Phys 490

PHYS490: Nuclear Physics
3/19/2010
PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul
PHYS490: Schedule 2010

Lectures in T3:
Tuesday 12:00 13:00
Thursday 11:00 13:00
Lectures: weeks 1 - 6
Tutorials weeks 3, 6
Eddie Paul
Room 411
Oliver Lodge
3/19/2010
PHYS490: Nuclear Physics

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
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Nucleon-Nucleon Force
Nuclear Behaviour
Forms of Mean Potential
Nuclear Deformation
Hybrid Models
Nuclear Excitations
Rotating Systems
Nuclei at Extremes of Spin
Nuclei at Extremes of Isospin
Mesoscopic Systems
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Astrophysics
0. A Brief Introduction
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Prehistory (400 BC)

This chart of Plato
and Aristotle shows
the relation of the
four elements and
their four qualities
A fifth element was
ether or material of
the heavens (dark
matter in early
cosmology !)
The chart was used
for over 1000 years
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Atomic and Nuclear Sizes
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Limits of Stable Nuclei
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More and More Isotopes
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Discovery History
Today around 3000
isotopes have been
observed
Only 284 are stable
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The Unique Nucleus

The nucleus is a unique ensemble of strongly
interacting fermions: nucleons
Its large, yet finite, number of constituents controls
the physics
Both single-particle (out-of-phase) and collective
(in-phase) effects occur
Analogy to a herd of wild animals. Individual animals
may break out of the herd but are rapidly drawn back
to the safety of the collective
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10
Nuclear Models
Quantum mechanics governs basic nuclear behaviour
The forces are complicated and cannot be written down
explicitly
It is a many-body problem of great complexity
In the absence of a comprehensive nuclear theory we
turn to models
A model is simply a way of looking at the nucleus that
gives a physical insight into a wide range of its
properties
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11
Nuclear Physics in the Thirties:

Splitting of the Atom
Cockcroft-Wilson accelerator atom split in 1932

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12
Nuclear Physics in the Forties
The first cyclotrons were built in Berkeley, California

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13
Nuclear Physics in the Seventies
Next is an Open University program from 1979, shot

here in the Liverpool Physics Department, showing the
forefront of nuclear structure experimentation (and
fashion) at the time!
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14
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15
Nuclear Physics in the Eighties
TESSA3: 16 (small) -ray detectors at Daresbury, UK

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16
Even Bigger Arrays

This picture shows
ESSA30, an array
of 30 (small) -ray
detectors at
Daresbury, UK
It was a European
collaboration
Again, spot the
Liverpudlians !
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17
Nuclear Physics in the Nineties
Gammasphere: 100 (big) -ray detectors, USA

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18
Nuclear Physics Today
2003: The Hulk destroys Gammasphere !

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19
Nuclear Physics Tomorrow
The next generation of Radioactive Ion Beam (RIB)

accelerators in Europe
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20
Nuclear Physics in context

Nuclear Physics is the study of
the structure, properties, and
interactions of the atomic nuclei
Nuclear Physicists investigate
nuclear matter on all scales, from
sub-atomic particles to supernovae
Research areas include the
structure of the nucleus at
different temperatures and
pressures, the origin of elements,
and the structure and evolution
of stars
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21
1. Nucleon-Nucleon Force
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22
The Nucleon a Spin Fermion

The nucleon is a hadron, i.e. it feels the strong force
The Ford Nucleon (1957)

nuclear powered car
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23
The Nucleon a spin Fermion

It consists basically of 3 quarks but gluons (force
mediators) must also be considered
Only 2% of the mass (Higgs mechanism) comes from
quark masses. The other 98% arises from the kinetic
energy of the constituents
Only 30% of the intrinsic spin can be accounted for
from the constituent quarks
proton
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quark sea + 3 valence quarks
24
Building Blocks and

Energy Scales
Depending on energy and
length scales, different
constituents may be
considered as the building
blocks of the atomic nucleus
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25
Levels of Reality
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26
Fundamental Particles & Forces

Quarks:
Down (d)
Up (u)
Strange (s)
Charmed (c)
Bottom (b)
Top (t)
Force Mediators:
Photon ()
Gluon (g)
Z particle
W particle
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27
The Strong Force
The strong force is fundamentally an interaction

between quarks
It is really a residual colour force mediated by the
exchange of gluons
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Properties of the N-N Force

The force is spin dependent
The force is charge symmetric
The force is (nearly) charge independent
The force has a non-central component
The force depends on the relative velocity or
momentum of the nucleons
The force has a repulsive core
Exchange model: force mediated by pion exchange
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One Pion Exchange
The origin of the nuclear force arises at the fundamental

level from the exchange of gluons between the
constituent quarks of the nucleons
At low energies (<1 GeV/nucleon; >1 fm) the interaction
can be regarded as being mediated by the exchange of
mesons pions
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30
One-Pion Exchange Potential

At large distances the potential is constructed as arising
from the exchange of one pion: OPEP
The form of the potential is:

VOPEP = gs2 (1/3 A.B + SAB [1/3 + 1/r + 1/(r)2])
x A.B 1/r 2e-r
where:
= mc/
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and:
SAB = 3(A.r)( B.r)/r2 - A.B
31
Spin and Isospin

Matrix mechanics was formulated by Born, Heisenberg
and Jordan (1925)
Nucleon intrinsic spin takes only two values: up and down

Introduction of Pauli 2x2 spin matrices
Same formalism used to describe nucleon: isospin up
(neutron), isospin down (proton)
Introduction of Pauli 2x2 isospin matrices
Nucleon-nucleon force dependent on both spin and

isospin
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Addition of (Iso)Spins
Spin and isospin are vectors
Cosine rule gives:
(A + B )2 = A2 + B2 + 2 A.B
Parallel spins (triplet state):
A.B = 1
Antiparallel spins (singlet state): A.B = -3
We need to know A.B in the description of the

nucleon-nucleon (N-N) force
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Quark Meson Coupling Model

The Quark Meson Coupling (QMC)
Model of the nucleus takes into
account both the fundamental
interactions among quarks within
the neutrons and protons, and also
the interactions between the
neutrons and protons (meson
exchange between pairs of quarks)
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34
Calculations for Light Nuclei
In addition to two-body N-N interactions, three-body

N-N-N interactions must also be included in the
theoretical description of light nuclei
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Repulsive Core (Pauli Principle)

Radius of nucleon:
~ 1 fm
Radius of hard core:
~ 0.2 fm
Nucleon mean free
path:
~ 7 fm
Volume of hard
cores is only ~ 2%
of nuclear volume
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36
The Deuteron
The deuteron consists
of a bound protonneutron system
Its ground-state is the
only state which is
bound; the first excited
state is unbound
The ground state has
spin and parity I = 1+
The deuteron is not a
spherical nucleus
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Range of the Nuclear Force

The range of an interaction is related to the mass of the
exchanged particle
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle gives: E t
A particle can only create another particle of mass m for
a time t /mc2 during which interval the particle can
travel at most ct
Taking ct as an estimate of the range R gives: R / mc
This yields R 1.4 fm for pion exchange
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Deuteron Wavefunction
The maximum of the
wavefunction is only just
inside the potential well
with a considerable
exponential tail outside
The RMS separation
between the neutron and
proton is 4.2 fm, larger
than the range of the
nuclear force (~ 1.4 fm)
The deuteron is loosely
bound ! The binding energy
is only B/A ~ 1 MeV/A
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39
Hypernuclei
Nuclei including excited nucleons
including heavy quarks:
e.g. Lambda particle
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40
2. Nuclear Behaviour
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41
Mirror Nuclei
The force between

two nucleons has the
property of charge
symmetry and charge
independence
The two nuclei 20Na
and 20F are examples
of mirror nuclei
The numbers of
protons and neutrons
are exchanged
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Isospin Substates
By analogy with spin, an isospin T state has (2T+1)

substates
The substates correspond to states in different nuclei
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Isobaric Analogue States
Isodoublet states occur in odd-A nuclei

Isotriplet states occur in even-A (even-even
and odd-odd) nuclei
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44
A=51 Mirror Nuclei
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45
Mirror Nuclei: f7/2 Shell
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46
Independent Particle Model

Vij
r = ri - rj
Energy as a function
of separation
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In principle, if the form of

the nucleon-nucleon
potential is known for bare
nucleons, then the energy
of a nucleon moving inside
a nucleus can be calculated
This is a very difficult
problem to solve as the
nucleon interacts
simultaneously with all the
other nucleons
Use an average potential
47
Independent Particle Model

The Hamiltonian is of the form:
H = (Ti + Vij)
It has 3A degrees of freedom and is too complicated
to solve except for the lightest nuclei (A < 12)
Instead we use an average mean-field potential:
H = Hmean field + Hresidual
where Hresidual contains interactions between nucleons
that are not accounted for by the average potential,
especially interactions among valence nucleons
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Nuclear Mean Free Path

Why is it that the Independent Particle picture of
nuclear motion works ?
The Pauli Exclusion Principle (PEP) gives nucleons
essentially infinite mean free path
However, if the range of the nuclear force was 2 to 3
times stronger, then nuclei could have been
crystalline
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49
Particles in a (Potential) Box
Energy levels up to the

Fermi level
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The short range

interaction between
nucleons means that each
nucleon moves in an
average potential
The average separation
(~ 2.4 fm) is larger than
the range of the nuclear
force (1.4 ~ fm)
Nuclei cannot easily
change state unless close
to the Fermi surface
(PEP)
50
Degenerate Fermi Gas Model

This is a simple model in which nucleons are placed in a
volume V = 4R3/3 and the interactions between them
are ignored
A Fermi sea is formed, filled up to the energy
corresponding to the Fermi momentum:
EF = pF2/2m = 2kF2/2m
The binding energy per nucleon is:
B = -E/A = -3/5 TF + 1/2 V0
where TF is the kinetic energy at the Fermi surface
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51
Nucleon Effective Mass

The nuclear force has the property of saturation so that
B(A,Z) is independent of A caused by the Pauli Exclusion
Principle (PEP), its spin and isospin dependence, and
(less importantly) the repulsive core
The nuclear separation energy S is the difference
between the energy of a nucleon outside the nucleus and
the energy of the Fermi level EF: S = B = -1/5 TF
Wrong ! (S > 0) the nucleon has an effective mass

(m* > mn) when moving in a nucleus
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52
Some Nuclear Quantities

Number density (A/V) measured:
~ 0.17 fm-3 (~ 1.5 x 1018 kg/m3)
Fermi momentum:
kF = pF/ ~ 1.4 fm-1
Fermi energy:
EF ~ 10 MeV
Kinetic energy of a nucleon in the nucleus:
3/5EF ~ 6 MeV
corresponding to a velocity v/c ~ 0.14
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53
Nuclear Potentials
There are two approaches:
1.
An empirical form of the potential is assumed, e.g.

square well, harmonic oscillator, Woods-Saxon
2. The mean field is generated self-consistently from

the nucleon-nucleon interaction
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3. Forms of Mean Potential
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55
Shell Model Mean Field

