 3.39b is a cross-section of a closed thin-wall, its torsional rigidity is GJ b
2

4A
,
GJ b = G
ds
t

where A =

3b 2
,
4

4A
3b 4 t b 3 t
GJ b = G
=G
=
G = 6 10 6 Gmm 4
ds
4(3b)
4
t

--- ANS
(c) The ratio of the torsional rigidities is
GJ b 6 106 G
=
= 1111
GJ a
5400G
--- ANS

3.12.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.13

Find the distributions of the primary warping displacement on the cross-sections

shown in Fig. 3.39b. Due to symmetry, the center of twist coincides with the
centroid of the section, and warp at the midpoint of each flat sheet section is zero.
Sketch the warping displacement along the wall.

(b)
Figure 3.39

Cross-sections of two shafts

Solution:
(a) Observation.
Because of the symmetry, the center of twist coincides with the centroid of the
section, and warp at the midpoint of each flat sheet section is zero.

So from the figure above we set w = 0 at the midpoint of each flat sheet. First
we assume the warp at point A is positive of z-direction. While going from A to B,
we pass the midpoint and then the warp goes from positive into negative part, then
end at point B with the maximum negative warping. Using the same concept on
sheet BC will result in a maximum positive warping at point C. Now we consider
the sheet CA by using the same conclusion, we will surprisingly find the warping
at A is negative of z-direction. Hence it contradicts our assumption of A being
3.13.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

positive. By applying the assumption of A is negative direction we will conclude

in another contradiction. Therefore, we can confidently assure that there is no
warping in this equilateral triangular thin-walled cross-section. In the following
we will approve it by further derivatives.
(b) For the closed thin-walled section, we have

w u s w
+
=
+ ,
(3.13.1)
s z
s
where is the distance from the center of twist to the tangent line of point P of

sz =

interest, w is the warping that we are seeking. Also, we have

sz =
where q s

sz

qs
(3.13.2)
G Gt
is the shear flow along s-direction, t is the thickness of the wall and G
=

is the shear modulus.

Again, recall from the relationship between applied torque and shear flow, we

T
2A
Combining (3.13.1) to (3.13.3) results in
w
T
T
w
=

+ =
,
or
s 2 AGt
s
2 AGt
have q s =

s
s
T
T
ds ds =
ds 2 As
0
0
0
2 AGt
2 AGt
Also the twist angle can be derived from
1
ds
=

2G A t

=> w( s) w(0) =

(3.13.3)

(3.13.4)

(3.13.5)

(c) Assume the applied torque is uniformly applied to the cross-section. Also, the
material is isotropic so that the shear modulus is constant.
For the equilateral triangular section, we have
3b 2
(3.13.6)
4
And since the section is symmetric, we can just take the sheet CA into
A=

consideration and applied to all other sheets. Assume the origin of s is on the
midpoint of sheet CA, so w(0) = 0 , then we have
3bs
12
From (3.13.4) to (3.13.7), we obtain
As =

w( s ) =

T
Ts
ds 2 As =

2 AGt
2G At

(3.13.7)

2(

3bs
)(3b)T
Ts
2
( 3 / 8)b 2
12
=
(

)
Gt 3b 2 (3 / 16)b 4
4G ( A) 2 t

3.13.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

=> w( s ) = 0
This approves our observation in part (a).
--- ANS

3.13.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.14

A shaft with a channel section shown in Fig. 3.40 is subjected to a torque T.

Assume that neither end is constrained. Find the warping distribution on the
cross-section, the maximum warp, and the location of the maximum warp.

Figure 3.40

Dimensions of a channel section

Solution:
(a) For the open thin-walled section, we have

w u s w
+
=
+ = 0 ,
(3.14.1)
s
z
s
where is the distance from the center of twist to the tangent line of point P of

sz =

interest, w is the warping that we are seeking. So, we have

w
=
s
s

=> w( s ) w(0) = ds = 2 As
0

(3.14.2)

Also the twist angle can be derived from

T
GJ

(3.14.3)

where the torsional constant is

1 3
J = bi t i
i 3

(3.14.4)

for thin rectangular sections of thickness t and length b (see equation (3.38) in the
textbook).
(b) For the channel section in Fig. 3.40, assume the shear modulus is G. We can first
derive some needed properties.
The moment of inertia with respect to x axis is

3.14.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

Ix =

1
t
1
t
(b + )(2h + t ) 3 (b )(2h t ) 3 = 1729080 mm 4
12
2
12
2

( Since the thickness of walls is relatively small, there are some approximated
solutions such as I x =
Ix =

t
b
(2h) 3 + 2 [ t 3 + bth 2 ] = 1728270 mm 4 , or
12
12

t
(2h) 3 + 2(bth 2 ) = 1728000 mm 4 are all the acceptable approximations)
12

The eccentric distance e =

tb 2 h 2
3( 60 )4
=
= 22.49 mm
Ix
1729080

(3.14.5)

The torsional constant is

1 3
60 33 120 33
J = bi t i = 2(
)+
= 2160mm 4
3
3
3
i
and the twist angle per unit length can be obtained from

T
T
=
GJ 2160G

(3.14.6)

(c) Break up the contour s into two straight parts s1 and s2 , as shown below

For contour s1 , we have

1
(3.14.7)
es1
2
and for contour s2 (the point s2 = 0 is at upper left corner of the section) we have
A s1 =

1
(3.14.8)
A s 2 = hs 2
2
(d) On the contour s1 , the warping displacement w is calculated from equation

(3.14.2):
T
T
= 0.0104 s1
2160G
G
In which the condition w( 0 ) = 0 has been used. This is obvious since the warping
s

w ( s1 ) = 0 ds = 2 As 1 = es1

at the middle point of the vertical web is zero because of anti-symmetry. Also note
that
3.14.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

w ( s1 = h ) = w ( h = 60 mm ) = 0.62

T
G

--- ANS
(e) On the contour s2 , the warping can be obtained from equation (3.14.2) by
integrating from s1=0 to any point s2. Thus,

w( s2 ) = w( s1 = h ) 2 As 2
=> w( s2 ) = 0.62

T
T
+ 0.028s2
G
G

---

ANS

So the warping displacement at the left upper corner is

w( s1 = h) = 0.62

T
G

and at the right upper edge is

w( s2 = b) = 1.04

T
G

--- ANS
(f) Similar calculations show that the warping displacement is anti-symmetric with
respect to the x-axis. From the above calculations, the maximum warp (absolute
value) is
wmax = w2 ( s2 = b) = 1.04

T
G

and are located at both free edges.

--- ANS

w1 ( s1 ) = 0.0104 s1

T
G

w2 ( s 2 ) = 0.0278 s 2

T
T
0.62
G
G

3.14.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.15

Consider the shaft of the channel section shown in Fig. 3.40. If one end of the
shaft is built in and the other end is free, find the effective torsional rigidity as a
function of the distance from the built-in end. Assume that the length L of the
shaft is sufficiently large so that near the free end the Saint-Venant torsion
assumptions are valid. Compare the total twist angle with that for a free-free
shaft for L = 2m .

Figure 3.40

Dimensions of a channel section

Solution:
(a) The government equation for the twist angle under an applied torque T end
constraints is
d 2
T
=
,
2
GJ
dz
E
where k 2 =
,
GJ

k2

(3.15.1)
s1
1 3
2
= 4 A s tds and J = bi t i
s0
i 3

(3.15.2)

The general solution is

= h + p =

T
(1 + C1e z / k + C 2 e z / k )
GJ

(3.15.3)

(b) Applying boundary conditions

We assume the shaft is built in at z = 0 and free at z = L where the torque T is
applied.
(1) First, assume the length L of the shaft is sufficiently large so that near the
free end the Saint-Venant torsion assumptions are valid, so that T = GJ
(Saint-Venant torsion) when z L . To satisfy this condition, we require
that C1 = 0 , then (3.15.3) will converge to T = GJ .
(2) Second, at the built-in end ( z = 0 ), warping suppressed and w = 0 . From
the equation w( s, z ) = ws ( s ) ( z ) , we conclude that = 0 . Thus, we have
3.15.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