A nucleon in the
Mean Field of
N-1 nucleons
N nucleons in
a nucleus
Assumption ignore detailed two-body interactions

Each particle moves in a state independent of the other
particles
The Mean Field is the average smoothed-out interaction
with all the other particles
An individual nucleon only experiences a central force
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56
Square Well Potential

Simplest form of potential
Since we have a spherically
symmetric potential we can
separate the solutions into
angular and radial parts
Infinite square
well potential
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Radial solutions are Bessel

functions which satisfy the
boundary condition Rn(R) = 0
The eigenenergies are labelled
by n and :
En = (2/2mR2)n2 - U0
57
Square Well Quantum Numbers

n is the principal quantum number
(number of nodes in wavefunction)
is the orbital angular momentum

( j = is the total particle angular momentum )
The energies depend simply and monotonically on n
and
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58
Properties of the Solutions

Higher n : higher energy (more kinetic energy)
Higher : higher energy (larger radius, less bound)
The lowest state is : 1s1/2 (n = 1, = 0) - explains
ground state of the deuteron: L = 1 + 2 = 0
Note that two orbits can have similar energies if one

has larger n and smaller , or vice versa
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Square Well Labels

The levels are labelled by n and ( s = 0, p = 1,
d = 2, f = 3, g = 4, h = 5, i = 6, j = 7, k = 8 )
Each level has 2 + 1 substates

The first few levels (different from H atom):
Level
Occupation
Total
1s
2
2
1p
6
8
1d
10
18
2s
2
20
1f
14
34
2p
6
40
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60
Square Well Wavefunctions

For 0 there is
an effective
centrifugal barrier
which modifies the
shape of the
potential
Low n high states
are moved towards
the nuclear surface
e.g. compare 1s and
1f states
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61
Harmonic Oscillator potential

Easy to handle analytically
Form of potential:
VHO(r) = -U0 + mr22
Solutions are Laguerre
polynomials
Simple harmonic
oscillator potential
3/19/2010
Eigenenergies may again be

labelled by n and :
En = (2n + + ) U0
62
Harmonic Oscillator potential

Eigenenergies can also be labelled by the oscillator
quantum number N:
EN = (N + 3/2) U0
For each N there are degenerate levels with n and

that satisfy:
2(n-1) + = N, N 0, 0 N
Even N contains only even states; odd N, odd
The degeneracy condition is:
= 2 and n = 1 (e.g. N = 4 3s, 2d, 1g orbits)
It is the fundamental reason for shell structure, i.e.
clustering of levels
The parity of each oscillator shell is: (-1)N = (-1)
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63
Woods-Saxon Potential
Usually finite potential forms are used such that

V(r) 0 if r 0
The Woods-Saxon potential is considered to be the
most realistic nuclear potential
For protons a Coulomb potential VC(r) is added
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64
(Wrong) Magic Numbers
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65
Spin-Orbit Coupling
In order to account for the correct nucleon numbers at
which the higher shell closures occur, a spin-orbit term is
added Mayer, Haxel, Jensen, Suess (1948)
For the modified harmonic oscillator:
VHO(r) = -U0 + mr22 2/2.s
Since:
.s = 2[j(j+1) - (+1) ]
the energy is modified by - if j = +
and by +(+1) if j =
Note: j = + levels are lowered in energy relative to

j = - levels (opposite to the atomic case!)
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66
Predicted Shell Structure

The harmonic oscillator
shells are shown to the
left in this diagram
In the middle, an 2 term
is added to make the
potential more realistic
(modified oscillator)
A spin orbit term .s is
added to the right with
its strength (fitted to
experiment) adjusted to
obtain the correct nuclear
magic numbers
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Experimental Shell Effects

The energies of the
first excited 2+ states
in nuclei peak at the
magic numbers of
protons or neutrons
B(E2) values ( 1/
where is the mean
lifetime) of the 2+
states reach a minimum
at the magic numbers
Magic nuclei are
spherical and the least
collective
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68
Systematics Near Z(N) = 50
N = 50
100Sn
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Z = 50
(Z=N=50) and 132Sn (N=82) are doubly magic nuclei

69
Neutron Separation Energies
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70
Residual Interactions
The residual interaction between nucleons is the
difference between the actual two-nucleon potential
V experienced by a nucleon in a state and the
average potential
Matrix elements of , || are only appreciable
near the Fermi Surface
The interaction is a two-body operator because it
changes the state of two nucleons. It can be treated
in a number of ways:
1.
from the free two-nucleon potential (difficult!)
2.
as a free parameter (fit to experimental data)
3.
parameterised using physical intuition
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71
Quadrupole + Pairing Interaction
Monopole pairing
I = 0+
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If we assume that the interaction

takes place near the Fermi surface,
i.e. near r = R then V(ri,rj) V(R)
The quadrupole-quadrupole ( = 2)
interaction is the most important
correction to a spherical field, and is
relatively long range
The pairing interaction (left) is the
important short range component. It
leads to greater binding between
nucleons if their angular momenta
are coupled to zero spin, with
maximum spatial overlap
72
Hartree Fock Method
The philosophy here is that the nuclear potential is

self-consistent
1.
We calculate the nucleon distribution (density) from

the net potential
2. Then we evaluate the net potential from the
nucleon-nucleon interaction
3. Then we iterate
4. The potential is self-consistent if the one with
which we end up is the same as the one we start
with
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4. Nuclear Deformation
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74
Evidence for Deformation

1.
Large electric quadrupole moments Q0
2. Low-lying rotational bands ( E I[I+1] )
The origin of deformation lies in the long range

component of the nucleon-nucleon residual interaction:
a quadrupole-quadrupole interaction gives increased
binding energy for nuclei which lie between closed
shells if the nucleus is deformed.
In contrast, the short range (pairing) component
favours sphericity
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Simple Nuclear Shapes

The general shape of a nucleus
can be expressed in terms of
spherical harmonics Y(,)
The = 1 term describes the
displacement of the centre of
mass and therefore cannot give
rise to excitation of the
nucleus ignore !
The = 2 term is the most
important term and describes
quadrupole deformation
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76
Nuclear Shapes
The = 3 term describes octupole shapes which can look

like pears ( = 0), bananas ( = 1) and peanuts ( =2,3)
The = 4 term describes hexadecapole shapes
In general most nuclei are prolate with a small additional
hexadecapole deformation
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77
Principal Axes
The description of the nuclear
shape simplifies if we make
the principal axes of our
coordinate system (x, y, z)
coincide with the nuclear axes
(1, 2, 3)
For quadrupole shapes we then
need only two parameters (,
) to describe the shape
Intrinsic (nuclear) and

laboratory frame axes
Prolate (rugby ball): > 0

Oblate (smartie): < 0
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Quadrupole and Parameters

prolate
oblate
x=z>y
x>y=z
Axially symmetric shapes
60
= n 60
prolate
x=y<z
oblate
x=y>z
-60
oblate
x<y=z
prolate
x=z<y
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Triaxial shapes : x y z
n 60
79
Theoretical Deformations
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80
Shape Coexistence
1
The nucleus 184Pb

has three low-lying
0+ states
1. Spherical
2. Oblate
3. Prolate
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This plot shows the

calculated potential
energy surface
81
Deformation Systematics
Theory
Proton Number Z
Doubly Magic: Spherical

Midshell: Deformed
Oblate
Spherical
Prolate
Neutron Number N
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82
Proton Number Z
First Excited 2+ Energies
E(2+) [Moment of Inertia]-1
Neutron Number N
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83
Proton Number Z
Deformation: Rotational Bands
Neutron Number N
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84
Nilsson Model
In order to introduce nuclear deformation Nilsson
modified the harmonic oscillator potential to become
anisotropic:
V = m[12x2 + 22y2 + 32z2]
with k R k = 0 R0 and 1 = 2 3
If axial symmetry is assumed ( = 0) then the
deformation is described by the parameter :
= (1,2 3) / 0
It can be shown that ~
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85
Nilsson Diagram (Energy vs. )

In order to reproduce
the observed nuclear
behaviour C.s and D2
terms need to be added
(C and D are constants)
The .s term is the spinorbit term
The 2 term has the
effect of flattening the
potential to make it
more realistic (like the
shape of the WoodsSaxon potential)
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86
Nilsson Single-Particle Diagrams
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87
Nilsson Labels
The energy levels are labelled by the asymptotic quantum
numbers:
[N n3 ]
N: N = n1 + n2 + n3 is the oscillator quantum number
n3: n3 is the z-axis (symmetry axis) component of N

: = z is the projection of onto the z-axis
: = + is the projection of j = + s onto the z-axis

: = (-1)N = (-1) is the parity of the state
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88
The , , Quantum Numbers
Spin projections:
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=+=
89
Asymptotic Quantum Numbers
Because of the additional .s and 2 terms the physical

quantities labelled by n3 and are not constants of
the motion, but only approximately so
These quantum numbers are called asymptotic as they

only come good as
However, the quantum numbers N, and are always

good labels provided that:
1. the nucleus is not rotating and
2. there are no residual interactions
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90
Large Deformations
This figure ignores the .s
and 2 terms
Deformed shell gaps emerge
when 3 and 1,2 are in the
ratio of small integers, i.e.
3/ 1,2 = p/q
A superdeformed shape has
p/q = or
R3:R1,2 = 2:1
A hyperdeformed shape has
R3:R1,2 = 3:1
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91
5. Hybrid Models
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92
Deformed Liquid Drop

Assuming that the nucleus behaves as a charged liquid
drop, a semi-empirical expression can be obtained for the
total energy:
E(A,Z) = -aVA + aSA2/3 + aCZ2A-1/3
To correct for deformation the nuclear radius R0 is
replaced by:
R3 = R0(1 + ) , R
1,2
= R0(1 - )
The energy for small then becomes:

E(A,Z) = -aVA + aSA2/3 (1 + 2/5 2) + aCZ2A-1/3 (1 1/5 2)
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93
Deformed-Spherical Energies
E() = E() E(=0)
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It is then predicted that

the nucleus is always
spherical (i.e. E = 0 for
> 0) unless Z2/A > 49 in
which case the nucleus
prefers infinite
deformation (i.e. it fissions)
This is clearly wrong !
The liquid drop model must
be extended to take into
account shell-model
effects, i.e. effects from
individual nucleon motion
94
Shell Correction
Additional terms arising from the symmetry energy
(which prefers N = Z) and the pairing energy (, 0, -
for even-even, odd-even and odd-odd nuclei,
respectively) can be added
Alternatively the total energy can be calculated using
mean-field potentials
This is not simply the sum of the individual

eigenenergies ei because the potential energy of each
nucleon would be counted twice
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95
Shell Energy
The eigenvalue for each nucleon is:
ei = Ti + jiVij
The total energy is:
Ti + jiVij = ei + Ti
For the harmonic oscillator potential:

Ti = Vi = jiVij so that E = ei
This method has difficulty in producing the correct
energy because errors in ei give rise to large errors in
the summation ei
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96
Strutinsky Shell Correction

To obtain both the global
(liquid drop) and local
(shell model) variations
with , Z and A, Strutinsky
developed a method to
combine the best of both
models
(a) Liquid drop:
He considered the
behaviour of the level
gF(e) =gAV(e)
(b) and (c) show shell effects. density g(e) in the two
models
A change in nuclear binding
And calculated the
arises from:
fluctuation energy
gAV(e) gF(e)
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Level Density
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98
Shell Correction Energies
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99
Fission Isomers
Superdeformed band
head is isomeric.
Its decay can penetrate
barrier either way
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If the increase in liquid

drop energy for increasing
deformation E() is small
enough (e.g. Z2/A > 35)
then any secondary
minimum in the total energy
arising from the shell
correction will become
similar in energy to the
first
This second minimum
corresponds to a
superdeformed nuclear
state
100
Superdeformed
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240Pu
101
6. Nuclear Excitations
Single-particle and collective motion
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102
Collective Motion in Nuclei

Adiabatic approximation: identify fast and slow degrees
of freedom
Molecules: electronic motion fastest, vibrations 102
times slower, rotations 106 times slower
These different motions have very different time
scales, so the wavefunction separates into a product of
terms
In nuclei the timescales are much closer
Collective and single-particle modes can perhaps be
separated but they will interact strongly !
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Types of Nuclear Excitation

All even-even nuclei have a ground state with
a consequence of nuclear pairing
I = 0+ ,
Closed-shell nuclei are spherical and excited nuclear

states can only be formed by breaking pairs of nucleons
or by vibrations
For odd-mass nuclei (near closed shells) the low-lying
excited states map out the single-particle spectrum of
states around the Fermi level
Deformed nuclei exhibit regular rotational bands:
quadrupole or octupole shapes etc
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104
Excitations in Spherical Nuclei

All even-even nuclei have
I = 0+ in their ground states
Excitations can only occur by

breaking of pairs or by
vibrations
The energy difference
between the first excited and
ground states is a rough
Doubly magic (spherical)
measure of the pairing energy
nuclei
3/19/2010
105
Noncollective Level Scheme

Complicated set of
energy levels
No regular features, e.g.
band structures
Some states are
isomeric
3/19/2010
106
Vibrations
From the liquid drop
dependence on deformation
we can estimate the
restoring force if the
nucleus is deformed from
its equilibrium deformation
A vibration can be any

distortion in the nuclear
shape
Equally spaced energy
levels for each phonon of
vibration
3/19/2010
107
Beta (Y20) Vibration
3/19/2010
108
Gamma (Y22) Vibration
3/19/2010
109
Octupole (Y30) Vibration
3/19/2010
110
3/19/2010
111
3/19/2010
112
3/19/2010
113
Realistic Vibrational Levels

vibrator
n=3
n=2
n=1
n=0
nucleus
For each given mode of

vibration, each phonon has
an associated angular
momentum and parity, e.g:
quadrupole 2+
octupole
3 For a pure vibrator there
are groups of degenerate
levels for two or more
phonons
3/19/2010
114
Multiphonon Vibrational States

N = 3 (3 phonon)
N = 2 (2 phonon)
N = 1 (1 phonon)
124Sn,
spherical
N=0
3/19/2010
115
Giant Resonances
Monopole
L=0
Isovector
Isoscalar
Dipole
L=1
Quadrupole
L=2
3/19/2010
116
Rotations of a Deformed System
Nuclear spins
3/19/2010
The low-lying levels of deformed

even-even nuclei which lie far from
closed shells form a regular
sequence of levels that are much
lower in energy than the pairing
energy. This arises from rotation
The Hamiltonian is:
Hrot = (2/2) R2 = (2/2) (I-J)2
where is the moment of inertia
and J is additional angular
momentum generated by, e.g. the
odd particle in an odd-A nucleus or
by vibrations
117
Coriolis Coupling
Note that rotation cannot take place about the
symmetry (z) axis
The rotational Hamiltonian can be expanded:

R2 = (I J)2 = I2 2I.J + J2
= I2 + J2 2K2 - (I+J- + I-J+)
where I = Ix i Iy, J = Jx i Jy and Jz = Iz = K
The quantity K is the projection of I along the
deformation axis
The coupling term (I+J- + I-J+) corresponds to the

Coriolis force and couples J to R
3/19/2010
118
The K Quantum Number

The operators I link states with K differing by 1
The term (I+J- + I-J+) can be ignored if:
(1) rotational bands with K = 1 lie far apart
(2) the particular band does not have K =
The excitation energies then become:
Erot = (2/2)[I(I+1) + J(J+1) -2K2]
with I = K, K+1, K+2 and K is a constant of the motion
Then: Erot = EK + (2/2)I(I+1)
where EK is the energy of the lowest band level
3/19/2010
119
Vibrational Bands in
232Th
Here the low-lying levels

are all collective, i.e.
rotational and vibrational
Ground State Band: K = 0+
Band: K = 0+
Band: K = 2+
Octupole Band: K = 0 = 0+ then
Oct.
Note
that
if
K
Beta
Gamma
the I values 1, 3, 5 are
not present
GSB
= 0- the I values 0,
For
K
Reflection symmetric shape,
2, 4 disappear
232Th is a deformed nucleus
3/19/2010
120
Alternating Parity Bands in
226U
This nucleus is reflection

asymmetric (i.e. 3 0) in its
ground state: it has octupole
deformation
The nuclear wavefunction in its
intrinsic frame is not an
eigenvalue of parity:
2 (x ,y ,z) 2 (-x, -y, -z)
In the laboratory frame (i.e.
averaged over all nuclear
orientations) the levels have
alternating parity
3/19/2010
121
Reflection (A)symmetry
3/19/2010
122
Electric Dipole Moment
In a nucleus with octupole

deformation, the centre of
mass and centre of charge
tend to separate, creating
a non-zero electric dipole
moment
3/19/2010
123
Octupole Magic Numbers

Octupole correlations
occur between orbitals
which differ in both orbital
() and total (j) angular
momenta by 3
Magic numbers occur at 34,
56, 88 and 134
Nuclei with both proton
and neutron numbers close
to these are the best
candidates to show
octupole effects
3/19/2010
124
Rotational Bands in
157Ho
This nucleus shows

three band
structures built on
different Nilsson
states
3/19/2010
125
7. Rotating Systems
3/19/2010
126
Moment of Inertia
The energy of a rotating nucleus is given by:
E = (2/2) I[I+1]
The nuclear moment of inertia (at low spin) is found to
be one third to one half of the value expected for a
rotating liquid drop
Nuclear pairing introduces a degree of superfluidity
Rotation counteracts pairing (cf strong magnetic field
applied to superconductor)
3/19/2010
127
Rotational Bands: -ray Spectra
3/19/2010
128
Inglis Moment of Inertia

Inglis (1952) showed that the
moment of inertia of a Fermi gas
rotating about the x-axis is:
x = 2 |p|x|h|/(ep-eh)
where the summation is over all
possible 1-particle 1-hole
excitations in a deformed shell
model
The rigid-body moment of inertia
is:
= (2/5) mnAR02[1 + 0.3]
which is higher than observed
3/19/2010
129
Nuclear Moments of Inertia

Nuclear
moments of
inertia are lower
than the rigidbody value a
consequence of
nuclear pairing
3/19/2010
130
Pairing Gap
A rough estimate of
the energy required to
create a particle-hole
excitation is 2,
where is the pairing
gap
A typical value for is
1 MeV
3/19/2010
131
Cranking Model
The deformed shell model (e.g. Nilsson Model) can be
modified to include pairing
To include rotation it is convenient to subtract the effect
of rotational forces (Coriolis and centripetal)
Classically the potential energy of these forces is .I so
the corresponding quantum operator is x
The Hamiltonian is: H = HDSM x
Energy in the rotating frame: E = E - x
3/19/2010
132
Routhian and Aligned Angular

Momentum
The Routhian is simply the energy in the rotating
frame of reference:
E
The aligned angular momentum is just the

expectation value of the operator x:
x
3/19/2010
133
Spin and Rotational Frequency

There are two important
relations which arise since E
is independent of and E is
independent of I:
dE/d = - x
and
dE/dI = dx/dI
Nuclear spin I and its
projections onto the
rotation axis Ix and
deformation axis K
3/19/2010
Since: x = [I(I+1)-K2]
then for K = 0: x ~ I
and hence:
dE/dI ~
134
Gamma Ray Energies and

Rotational Frequency
The energy of a rotational band for K = 0 is:
E = E0 + (2/2) I(I + 1) ,
I = 0, 2, 4
The energy difference between consecutive levels E
represents the gamma-ray energy E
The spin difference between consecutive levels is I = 2
The rotational frequency is defined as:
= dE/dI = E/I = E/2
i.e. the frequency is just half the gamma-ray energy
3/19/2010
135
Moments of Inertia
The energy of a rotational band for K = 0 is:
E = E0 + (2/2) I(I + 1) , I = 0, 2, 4
Then:
dE/dI = (2/2) (2I + 1)
and:
d2E/dI2 = 2/
defines the dynamic moment of inertia which is
independent of spin
By using finite differences:

dE=E=E, dI=I=2, d2E=E, d2I=2I=4
we can evaluate even if we do not know I !
3/19/2010
136
Nuclear Rotation
The assumption of the ideal
flow of an incompressible
nonviscous fluid (Liquid Drop
Model) leads to a hydrodynamic
moment of inertia (surface
waves):
hydro = rig 2
This estimate is much too low !
We require short-range pairing

correlations to account for the
experimental values
3/19/2010
137
Kinematic and Dynamic MoIs
Rigid body: (1) = (2)

High spin: (1) (2)
3/19/2010
Assuming maximum alignment

on the x-axis (Ix ~ I), the
kinematic moment of inertia is
defined:
(1) = (2 I) [dE(I)/dI]-1
= I/
The dynamic moment of
inertia (response of the
system to a force) is:
(2) = (2) [d2E(I)/dI2]-1
= dI/d
And (2) = (1) + d(1)/d
138
Backbending
The moment of inertia
increases with increasing
rotational frequency
Around spin 10 a
dramatic rise occurs
The characteristic S
shape is called a backbend
(158Er)
A more gradual increase is
called an upbend (174Hf)
3/19/2010
139
Crossing Bands
A backbend corresponds to
the crossing of two bands
(g and s configurations)
yrare
yrast
Yrast and yrare states:

dizziest and dizzier in
the Swedish language
3/19/2010
The states we observe are

called yrast states (thick
line) which have the lowest
energy for a given spin
The s-band, where s stands
for Stockholm or super,
arises from the breaking of a
pair of nucleons. Their
angular momenta j1 and j2
align with the rotation axis
140
Pair Breaking
For the ground state band:
Eg = (2/2g) I(I + 1)
For the s-band:
Es = (2/2s) (I J )2 + EJ
where J = j1 + j2 and EJ is the
energy required to break a
pair of nucleons:
EJ ~ 2 ~ 24 A-1/2 MeV
The aligned angular momentum
of the s-band increases by
approximately:
j1 + j2 1 (~ 12 for 158Er)
3/19/2010
141
Destruction of Pairing
Strong external
influences may destroy
the superfluid nature
of the nucleus
In the case of a superconductor, a strong magnetic field

can destroy the superconductivity: the Meissner Effect
For the nucleus, the analogous role of the magnetic field
is played by the Coriolis force, which at high spin, tends
to decouple pairs from spin zero and thus destroy the
superfluid pairing correlations
3/19/2010
142
Pair Breaking and Rotational