C 2 = 1 .
From (1) and (2), we have the solution becoming
T
T
=
(1 e z / k ) =
GJ
GJ eff
Then the effective torsion constant is
J eff =

J
1 ez / k

(3.15.4)

(c) In Fig. 3.40, the channel cross-section has the properties from (3.15.2).

1 3
60 33 120 33
J = bi t i = 2(
)+
= 2160mm 4 = 2.16 10 9 m 4
3
3
3
i
s1

= 4 A s tds
2

s0

Because of the symmetric w.r.t x-axis, it is more convenient to measure distance

from the middle point of the vertical web.

From the solution of Problem 3.14, we have

ecot =

tb 2 h 2
3(60) 4
=
= 22.49mm = 0.02249m
Ix
1729080

Therefore,
h
h +b
1
1
1
2
4 A s tds = 2 { 4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 + 4[ ecot h h( s1 h)] 2 tds1 }
0
s0
h
2
2
2

s1

~~~~~~A~~~~~~

~~~~~~~~~B~~~~~~~~~

Part A:

1
1 2
2 1
3
4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 = ecot t ( ) s1 |0h = ecot th 3 = 1.09 10 10 m 6
2
3
3

Part B:

3.15.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

h+b

1
1
4[ ecot h h( s1 h)]2 tds1
2
2

bb 2

1
2
(ecot h hs2 ) 2 tds2 = t (ecot h 2b ecot h 2b 2 + h 2b3 ) = 2.31 1010 m6
3
s1

=> = 4 As tds = 2( PartA + PartB) = 6.8 1010 m6

2

s0

Taking E = 70GPa and G = 27GPa for aluminum, then

E
= 0.904
GJ
Thus, the effective torsional rigidity is obtained as
k=

GJ eff =

GJ
27 109 2.16 109
58.32
=
=
z / k
z / 0.904
1 e
1 e
1 e z / 0.904
--- ANS

(d) The total twist angle.

For the case with end constraints,
L

fixed = dz =
0

2
T
T
(1 e z / 0.904 )dz =
( z + 0.904e z / 0.904 ) |02

58.32 0
58.32

T
(2 0.805) = 0.0205T
58.32

For the case with free-free end,

free = L =

TL
2T
=
= 0.0343T
GJ 58.32

The ratio of the two twist angles is

fixed
= 0.6
free
--- ANS
It is clear that the end constraints reduce the twist angle. In other words, end
constraints increase the torsional stiffness.

3.15.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.16

Calculate the distributions of normal stress zz and shear flow distributions at

the built-in end for Problem 3.15.

Figure 3.40

Dimensions of a channel section

Solution:
(a) The solution for problem 3.15 is

T
T
(1 e z / k ) =
(1 e z / 0.904 )
GJ
58.32

(3.16.1)

(b) The normal stress is

zz ( z , s ) = E zz ( z , s ) = E

d
w( z , s )
= Ews ( s )
z
dz

(3.16.2)

where ws ( s ) = 2 A s
Substituting (3.16.1) into (3.16.2) we have
T
e z / 0.904
zz ( z, s ) = (70)(2 As )(
)(
) = 2.656T As e z / 0.904
58.32 0.904
We can find the value from the solution of problem 3.15,
On the vertical web s : 0 ~ s1 => A s =

1
ecot s1
2

On the horizontal sheet s : 0 ~ s 2 => A s =

where ecot =

1
1
ecot h hs 2
2
2

(3.16.3)

(3.16.4)
(3.16.5)

tb 2 h 2
= 0.0225m
Ix

(c) The distribution of normal stress zz at the built-in end ( z = 0 )

On the vertical web, we can calculate the normal stress with (3.16.3) and
(3.16.4)

3.16.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

1
2

zz ( z , s ) |z = 0 = 2.656T ( ecot s1 )e z / 0.904 |z = 0 = 0.0299 s1T

--- ANS
At s1 = 0 , zz (0,0) = 0
At s1 = h = 0.06m , zz = 0.0299 0.06T = 1.79 103 T ( N / m 2 )

On the horizontal sheet, we can derive the normal stress with (3.16.3) and
(3.16.5)

1
2
3
= (1.79 10 + 0.0797 s2 )T

1
2

zz ( z, s ) |z = 0 = 2.656T ( ecot h hs2 )e z / 0.904 |z = 0

--- ANS
At s 2 = 0 , zz = 1.79 10 T
At s 2 = b = 0.06m ,
3

zz = (1.79 103 + 0.0797 0.06)T = 2.99 103 T ( N / m 2 )

The distribution of normal stress on the cross-section is anti-symmetric. The
distribution can be illustrated as the figure below.

--- ANS
(d) The distribution of shear flow at the built-in end ( z = 0 ).
From the equation (3.85) in the textbook, the shear flow at any location s at the
built-in end ( z = 0 ) is
q ( s) | z =0 = E

d 2
| z =0
dz 2

s0

ws tds

(3.16.6)

where ws ( s ) = 2 A s

3.16.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

Substituting (3.16.1) in (3.16.6), we have

q ( s ) | z = 0 = (70)(

s
T
1 2 z / 0.904
)((
) e
) |z = 0 (2 0.003) As ds
s0
58.32
0.904

(3.16.7)

= 8.82 10 T As ds
3

s0

Here it is important to emphasize that the s-direction is measured from the point
where shear flow vanishes. Hence s begins from the free end of the horizontal
sheet as shown in the figure below. Also, due to the symmetry w.r.t. x axis, we
only need to consider the part above x-axis. This allows us to modify equation of

A s from (3.16.4) and (3.16.5).

For the horizontal sheet, we have

As =

1
hs1
2

s1 : 0 b

(3.16.8)

Moving along the vertical web, we have

1
A s = ecot s 2
2

s2 : 0 h

(3.16.9)

On the horizontal sheet, we can derive the shear flow from (3.16.8) and
(3.16.7)
q1 ( s ) |z = 0 = 8.82 10 3 T

s1

= 2.646 10 4 T (

1
hxdx
2

x 2 s1
2
) |0 = 1.323 10 4 s1 T
2

--- ANS
At s1 = 0 , q (0) = 0
At s1 = b = 0.06m ,
q1 (0.06) = 1.323 104 (0.06) 2 T = 4.762 107 T

N /m

On the vertical web, we can derive the shear flow with (3.16.9) and (3.16.7).
Since the shear flow is continuous, we have
s2
1
q2 ( s2 ) | z = 0 q1 ( s1 = b) |z = 0 = 8.818341 10 3 T ( ecot x)dx
0
2
2
x s2
2
= 9.914 10 5 T
|0 = 4.957 10 5 s2 T
2

3.16.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

=> q2 ( s2 ) |z = 0 = (4.957 105 s2 4.762 107 )T

2

--- ANS
7

At s 2 = 0 , q2 (0) = 4.762 10 T
At s 2 = h = 0.06m ,
q2 ( s2 = 0.06) = (4.957 10 5 (0.06) 2 4.762 107 )T
= 2.977 10 7 T
The distribution of the shear flow at the fixed end is sketched in the figure below.

--- ANS

3.16.4

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

3.17

Assume that the shaft of the channel section of Fig. 3.40 is built in at both ends.
Find the torque that is necessary to produce a relative twist angle = 5 o
between two ends. Assume that L = 1m , Youngs modulus E = 70GPa , and
shear modulus G = 27GPa . Compare this with the free-free case.