Alignment
A Backbending movie follows showing pair breaking
and rotational alignment
3/19/2010
143
Backbending Movie
3/19/2010
144
Backbending Demonstration
This movie shows Mark Rileys backbending
machine built here in Liverpool
3/19/2010
145
8. Nuclei at Extremes of
Spin
3/19/2010
146
High-Spin States
As the nucleus is rotated to states of higher and
higher angular momentum, or spin I, it tries to assume
the configuration which has the lowest rotational
energy
The spin I is made up of a collective part R and a
contribution J arising from single particles
The energy can be minimised by reducing R or by
increasing the nuclear moment of inertia
The pairing is broken by the effect of rapid rotation

3/19/2010
147
Generation of Angular Momentum

There are two basic ways
of generating high-spin
states in a nucleus
1. Collective (in-phase)
motions of the nucleons:
vibrations, rotations etc
2. Single-particle effects:
pair breaking, particlehole excitations. The
individual spins of a few
nucleons ji generate the
total nuclear spin
3/19/2010
148
High Ix Bands
In backbending the value of R (collective spin) is

reduced by breaking a single pair of nucleons and
aligning their individual angular momenta j with the
x-axis, i.e.
Ix = jx + R
The quantity Ix is approximately a good quantum number

and hence a given nuclear state can be described by a
single value of Ix
The alignment of broken pairs becomes easier if

1. the particle j is high but its projection small
2. the Coriolis force is large: small and high
3/19/2010
149
Aligned Particles
Alignment effects should be prominent
for nuclei with a few nucleons outside a
closed shell, e.g. 158Er with 8 neutrons
above the N = 82 closed shell
If we continue to rotate faster and
faster then more of the valence pairs
break and align
I = ji
R=0
3/19/2010
Eventually all the particles outside the

closed shell (spherical) core align
These move in equatorial orbits giving
the nucleus an oblate appearance
150
Band Termination
neutron
backbend
proton
backbend
Gamma Ray Energy

3/19/2010
151
Band Termination in
158Er
When we align the np protons and nn neutrons outside the

closed shell the total spin is:
I = inp ji(p) + inn ji(n)
and the rotational band is said to terminate
At termination 158Er can be thought of as a spherical
146Gd core plus 4 protons and 8 neutrons generating a
total spin 46
The configuration is:
(h11/2)4 (i13/2)2(h9/2)3(f7/2)3
The terminating spin value of 46 is generated as:
(11/2+9/2+7/2+5/2) + (13/2+11/2) + (9/2+7/2+5/2) + (7/2+5/2+3/2)
3/19/2010
152
High K (Iz) Bands

If we have many unpaired
nucleons outside the closed
shell then alignment with the
x-axis becomes difficult
because the valence nucleons
lie closer to the z-axis, i.e.
they have high values
The sum K of these projections
onto the deformation (z) axis is
now a good quantum number
K = Iz = jz =
3/19/2010
153
K Forbidden Transitions
It is difficult for rotational bands with high K values to
decay to bands with smaller K since the nucleus has to
change the orientation of its angular momentum.
For example, the K = 8- band head in 178Hf is isomeric
with a lifetime of 4 s. This is much longer than the
lifetimes of the rotational states built on it.
The K = 8- band head is formed by breaking a pair of
protons and placing them in the Nilsson configurations:
[N n3 ] = 7/2 [4 0 4] and 9/2 [5 1 4]

In this case: K = 7/2 + 9/2 = 8 and = (-1)N(1).(-1)N(2) = -1
3/19/2010
154
K Isomers in
178Hf
A low lying state with

spin I = 16 and K = 16 in
178Hf is isomeric with a
half life of 31 years !
It is yrast (lowest state
for a given spin) and is
trapped since it must
change K by 8 units in its
decay
3/19/2010
155
High K bands in
174Hf
This nucleus has 347 known levels and 516 gamma rays !
3/19/2010
156
Superdeformation
Nuclear potential at
low and high spin
3/19/2010
Shell effects can give large

energy corrections for large
values of prolate deformation,
e.g. when the major/minor axis
ratio is 2:1
The smooth liquid-drop
contribution to the total nuclear
energy includes the rotational
energy, which can be
substantially reduced at high
spin by increasing the moment
of inertia
At sufficiently high spin a
secondary minimum can become
energetically favourable
157
Superdeformed Band in
2 ~ 0.6, 2:1 axis ratio

3/19/2010
152Dy
The experimental
signature of these
superdeformed (SD)
shapes is a very
regular sequence of
equally spaced rays
In 152Dy the (first)
SD band spans a spin
range 20 60
Nowadays multiple SD
bands are known in
this and other nuclei
158
Some Big Numbers

The SD band of 152Dy emits ~ 20 gamma rays in
~ 10-13 s. The total energy released is:
E ~ 20 MeV (1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J)
The power is: (3.2 x 10-12 J) / (10-13 s) = 32 W !
The rotational frequency is: ~ 500 keV, so

~ 8 x 1020 radians/sec 1020 Hz or 107 rotations in
10-13 s same as number of days in 30,000 years !
The decay of the SD band passes through a long-lived
isomeric level (86 ns) ~ 5 x 1012 rotations same as
number of days since the Big Bang !
3/19/2010
159
Superdeformation in 132Ce
SD bands exist in cerium (Z = 58) nuclei with a major/minor

axis ratio of 3:2. This band in 132Ce (THE original SD band
discovered by the Liverpool Nuclear Physics Group) is now
seen up to spin approaching 70 one of the highest spins
ever seen in the atomic nucleus !
3/19/2010
160
Superdeformed Systematics
3/19/2010
161
Shape Coexistence
For a given nuclear system
at a given value of spin, a
number of configurations
can exist
These configurations may
have different shapes
Weakly deformed triaxial
and oblate shapes coexist
in 152Dy along with the
superdeformed shape
Each shape has a (local)
minimum in the nuclear
total energy surface
3/19/2010
162
Hyperdeformation
Superdeformation
represents a
secondary minimum in
the nuclear potential
energy, with typically
a 2:1 axis ratio
Hyperdeformation
represents a third
minimum, with an axis
ratio 3:1
3/19/2010
163
Critical Angular Momenta

Nuclei can only attain a
finite amount of spin
before they fly apart
(fission)
Just before this fission
is a predicted region of
extended triaxial
(x y z) shapes
This is known as the
Jacobi regime
Such behaviour also
Nuclei with mass 130-150 can
occurs for macroscopic
accommodate the most spin
objects
3/19/2010
164
Jacobi Shape
3/19/2010
165
9. Nuclei at Extremes of
Isospin
3/19/2010
166
Limits of Nuclear Existence

Segre Chart
Known Nuclei
Stable Nuclei
Proton Dripline
Fission Limit
Terra Incognita
Neutron Dripline
3/19/2010
167
Where Are The Driplines?
3/19/2010
168
Where Are The Driplines?

In this
experiment
fragmentation of
a beam of 48Ca
no counts were
observed for 26O
This defines the
neutron dripline
for oxygen
isotopes
3/19/2010
169
Where is the Neutron Dripline?
3/19/2010
170
Heavy N = Z Nuclei
Shell corrections give minima in
the nuclear energy at non-zero
values of deformation
Bigger effect if both proton and
neutrons occur at these magic
numbers
Also a big effect for N = Z
The N = Z = 40 nucleus 80Zr is
an example
It is difficult to study this
nucleus: it is 10 neutrons lighter
than the lightest stable
zirconium isotope !
3/19/2010
171
Exotic Nuclei
The nucleus 12C has six protons and
six neutrons
It is stable and found in nature
The nucleus 22C has six protons and
sixteen neutrons !
It is radioactive and at the limit of
nuclear binding
Characteristics of exotic nuclei: excess of neutrons or

protons, short half life, neutron or proton dominated
surface, low binding
3/19/2010
172
Isospin: Tz = (N - Z) / 2
A = 21
A
21
C
6 15
TZ
21
C 21 N 21 O 21 F 21 Ne 21 Na 21 Mg 21Al
6 15 7
14 8 13 9 12 10
11 11
10 12
9 13 8
+9/2 +7/2
+5/2 +3/2 +1/2
1/2 3/2
5/2
Neutron rich
3/19/2010
Proton rich
173
Nuclei Far From Stability
3/19/2010
174
Proton-Rich Nuclei
The proton dripline is
defined by the least
massive bound nucleus
of every isotopic chain
(Sp drops to zero)
For nuclei beyond the
dripline the last proton
has a positive energy
and is unbound
This proton does not
escape instantaneously
as it must overcome
the Coulomb Barrier
3/19/2010
175
Radioactivity: Normal
3/19/2010
176
Radioactivity: Exotic
3/19/2010
177
Alpha and Proton Emitters
3/19/2010
178
Jyvskyl, Finland (Feb 2006)
3/19/2010
179
Jyvskyl (midnight June 21 2009)
3/19/2010
180
Recoil Decay Tagging
3/19/2010
181
JUROGAM + RITU + GREAT
3/19/2010
182
Deformed Proton Emitter

The half-lives of proton
radioactivity are sensitive
to both specific orbitals
and nuclear deformation
Measured half-lives in 131Eu
and 141Ho could only be
understood if these nuclei
were deformed
This was later confirmed

by the observation of
rotational bands in 141Ho
3/19/2010
183
Proton Decay Half Lives
= 0 Coulomb Barrier
= 5 Coulomb Barrier plus
Centrifugal Barrier
The half-lives of proton radioactivity are sensitive to the

orbital angular momentum of specific states
A centrifugal barrier occurs in the potential proportional
to the orbital angular momentum
3/19/2010
184
Fine Structure in Proton Decay

In 131Eu proton decay has
been observed both to the
ground state and the first
excited state of 130Sm
This establishes the first
2+ state in 130Sm at an
energy of 121 keV
This low energy implies a
large moment of inertia
and large quadrupole
(prolate) deformation for
the exotic 130Sm nucleus !
3/19/2010
185
Fine Structure in Alpha Decay

In 109Xe alpha decay
has been observed
both to the ground
state and the first
excited state of
105Te
This establishes the
relative energies of
the neutron d5/2 and
g7/2 orbitals in 105Te
3/19/2010
186
Superdeformed Proton Emitter

SD
An SD band in 58Cu decays by proton emission into 57Ni in

competition with decay to the low-spin 58Cu states
3/19/2010
187
Direct Two-Proton Decay

A new mode of decay, direct
two-proton decay, had been
predicted long ago, but until
recently, experimental
efforts had only found
sequential emission through
an intermediate state
Are the two protons correlated

(di-proton emission) or uncorrelated
(sequential proton emission)?
3/19/2010
To prove di-proton emission,

specific nuclei are needed
where the sequential
emission is energetically
forbidden e.g. 18Ne
188
Direct Two-Proton Decay of 45Fe

Decay energy spectrum correlated
with 45Fe implantation
from 45Fe
The experimental Q-value

implies di-proton emission
with a barrier-penetration
half-life of 0.024 ms
3/19/2010
189
Neutron-Rich Nuclei
Physics of weak binding
The question of which combinations of protons and
neutrons form bound systems has not been answered
for most of the nuclear chart because of a lack of
experimental access to neutron-rich nuclei
These nuclei are increasingly the focus of present
and future experimental (and theoretical) effort
3/19/2010
190
Light Neutron-Dripline Nuclei
The neutron dripline has only been reached for light

nuclei
3/19/2010
191
Level Inversion in
11Be
The ordering of the neutron

1s1/2 and 1p1/2 orbitals
appears to be inverted in the
nucleus 11Be and lighter N = 7
isotones
unbound
3/19/2010
192
Nuclear (Neutron) Haloes
The spatial extent of 11Li with 3 protons is similar to

that of 208Pb with 82 protons !
11Li is modelled as a core of 9Li plus two valence neutrons
3/19/2010
193
Size of Lithium Isotopes
Root mean square radii
Interaction cross
sections give a measure
of the nuclear matter
distribution (radius)
A sudden jump is seen in
going from 9Li to 11Li
However, the electric
quadrupole moments
are similar (charge
distribution)
Hence, excess neutron
tail or halo
Textbook: R = r0A1/3
3/19/2010
194
Nuclear Sizes
3/19/2010
195
Halo Systematics
Neutron haloes
have now been
seen in nuclei
as heavy as 19C
(Z = 6, N = 13)
Note proton
haloes also
predicted
3/19/2010
196
Borromean System
Halo nuclei have provided
insight into a new topology
with a Borromean property
bound
The two-body subsystems

of the stable three-body
system 11Li (9Li + n + n) are
themselves unstable !
unbound
3/19/2010
197
Neutron Skins
3/19/2010
198
Proton Skins?
Theory
3/19/2010
199
Quenching of Shell Structure

Adding more and more
neutrons to a nucleus
may change the shell
structure
It has been predicted

that the shell gaps
(magic numbers) are
washed out far from
the stability line
The .s term is
diminished
3/19/2010
200
New Shell Structure?
N=20
Z=8
N=16 ?
N=8
3/19/2010
201
Unexpected Things Happen Far

From Stability
The heaviest known

tellurium isotope is
136Te
It is two neutrons
outside the N = 82
shell closure
However its measured
B(E2) value is much
lower than expected !
The 2+ energy is also
too low
3/19/2010
202
Extremes of Mass and Charge

Investigations of the
heaviest nuclei probe the
role of the Coulomb force
and its interplay with
quantal shell effects in
determining the nuclear
landscape
Without shell effects
nuclei with more than 100
protons would fission
instantaneously
However, superheavies
with Z up to 118 have been
identified !
3/19/2010
203
Deformed Superheavy Nuclei

Modern theory not only predicts which combinations of
N and Z can be made into heavy nuclei but also indicates
that stability arises in specific cases from the ability of
the nucleus to deform
For example, the nucleus 208Pb at the shell closures
Z = 82, N = 126 is spherical but nuclei with substantially
deformed ground states are predicted around the next
shell closures at Z ~ 114, N = 184
Different theories suggest the next proton shell closure

at Z = 114, 120, 126 (note N = 126 occurs for neutrons)
3/19/2010
204
Super Heavy Elements (SHE)

Copernicium
Roentgenium
Darmstadtium
Meitnerium
Hassium
Bohrium
Protons
Neutrons
3/19/2010
SHE
Quantal shell effects
stabilise energy
Up to Z = 112 results
confirmed
Dubna: Z = 114, 116, 118
Berkeley: Z = 118
discovered then
retracted
205
Element 115
Well known for antigravity

properties
The fuel of UFOs
3/19/2010
206
The Island(s) of Stability
3/19/2010
207
Alpha Decay Chains
decay provides the

technique to identify
heavy elements
3/19/2010
The heaviest nuclei are unstable

against decay
The -decay half life (in s) is
given empirically by:
log10 t1/2 = 1.61 Z E-1/2
1.61 Z2/3 28.9
Here E (in MeV) is the decay
energy, related to the mass
difference of the parent (Z, A)
and daughter (Z-2, A-4) nuclei
The lifetimes are very long
(>10-3 s) on the nuclear time
scale
208
SHE Synthesis at GSI
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209
Elements 116 and 118
3/19/2010
210
Superheavies at High Spin

The ground-state
rotational band of
254No (Z=102) has
been identified up to
spin 20+ (at least!)
The energy spacing
of the levels is
consistent with a
sizeable prolate
deformation with an
axis ratio 4:3
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211
The Heaviest Element
University researchers have discovered the heaviest element yet known to science. The
new element, Governmentium (Gv), has one neutron, 25 assistant neutrons, 88 deputy
neutrons and 198 assistant deputy neutrons, giving it an atomic mass of 312.
These 312 particles are held together by forces called morons, which are surrounded by
vast quantities of lepton-like particles called pillocks. Since Governmentium has no
electrons, it is inert. However, it can be detected, because it impedes every reaction
with which it comes into contact.
A tiny amount of Governmentium can cause a reaction that would normally take less than
a second, to take from 4 days to 4 years to complete. Governmentium has a normal halflife of 2 to 6 years. It does not decay, but instead undergoes a reorganisation in which a
portion of the assistant neutrons and deputy neutrons exchange places.
In fact, Governmentium's mass will actually increase over time, since each reorganisation
will cause more morons to become neutrons, forming isodopes. This characteristic of
moron promotion leads some scientists to believe that Governmentium is formed
whenever morons reach a critical concentration. This hypothetical quantity is referred
to as a critical morass. When catalysed with money, Governmentium turns into
Administratium (Ad), an element that radiates just as much energy as Governmentium,
since it has half as many pillocks but twice as many morons.
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212
10. Mesoscopic Systems
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213
Finite Fermionic Systems

The behaviour of micro particles (atoms, electrons,
nuclei, nucleons and other elementary particles) can be
described by quantum theory
Macroscopic bodies obey the laws of classical
mechanics
These two worlds largely differ from each other
In nature there is no sharp border between the micro
and macro world and there are objects that exist in the
intermediate range
The atomic nucleus, a finite fermionic system, is an
example of such a mesoscopic system
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214
Mesoscopic Systems
Mesoscopic systems contain large, yet finite, numbers
of constituents, e.g. atomic nuclei, metallic clusters
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215
Nanostructures and
Femtostructures
Nanostructures: intense research is ongoing for
quantum systems that confine a number of electrons
within a nanometre-size scale (10-9 m), e.g. grains,
droplets, quantum dots
Nuclei are femtostructures (10-15 m)
All these systems share common phenomena but on
very different energy scales:
nuclear MeV; molecular eV; solid-state meV
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216
Mesoscopic systems
complexity
Nuclei
He-droplets
Metal clusters
Emergent phenomena:
Nanoparticles
-Liquid-gas surface, droplet features

-superconductivity / superfluidity
-thermal phase transitions
-shell structure, quantal shapes (liquid)
-spatial orientation, rotational bands
-rotational/magnetic response
-quantum phase transitions
macroscopic
Quantum dots
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217
Quantality Parameter
The quantality parameter (Mottelson 1999),
= 2 / M a2 V0, measures the strength of the two-body
attraction V0 expressed in units of the quantal kinetic
energy associated with a localisation of a constituent
particle of mass M within the distance a corresponding
to the radius of the force at maximum attraction
For small the quantal effect is small and the ground
state of the many body system will be a configuration in
which each particle finds a static optimal position with
respect to its nearest neighbours (crystalline)
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218
Nuclei as Quantum Liquids
If is large enough the ground state may be a

quantum liquid in which the individual particles are
delocalised and the low-energy excitations have
infinite mean-free path
3/19/2010
Constituents
3He
4He
H2
Ne
Nuclei
T = 0 matter
= 0.21
liquid
= 0.16
liquid
= 0.07
solid
= 0.007
solid
= 0.4
liquid
219
Fermi Liquid Droplets

Clusters are aggregates of
atoms or molecules with a
well-defined size varying
from a few constituents to
several tens of thousands
Conduction electrons in
clusters are approximately
independent and free
Nucleons in nuclei also
behave as delocalised and
independent fermions
Hence analogies exist
between these two systems
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220
The Spherical Droplet

Both clusters and nuclei are characterised by a
constant density in the interior and a relatively thin
surface layer
The Liquid Drop Model can be used to calculate the
binding energy of a charged droplet
The binding energy can be expanded in powers of
A1/3 (i.e. radius) where A is the number of
constituents
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221
Spherical Droplet Energy

The energy of a droplet may be expressed as:
ELD(N,Z) = fA + 4R2 + WZ + C Z2e2/R
= fA + bsurfA2/3 + WZ + bcoulZ2A-1/3
Here R = r0A1/3 is the radius of the droplet, A the
number of atoms and Z is the net charge
The first term (fA) is the volume energy which contains
the binding energy per particle f of the bulk material
The second term (4R2)is the surface energy where
is the coefficient of surface tension
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Spherical Droplet Energy (cont)

The third term (WZ) contains the work function W
which is the energy required to remove one electron
from the bulk metal
The fourth term (C Z2e2/R) represents the Coulomb
energy of the charged constituents
In nuclei the charge is evenly distributed because the

symmetry energy (quantal effect) keeps the ratio of
neutron to protons roughly constant: thus C=3/5
For a cluster charge tends to accumulate at the surface
and C tends to 1/2 for a large cluster
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223
Shell Structures
A bunching together
of the energy levels of
a particle in a two- or
three-dimensional
potential represents a
shell structure
Metallic clusters
show shell structures
similar to nuclei
Clusters can contain
more constituents
than stable nuclei
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224
Supershell Structures
Metallic clusters also
exhibit a supershell
structure
The basic shell
structure is enveloped
by a long wavelength
oscillation (beat pattern)
Nuclei become unstable
well before the first
half-period of the long
wavelength oscillation is
seen
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225
Periodic Orbit Theory
Supershell structure from interfering periodic orbits

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226
Loss of Spherical Symmetry

Deformation occurs in subatomic and mesoscopic systems
with many degrees of freedom, e.g. nuclei, molecules,
metallic clusters
The microscopic mechanism of spontaneous symmetry
breaking was first proposed by Jahn and Teller (1937)
for molecules
Nuclei with incomplete shells tend to deform because the
level density near the Fermi surface is high (unstable) for
a spherical shape
When the shape of the nucleus changes, nucleonic levels
rearrange such that the level density is reduced (stable)
nuclear Jahn-Teller effect
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227
Shapes Of Clusters
Nuclei can easily deform
because they consist of
delocalised nucleons (liquid)
The presence of heavy
discrete ions leads to a more
varied response of clusters
Nevertheless, similar shapes

are predicted for nuclei and
clusters despite the very
different nature of the
interactions between the
constituents
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228
Differences Between Atomic

Nuclei and Metallic Clusters
There is only one kind of nuclear matter
It has a single equation of state
However, all materials have their own equation of

state
In a cluster, as in bulk matter, it is the
constituents that determine the density and
binding energy
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229
Nuclear Phase Diagram
At sufficient temperature or density nucleons are

expected to dissolve into a quark-gluon plasma (QGP)
3/19/2010
230
Nuclear Molecules
Speculation about
the existence of
clusters in nuclei,
such as alpha
particles, has
existed for a long
time
Ikeda Diagram
3/19/2010
Initially stimulated
by the observation
of alpha particle
decay
231
Beryllium-12
A beryllium nucleus
containing 8 neutrons and
4 protons has been found
to arrange itself into a
molecular-like structure,
rather than a spherical
shape that some nave
theories might suggest
M Freer et al. Phys. Rev. Lett.