Figure 3.40

Dimensions of a channel section

Solution:

(a) Since both end of the channel are built-in, it allows us to set z = 0 at the middle
of the channel as shown above.
(b) The governing equation for the twist angle under an applied torque T end
constraints is
d 2
T
,
=
2
GJ
dz
E
where k 2 =
,
GJ

k2

(3.17.1)
(3.17.2)

s1
1 3
2
= 4 A s tds and J = bi t i for open thin-walled section.
s0
i 3

The general solution of differential equation (3.17.1) is

3.17.1

(3.17.3)

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

= h + p =

T
z
z
(1 + C1 cosh + C 2 sinh )
k
k
GJ

(3.17.4)

s1
1 3
2
(c) Compute J = bi ti and = 4 A s tds .
s
0
i 3

1 3
60 33 120 33
J = biti = 2(
)+
= 2160mm4 = 2.16 109 m 4
3
3
3
i
s1

= 4 A s tds
2

s0

Because of symmetry w.r.t x axis, it is more convenient to set up the s contour

with the origin at the middle point of the vertical web as shown in the figure
below.

From the solution of Problem 3.14, we have

tb 2 h 2
3(60) 4
=
= 22.485946mm = 0.0225m
Ix
1729000

ecot =
Therefore,

s1

s0

h
h +b
1
1
1
2
4 A s tds = 2 { 4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 + 4[ ecot h h( s1 h)] 2 tds1 }
0
h
2
2
2

~~~~~~A~~~~~~

~~~~~~~~~B~~~~~~~~~

Part A:

1
1 2
2 1
3
4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 = ecot t ( ) s1 |0h = ecot th 3 = 1.092 10 10 m 6
2
3
3

Part B:

h+b

bb 2

s1

1
1
4[ ecot h h( s1 h)]2 tds1
2
2
1
2
(ecot h hs2 ) 2 tds2 = t (ecot h 2b ecot h 2b 2 + h 2b3 ) = 2.31 1010 m6
3

=> = 4 A s tds = 2( PartA + PartB) = 6.804 10 10 m 6

2

s0

3.17.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

Taking E = 70GPa and G = 27GPa for aluminum, then

E
= 0.904
GJ
(d) Applying boundary conditions
(1) First, because of symmetry of with respect to z , the odd function
sinh( z / k ) should be dropped. This is accomplished by setting C 2 = 0 .
k=

(2) Second, at the built-in end ( z = L / 2 ), warping is suppressed and w = 0 .

Since w( s, z ) = ws ( s) ( z ) , we conclude that = 0 . Thus, we have
T
L
(1 + C1 cosh ) = 0
2k
GJ

Then C1 =

cosh

L
2k

Since L = 1 m and k = 0.904 m , we have

C1 =

1
1
cosh(
)
2 (0.904)

= 0.864

Thus the solution for the rate of twist angle is

T
z
T
z
(1 0.864 cosh ) =
(1 0.864 cosh
)
GJ
k
58.32
0.904

The twist angle related to distance z from the middle of the channel then is
T
u
(1 0.864 cosh
)du
0
0 58.32
0.904
T
z
=
( z 0.78 sinh
)
58.32
0.904
z

= dz =

(3.17.5)

This is the twist angle measured from the middle of the channel bar to the built-in
end.
(e) If we produce a relative twist angle = 5 o , then the twist angle from the middle
of the channel to the built-in end ( z = L / 2 = 0.5m ) is
5o
= = 2.5o = 0.0436 rad .
2
From equation (3.17.5) we can determine the required torque to produce such an
angle.
0.0436 =

T
0 .5
(0.5 0.78 sinh
) = 7.795 10 4 T
58.32
0.904

Then T = 55.97 N m
--- ANS
(f) For the free-free end case
3.17.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

T free end = GJ = GJ

= 58.32

0.0436
= 5.089 N m .
0 .5

The ratio of built-in ends case and free-ends case is

Tbuilt in 55.974
=
= 11
T free end 5.0894
It is likely that the rigidity of the built-in ends case is enhanced eleven times more
than the free-ends case.
--- ANS

3.17.4