82 (1999) 1383
3/19/2010
Beryllium-12 can be
thought of as two alpha
particles and four neutrons
232
Chain States: Nuclear Sausages

Cluster Model calculations for 12C show evidence for
a chain state consisting of three particles in a row
axis ratio 3:1 (i.e. hyperdeformed)
Similarly calculations for 24Mg show evidence for a
chain state consisting of six particles in a row
axis ratio of 6:1 !
3/19/2010
233
Bloch-Brink Cluster Model

Brink presented the
light alpha conjugate
nuclei as almost
crystalline structures
These nuclei contain
specific arrangements
of the alpha clusters
Narrow resonances in
12C + 12C scattering
data suggested larger
clusters may occur
Nuclear Molecules
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234
Binary Cluster Model

It has been observed that measured quadrupole
moments of many superdeformed bands follow:
Qo ~ 2 Ro2[ Z A2/3 Z1 A12/3 Z2 A22/3]
This expression results from considering the states of
the nucleus (Z, A) to be composed of two clusters (Zi, Ai)
in relative motion
For example, a strongly deformed band has recently been
found in 108Cd (Z = 48)
The predicted fragmentation for 108Cd is:
58Fe (Z = 26) + 50Ti (Z = 22)
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235
11. Nuclear Reactions
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236
Examples of Nuclear Reactions
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237
Introduction
In a typical nuclear reaction a (light) projectile a hits
a (heavy) target A producing fragments b (light) and B
(heavy)
Schematically this can be written
a+A
b+B
In this nuclear transmutation we need to consider both

kinetic energy and binding energy (E = mc2)
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238
The Impact Parameter

Reactions can be classified
by the impact parameter b
Central collisions occur for

small b, e.g. fusion
Peripheral collisions occur
at large b, e.g. elastic and
inelastic scattering,
transfer reactions
Deep inelastic or massive
transfer reactions occur
at intermediate values of b
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Collision Kinematics
The Q value is:
[ (MA + Ma) - (MB + Mb) ] c2
Exothermic (Q > 0) reactions
give off energy kinetic
energy of reaction products
Endothermic (Q < 0)
reactions require an input of
energy to occur. By
considering the kinetic
energy available in the
centre-of-mass frame, the
threshold energy is:
Ta > |Q| [ (Ma + MA) / MA ]
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240
The Compound Nucleus

Consider the reactions:
a + A C* a + A*
b + B*
+ C*
The incident particle a enters the nucleus A and suffers
collisions with the constituent nucleons, until it has lost
its incident energy, and becomes an indistinguishable
part of the excited compound nucleus C*
The compound nucleus forgets how it was formed and its
subsequent decay is independent of its formation:
Bohrs Hypothesis of Independence
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241
Compound Nucleus Example

Consider a beam of alpha particles of energy 5 MeV/A
(or MeV per nucleon) impinging on 60Ni:
+ 60Ni 64Zn*
At this (kinetic) energy, the incident particle is nonrelativistic, = v/c = 0.1, and it will take the alpha
particle ~10-22 s to travel across the target nucleus
In a compound nucleus, the first emission of a nucleon or
gamma ray takes > 10-20 s
Hence the alpha particle traverses the compound nucleus
hundreds of times and loses its identity !
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242
Geometric Cross-Section
In the classical picture, the projectile and target nuclei
will fuse if the impact parameter b is less than the sum
of their radii
A disk of area (R1 + R2)2 is swept out
This area defines the
geometric cross-section
Remember: units of
cross-section are area
(1 barn = 100 fm2;
1 fm = 10-15 m)
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243
Coulomb Excitation
Coulomb Excitation (Coulex) is the excitation of a
target nucleus by the long-range electromagnetic (EM)
field of the projectile nucleus, or vice versa
The biggest effect occurs for deformed nuclei with
high Z: In these nuclei, rotational bands can be excited
to more than 20
In pure Coulex, the charge distributions of the two
nuclei do not overlap at any time during the collision.
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244
Coulex Example
234U
bombarded by 5.3 MeV/A 208Pb
The beam energy is kept low below the Coulomb Barrier

so that other reactions, e.g. fusion, do not compete
In this example:
Beam energy = 5.3 x 208 MeV = 1.1 GeV
The Coulomb Barrier (in the lab frame) is:
{ Z1Z2e2 / [40(R1 + R2)] } x {(A1 + A2) / A2}
C-o-M barrier
3/19/2010
= 1.3 GeV
245
Intermediate Energy Coulex

At higher beam energies (> 30 MeV/A), well above the
Coulomb Barrier, Coulex can still take place but in
competition with other violent reactions
The process is now so fast that only the first excited
states (2+ for even-even nuclei) are populated
Intermediate energy Coulex is characterised by
straight line trajectories with impact parameters
larger than the sum of the radii of the two colliding
nuclei
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246
IE Coulex Example (GSI

RISING Experiment)
A gold target (179Au) bombarded by a 140 MeV/A
radioactive 108Sn beam
The beam energy is:
140 x 108 MeV = 15.1 GeV
At this energy, = v/c =0.48 the projectile is
travelling at half the speed of light !
Note: 108Sn is not stable cannot make a target, but can
generate a short-lived Radioactive Ion Beam (RIB)
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247
Intermediate Energy Coulex
Ideally suited for use with fragmentation beams

(Ebeam > 30 MeV/u)
Large cross sections (~100 mb)
Can use thick targets (~100 mg/cm2)
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248
Coulex Cross Sections

For Intermediate Energy Heavy Ions, the Coulomb
excitation cross section can be approximated as:
= [Z1e2/c] B(;0) [R2/e2R2(-1)]
for 2
Here Z1 is the charge of the projectile and R is the sum
of the radii of target and projectile
The cross section is peaked at forward angles within the
angular range
2Z1Z2e2/RE
where E is the beam energy
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249
Neutron-Rich Sulphur Isotopes

Energy spectra
in target (top)
and projectile
(bottom) frames
of reference for
40S + 197Au at
MSU
= v/c = 27%
H. Scheit et al.
Phys. Rev. Lett.
77, 3967 (1996)
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250
Neutron Capture
Low-energy neutron-capture
cross-sections exhibit peaks
or resonances corresponding
to a compound system
An example is the capture of
a 1.46 eV neutron by 115In to
form a highly excited state
(6.8 MeV !) in 116In
The high excitation energy
in 116In arises due to the
binding energy of the
neutron
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251
Neutron Capture Cross-Sections

At 1.46 eV, the measured total cross-section for neutron
capture by 115In is 2.8 x 104 barn
However the geometrical cross-section (R2) is only

1.1 barn
Quantum effect: we need to consider the de Broglie
wavelength (/2) instead of the nuclear radius slow
neutrons have a large wavelength and hence a long-range
influence
The cross-section becomes:

= R2 = (/2)2
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252
De Broglie Wavelength
The momentum of the neutron is:
pn = {2mnE} = {2 x 939 x 1.46 x 10-6}
= 0.052 MeV/c
The de Broglie wavelength is then:
(/2) = c/pnc = 197/0.052 = 3.7 x 103 fm
The cross-section then becomes 4.3 x 105 barn
The measured value is only 6% of this estimate !
We must also consider other effects such as the spins
of the neutron, target and compound systems
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253
Decay of
116In*
n + 115In
+ 116In*
116In*
4%
96%
For this neutron energy of only 1.46 eV

n/ = 0.04, also n/ 0.04 ( = n + )
This decay fraction can be related to the formation
cross-section:
= (/2)2 x n/
(n/ 4%)
Recall the measured formation cross-section was only
6% of the estimate using the de Broglie wavelength !
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254
Proton Capture
For charged-particle capture (and decay) we must
consider the Coulomb Barrier which inhibits the
formation or decay of a compound system
The proton needs sufficient energy to overcome the
Coulomb Barrier (several MeV) and hence its de Broglie
wavelength is smaller (than in the case of neutron
capture
Consequently, proton-capture cross-sections are
~ 1 barn at maximum
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255
Heavy Ion Fusion Reactions

For heavy projectile ions, e.g. 12C or 58Ni, the Coulomb
Barrier is high and the particle enters a continuum of
high level densities and overlapping resonances
The excitation of the compound nucleus is also high:
10-80 MeV
Since the neutron binding energy is only ~ 8 MeV, several

neutrons are emitted before gamma-ray emission
dominates
These Heavy Ion Fusion Evaporation reactions bring large
amounts of angular momentum into the compound system
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256
Fusion Evaporation Reactions
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257
David Campbell
Florida State
University
3/19/2010
258
Fusion Cross-Section
The angular momentum
brought into the compound
system depends on the
impact parameter b:
=bp
The partial fusion crosssection is proportional to
the angular momentum:
d fus( )
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259
Compound Formation And Decay
100Mo(36S,4n)132Ce
Beam energy: 4.31 MeV/A

3/19/2010
Compound nucleus
formation: 10-20 s
Neutron emission:
10-19 s
Statistical (cooling)
dipole gamma-ray
emission: 10-15 s
Quadrupole (slowing
down) gamma-ray
emission: 10-12 s
After 10-9 s the
nuclear ground state
is reached after 1011
rotations
260
Cold Fusion
Superheavy elements (SHEs) can be formed by lowenergy fusion-evaporation reactions in which only one
neutron is emitted
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261
Transfer Reactions
Transfer reactions occur within a timescale comparable
with the transit time of the projectile across the nucleus
Cross sections are a fraction of the nuclear area

The de Broglie wavelength of a 20 MeV incident nucleon
is 1 fm and it interacts with individual nucleons at the
nuclear surface
The projectile may lose a nucleon (stripping reaction) or
gain a nucleon (pick up reaction)
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262
Transfer Reactions
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263
Neutron-Induced Fission
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264
Direct Reactions
Proceed in a single step, timescale comparable to the
time for the projectile to traverse the target (10-22 s)
Usually only a few bodies involved in the reaction

Excite simple degrees of freedom in nuclei
Mostly surface dominated (peripheral collisions)
Primarily used to study single-particle structure
Examples: elastic and inelastic scattering
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265
Elastic Scattering
Both target and projectile remain in their ground state
a+A a+A
Nuclei can be treated as structureless particles
100
Example:
Investigation of
nuclear matter
density distributions
in exotic nuclei by
elastic p-scattering
(inverse kinematics)
-3
rm(r) [fm ]
10-1
10-2
11
Li matter
10-3
Li
-4
10
11
Li core
10-5
10
r [fm]
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266
Inelastic Scattering
Both target and projectile nuclei retain their integrity,
they are only brought to bound excited states
a + A a* + A*
Can excite both single-particle or collective modes of
excitation
Example: investigate the GMR by (,) inelastic
scattering, gives access to nuclear incompressibility,
key parameter of nuclear EOS
Knm (Z,N) ~ r02 d2(E/A) / dr2 | r0
Example: safe and unsafe Coulomb excitation (below and

above Coulomb barrier)
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267
Transfer Reactions
One or a few nucleons are transferred between the
projectile and target nuclei
Probes single-particle orbitals to which nucleon(s) is (are)
transferred
Characteristics of the entrance channel determines

selectivity of the reaction, i.e. alpha particle with T=0
leads to states with the same isospin as the ground state,
but proton with T=1/2 leads to states with T=T1
Examples numerous: (d,p) , (p,d) , (t,p) , (t,3He)
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268
Charge Exchange Reactions

Reactions that exchange a proton for a neutron, or vice
versa
Net effect is the same as + or - decay
But not limited by Q can reach higher excited states
and giant resonances
Many different probes: (p,n) , (d,2He) , (t,3He) , but also
with heavy ions, e.g. (7Li,7Be) or exotic particles, e.g.
(+,0)
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269
Knockout Reactions
One or a few nucleons are ejected from either the
target and/or the projectile nuclei, the rest of the
nucleons being spectators
Exit channel is a 3-body state
Becomes dominant at high incident energies
Populates single-hole states, from which spectroscopic
information can be derived
Examples: (p,2p) , (p,pn) , (e,ep) , heavy-ion induced

knockout, e.g. (9Be,X)
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270
Compound Nucleus Reactions

The two nuclei coalesce, forming a fused system that
lasts for a relatively long time (10-20 to 10-16 s)
De-excitation follows by a combination of particle and/or

gamma decay
Compound system has no memory of entrance channel, the
cross section of the exit channel is independent
Occurs for central collisions around Coulomb barrier
energies
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Types of Nuclear Reaction
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272
12. Nuclear Astrophysics

Linking Femtophysics with the Cosmos
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273
Evolution of the Universe
Link to Nuclear Physics

Nuclear reactions are the only way to transmute one
element into another
Nuclear reactions account for recent synthesis of
elements in stars
Astrophysical origin of the elements
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274
Nuclei Power Stars

Stars are luminous, hot, massive, self-gravitating
collections of nuclei (and electrons)
To generate sufficient light via release of gravitational

potential energy, a star would only live for ~107 years
Stars must have an internal energy source to prevent
gravitational collapse faster than their observed
lifetimes ~108 109 years
Chemical energy too small
Nuclear Fusion Reactions
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275
Stellar Evolution
Nuclear Reactions are responsible for both preserving
and evolving the collection of nuclei
Preserving: nuclear reactions generate energy which

balances the self-gravitation of ~1030 kg star
Evolving: nuclear reactions change the chemical
composition and therefore the stars inner structure
and energy generation rate
Stars are gravitationally confined thermonuclear

reactors
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276
Periodic Table Of Elements
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277
Elemental Abundances
Similar distribution
everywhere
Spans twelve orders of
magnitude
Hydrogen: 75%
Helium: 23%
C to U (metals): 2%
D, Li, B and Be underabundant
Exponential decrease up
to Fe
A peak occurs near Fe
Almost flat distribution
beyond Fe
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278
Elemental Signatures
Galactic distribution of the

1809 keV gamma ray in 26Mg
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279
Origin of the Elements

Big Bang: 1H, 2H, 3He, 4He, 7Li (Z = 3)
Thermonuclear fusion in a rapidly expanding mixture of
protons and neutrons
Interstellar Gas: Li, Be, B (Z = 5)
Spallation and fusion reactions between cosmic rays and
ambient nuclei
Stars:
Successive energy-releasing fusion or burning of light
elements
Low (< 8 M): Li, C, N, F (Z = 9)
Massive (> 8 M): Li, B, C, to Fe (Z = 26) (maximum BE)
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280
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Big Bang Theory
states that the
Universe began 13.7
billion years ago in a
hot and dense state
After 1 s only
protons, neutrons
and lighter stable
particles were
present
At this time there existed 1 neutron for every 6 protons
For the next 5 minutes nuclear reactions occurred
For 1 proton: 0.08 4He, 10-5 2H, 10-5 3He, 10-10 7Li nuclei
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281
Elemental Abundances: Timeline
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282
Stellar Evolution
Low-mass stars (< 2.3 M):
Ignition of H, but He core becomes degenerate
before ignition
Intermediate-mass stars (3 M < M < 8 M):
Ignition of H, He, C, O
white dwarf remnant
High-mass (massive) stars (M > 8 M):
Ignition of H, Si
core collapse supernova
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283
Massive Stars
Stars are gravitationally confined thermonuclear
reactors
Each time one kind of fuel runs out, contraction and
heating ensue, unless degeneracy is encountered
For a star over 8 M contraction and heating continue
until an iron (Fe) core is made
Gravitational collapse ensues, after no energy-providing
fuel is left
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284
Nuclear Burning Stages

Massive Star
Fuel
Main
Product
H
He
He
C, O
C
Ne
O
Si
Ne, Mg
O, Mg
Si, S
Fe
3/19/2010
Secondary
Product
14N
18O, 22Ne
s-process
Na
Al, P
Cl, Ar, K, Ca
Ti, V, Cr,
Mn, Co, Ni
Temp.
(GK)
Time
(yr)
0.02
0.2
107
106
0.8
1.5
2.0
3.5
103
3
0.8
1 week
285
Death Of A Star
Heavier elements sink to
the centre of the star
Fusion of elements
beyond Fe requires an
input of energy
Energy from nuclear
reactions can no longer
oppose gravitational
collapse
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286
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287
Turning Hydrogen into Helium

The fusion of four protons into helium is the only way
to produce enough energy over the timescale of the
Solar System. The main reaction is:
4 1H 4He + 2 e+ + 2
It is unlikely that 4 protons just happen to come
together to form the He nucleus ! Instead the 4
protons are processed into the He via a series of
simpler reactions:
The pp chain or the CNO cycle
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288
The Proton-Proton (pp) Chain
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289
The pp Chain Reactions
1H
+ 1H 2H + e+ +
2H + 1H 3He +
3He + 3He 4He + 2 1H pp1, Q = 26.20 MeV
3He + 4He 7Be +
7Be + e- 7Li +
7Li + 1H 2 4He pp2, Q = 25.66 MeV
7Be + 1H 8B +
8B 8Be + e+ +
8Be 2 4He pp3, Q = 19.17 MeV
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290
The pp Chain Reactions
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291
Helium Burning:
The Triple Chain
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292
The Triple Chain
To produce nuclei beyond 8Be, three alpha particles can

combine to produce a 12C nucleus (Q = 7.275 MeV):
+ + 12C
or
4He
+ 4He + 4He 12C
Since the probability for a 3-body reaction is extremely

low, the reaction is expected to take place in two steps
(1)
+ + 8Be, Q = -0.092 MeV, but 8Be is

unstable ( ~ 10-16 s) and decays back into
+ (this explains the A = 8 mass gap)
(2)
+ 8Be 12C, Q = 7.367 MeV
3/19/2010
293
12C
E(0+)
Abundance: The Hoyle State

= 7.654 MeV
Triple alpha:
Q = 7.275 MeV
The triple alpha process

does not account for
the full abundance of 12C
the fourth most
abundant element in the
universe
Hoyle (1954) predicted
the existence of a
resonant 0+ state in 12C
at E ~ 7.7 MeV
This was later confirmed

in experiment !
3/19/2010
294
The CNO Cycle

The CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle converts H
(hydrogen) into He (helium) by a sequence of reactions
involving C, N and O isotopes and releasing energy in the
process. It occurs in stars with masses 1.5 M
The main reaction scheme is:
12C(p,)13N(e+,)13C(p,)14N(p,)15O(e+,)15N(p,)12C
The net result is:

4 1H 4He + 2 e+ + 2 , Q = 26.73 MeV
The cycle is limited by decay of 13N ( ~ 10 min) and
15O ( ~ 2 min)
3/19/2010
295
CNO Reactions
3/19/2010
296
CNO and PP Chain: Temperature

Dependence
3/19/2010
297
Breakout into the Hot CNO Cycle

At higher
temperatures,
proton capture on
13N can begin to
compete with the
decay and the cycle
can break out into
the hot CNO cycle
3/19/2010
298
CNO and Hot CNO Cycles
3/19/2010
299
Breakout of the Hot CNO Cycle
3/19/2010
300
Nucleosynthesis
At still higher stellar temperatures, reactions begin
to compete that can break out of the hot CNO cycle
and ignite a runaway sequence of nuclear burning:
nucleosynthesis
p reactions
r (rapid neutron)
rp (rapid proton) processes
3/19/2010
301
p Reactions
Starting with 14O:
14O + 17F + p
17F + p 18Ne
18Ne + 21Na + p etc
Elements from oxygen (Z = 8) up to scandium (Z = 21)
are produced
Heavier elements cannot be formed in this manner
since the Coulomb Barrier between the particle and
the target nucleus becomes too large and prevents
their fusion
3/19/2010
302
The p Process
3/19/2010
303
Creation of Elements Beyond Fe

Fusion of elements up to Fe (Z=26) releases energy,
the nuclear binding energy
The nuclear binding energy is a maximum for Fe
To produce elements heavier than Fe via nuclear fusion
requires an input of energy the binding energy
decreases for heavy nuclei
So, how are elements heavier than iron formed ?
3/19/2010
304
3/19/2010
305
Neutron and Proton Capture

Neutron capture reactions are responsible for the
production of elements above Fe
The relative n-capture / -decay efficiencies lead to two

extreme cases: s-process (slow) and r-process (rapid)
Nuclear structure details determine the r-process:
connection between Astrophysics and Nuclear Physics
Extreme and transient conditions near compact remnant
stars can yield nuclei on the proton-rich side of the
stability region: rp-process
3/19/2010
306
Rapid Proton/Neutron Capture
3/19/2010
307
Explosive Nucleosynthesis
Evidence:
Technetium (Tc: Z = 43) has no stable isotopes but
atomic Tc lines have been identified in red giants with
strong lines of Y, Zr, Ba, La (Z = 57)
Elements beyond Fe:
Nuclear fusion is ruled out since the binding energy
(B/A) is maximal at iron
Neutron Capture:
Can occur at low temperatures but we need high
temperatures to activate sources of neutrons
3/19/2010
308
Neutron Capture Reactions
Stellar abundances of the elements imply two different

processes:
The s-process (slow):
Low neutron flux, N(n) 0 (108 n/cm3)
The r-process (rapid):
High neutron flux, N(n) (1020 n/cm3)
Rapid neutron capture (r-process), and also rapid

proton capture (rp-process), produce exotic nuclei far
away from the valley of stable nuclei
3/19/2010
309
Neutron Capture Reactions

Very small (n,) cross sections
at N magic numbers
Evidence for nuclear processes governing nucleosynthesis

3/19/2010
310
Astrophysical Sites
3/19/2010
311
Creation of Heavy Elements
3/19/2010
312
Influence of Shell Structure

on Elemental Abundances
3/19/2010
313
Creation of Proton-Rich Nuclei

The rp-process
lasts 10-1000 s
It is a series of
radiative proton
capture reactions
and nuclear +
decays that
processes the
lower mass nuclei
into higher mass
radioactive nuclei
3/19/2010
314
Endpoint of rp Process
106,107Te
very recently
studied at Jyvskyl
3/19/2010
Small island of
alpha decay just
above proton-rich
tin (Z=50)
315
Astrophysical rp-process Sites

Novae
X-ray bursters
Shock waves
passing through
the envelope of
supernova
progenitors
Thorne-Zytkow
objects, where
a neutron star
sinks to the
centre of a
supergiant
3/19/2010
316
Creation of the Elements Movies

X ray burster: The rp process converts
hydrogen and helium into heavier elements
up to tin (Z=50)
Supernova explosion: The r process is

responsible for the origin of about half
the elements heavier than iron found in
nature, including elements such as gold
(Z=79) or uranium (Z=92)
3/19/2010
317
Thermonuclear Energy
Generation
4 1H 4He
6.7 MeV/u
3 4He 12C
0.6 MeV/u
triple
5 4He + 84 1H 104Pd
6.9 MeV/u
rp process
Gravitational potential energy: 200 MeV/u
3/19/2010
318
Astrophysical Reactions
The elemental abundances depend crucially on the
reaction rates (cross-sections), i.e. proton/neutron
capture vs. decay
These important cross-sections can now be measured
using accelerated beams of radioactive beams
An example is the 21Na + H 22Mg + reaction
3/19/2010
319
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear reactions play a crucial role in the Universe
They provide energy for life on Earth
They produced all the elements we depend on
3/19/2010
320
The Nuclear Landscape

There are ~ 280 stable nuclei
By studying reactions between them we have produced

~ 3000 more (unstable) nuclei, which have profoundly
influenced many research areas: Big Bang, neutrino
physics, diagnostic and therapeutic medicine,
geophysics, archeology, climate studies etc
There are ~ 4000 more nuclei which we know nothing
about and which may hold many surprises. Their study
will generate further practical applications of Nuclear
Physics
3/19/2010
321
The Role of Nuclear Physics
3/19/2010
322
Cosmophysics: A New Field
The fields of Cosmology and Astrophysics

can be combined in two ways:
1.
Cosmophysics
2.
Astrology
The End
3/19/2010
323
13. Double Beta Decay
3/19/2010
324
Introduction
Double-beta decay is a rare transition between two
nuclei with the same mass number A involving change of
the nuclear charge Z by 2 units
Two beta decays occur simultaneously in a nucleus
It is a rare second order weak interaction event
The decay can only proceed if the initial nucleus is less
bound than the final one, and both must be more bound
than the intermediate nucleus
These conditions are only fulfilled for even-even nuclei
More than sixty naturally occurring isotopes are capable
of undergoing double-beta decay (energetically)
Ten such isotopes have been experimentally observed:
48Ca 76Ge 82Se 96Zr 100Mo 116Cd 128Te 130Te 150Nd 238U
3/19/2010
325
Double Beta Decay

Two-neutrino double beta decay (2):
(Z,A) (Z+2,A) + 2 electrons + 2 antineutrinos
conserves not only electric charge but also lepton number
Half-life (measured) ~1019 years
Neutrinoless double beta decay (0):
(Z,A) (Z+2,A) + 2 electrons
violates lepton number conservation and is forbidden in
standard Electroweak Theory
Half-life (predicted) ~1026 years
3/19/2010
326
Massive Majorana Particles?

Charged leptons (electrons, muons) are Dirac particles,
distinct from their antiparticles (charge conjugation)
Neutrinos may be the ultimate neutral particles, as
envisioned by Majorana, identical with their antiparticles
This fundamental distinction becomes important only for
massive particles
Neutrinoless double-beta decay proceeds only when
neutrinos are massive Majorana particles
Recent neutrino oscillation experiments suggest that
neutrinos have a non-zero mass of the order 50 meV
The Standard Electroweak Model postulates that
neutrinos are massless and lepton number is conserved
New Physics???
3/19/2010
327
The Signal of (0) Decay
3/19/2010
328
Neutrino Mass
Upper limits of
neutrino mass are
shown to the left
from two-neutrino
double-beta decay
measurements
Neutrino-oscillation
experiments
suggest a mass
scale of the order
50 meV
3/19/2010
329
3/19/2010
330
Experiment
3/19/2010
331
Theory
3/19/2010
332
Nuclear Chocolate
3/19/2010
333
3/19/2010
334
The Nuclear Many-Body Problem:

Energy, Distance, Complexity
few
body
heavy
nuclei
quarks
gluons
vacuum
quark-gluon
soup QCD
3/19/2010
nucleon
QCD
few body systems

free NN force
many body systems

effective NN force
335
Life, The Universe & Everything
3/19/2010
336
3/19/2010
337
Marielle Slides
3/19/2010
338
Isospin Dependence of Mean Field

and Residual Interactions
Shell structure predicted to change
in exotic nuclei (particularly neutron
rich).
Weak binding, impact of the particle
continuum, collective skin modes and
clustering in the skin
Mean field modifications

surface composed of diffuse
neutron matter
derivative of mean field potential
weaker and spin-orbit interaction
reduced
Residual interaction modifications

partly occupied orbits
V monopole interaction: coupling
of proton-neutron spin-orbit
partners
deformed intruder configurations
Quenching of old shells and
emergence of new magic numbers in
exotic neutron-rich nuclei
Gap = S (N)-S (N+2) [keV]
Neutron Shell Gap

2N
2N
GAPN = M(Z,N-2) - M(Z,N)

+ M(Z,N+2) - M(Z,N)
= S2N(N) - S2N(N+2)
Neutron shell Gap
1 10 4
Ca (Z=20)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
16
20
18
20
28
22
24
26
28
30
Neutron Number
8000
F-GAP
Ne-GAP
Na-GAP
Mg-GAP
5000
4000
20
GAP (keV)
6000
3000
2000
0
12
14
6000
4000
2000
16
1000
8000
GAP (keV)
7000
Ca-GAP
K-GAP
Cl-GAP
S-GAP
Si-GAP
20
16
18
20
Neutron Number
22
0
18
20
28
22
24
26
Neutron Number
28
Single-Neutron Removal in the p-sd shell
ns1/2
ns1/2 intruder
p-shell
sd-shell
E.Sauvan et al., Phys. Lett. B 491 (2000) 1, Phys. Rev. C 69 (2004) 044603.
New Magic Number at N=16

V monopole interaction : coupling of
proton-neutron spin-orbit partners
T. Otsuka et al. Phys. Rev. Lett. 87 (2001) 082502.
Examples of experimental evidence:

Two-neutron separation energies
In-beam fragmentation gamma spectroscopy
1n-removal cross-sections and longitudinal
momentum distributions (direct reactions)
Present in stable nuclei but missing

in n-rich nuclei where the spinorbit partner of the valence
neutrons are not occupied by
protons
excitation energy (MeV)
Systematics of the 3/2+ in the N=15 isotones

23O
4.5
27Mg
25Ne
4.0
1f7/2
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1d5/2
1.0
1d3/2
0.5
0.0
10
12
2s1/2
atomic number
The energy of the 1d3/2 neutron orbital rises when protons

are removed from its spin-orbit partner, the 1d5/2 orbital.
23O
25Ne
10
8
1d3/2
2s1/2
1d5/2
1s, 1p 1s, 1p
27Mg
1d3/2
2s1/2
1d5/2
1s, 1p 1s, 1p
12
1d3/2
2s1/2
1d5/2
1s, 1p 1s, 1p
Transfer Reaction Example

Modification of residual
interactions at N=28
46Ar(d,p)47Ar
at 10.7 A.MeV
in inverse kinematics
N=28 gap : 4.47(8)MeV

Excitation energy
spectrum for 47Ar
p3/2
p1/2
f5/2
47Ar
f7/2
MUST at GANIL/SPIRAL
L. Gaudefroy et al, PRL 97, 092501 (2006).
Knockout Reactions Example

Systematics of (e,ep)
on Stable Nuclei
Departures of measured
spectroscopic factors
from the independent
single-particle model
predictions
Electron induced proton
knockout reactions:
[A,Z] (e,ep) [A-1,Z-1]
See only 60-70% of

nucleons expected!
Effect of long-range and
short-range correlations
similar proton
separation energies
W. Dickhoff and C. Barbieri, Prog. Nucl.

377.
Part. Sci., 52 (2004)
High-Energy Single-Nucleon Removal

A New Spectroscopic Tool
core+1N
p0
core
g
d/dp
dominant
=2
= 2 and
=0
mixture
Target
g Excore
-1n(Jpcore)
=2
d/dp n
C2S
REVIEW:Hansen & Tostevin, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. (2003)

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PHYS490: Nuclear Physics

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

PHYS490: Schedule 2010

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

PHYS490: Nuclear Physics

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Prehistory (400 BC)

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Atomic and Nuclear Sizes

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Limits of Stable Nuclei

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

More and More Isotopes

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

The Unique Nucleus

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Nuclear Physics in the Thirties:

Cockcroft-Wilson accelerator atom split in 1932

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Nuclear Physics in the Forties

The first cyclotrons were built in Berkeley, California

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Nuclear Physics in the Seventies

Next is an Open University program from 1979, shot

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Nuclear Physics in the Eighties

TESSA3: 16 (small) -ray detectors at Daresbury, UK

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Even Bigger Arrays

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Nuclear Physics in the Nineties

Gammasphere: 100 (big) -ray detectors, USA

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Nuclear Physics Today

2003: The Hulk destroys Gammasphere !

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Nuclear Physics Tomorrow

The next generation of Radioactive Ion Beam (RIB)

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Nuclear Physics in context

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

The Nucleon a Spin Fermion

The Ford Nucleon (1957)

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

The Nucleon a spin Fermion

quark sea + 3 valence quarks

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Building Blocks and

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Fundamental Particles & Forces

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

The Strong Force

The strong force is fundamentally an interaction

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

Properties of the N-N Force

Exchange model: force mediated by pion exchange

PHYS490 : Advanced Nuclear Physics : E.S. Paul

One Pion Exchange

The origin of the nuclear force arises at the fundamental