Selecting The Right Technology Is Vital in Horizontal Wells - Exclusive Story - Web Features

5/4/2014
Selecting the Right Technology is Vital in Horizontal Wells | Exclusive Story | Web Features
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May 2012 Exclusive Story

Selecting the Right Technology is Vital in Horizontal Wells
By Jennifer Presley, Special Correspondent
Horizontal drilling and multistage hydraulic fracturing have unlocked vast quantities of natural gas in shale reservoirs. The
lessons learned are being modified to achieve the same success in a rapidly expanding roster of unconventional tight oil
plays, from the Wolfberry and Eagle Ford Shale in Texas to the Bakken Shale in North Dakota, the Mississippian Lime
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in Kansas and Oklahoma, and the Niobrara Shale in Colorado.

Independent operators are transitioning drilling and development programs from natural gas targets to those rich in
liquids. A case in point is Chesapeake Energy Corp., which allocated half its 2011 drilling and completion expenditures
to liquids-rich plays and forecasts that such plays will account for 85 percent of its 2012 drilling and completion
expenditures.
Liquids plays use the same horizontal drilling and multistage hydraulic fracturing methods that opened gas shale plays
such as the Barnett, Fayetteville and Haynesville, says George King, distinguished engineering adviser at Apache
Corp., where he specializes in new technology and addressing problem wells. In tight oil plays, drilling and fracturing
technologies are evolving in a fit for purpose way to capture the liquids reserves.
As more and more horizontal wells are drilled and completed, operators are developing increasingly nuanced horizontal
drilling and completion design strategies, while tackling the challenges of applying artificial lift in horizontal wells with
systems and equipment that were designed for vertical wells, he says. New requirements that limit well blow-downs
will require lift systems to continuously unload the wells without releasing methane, increasing the need for and value of
artificial lift systems that are effective in horizontal wells, King says.
Horizontal Well Bore Challenges
When it comes to designing horizontal wells, oil and gas companies experience in shale gas plays has made it clear that
formations can vary considerably from one play to the next and from well to well within the same play, making planning
and knowledge critical tools. No two shales are alike; they vary vertically and areally, especially along a well bore
perpendicular to the frac direction. Operators must understand differences in shale fabric, in situ stresses, and geologic
characteristics within each play, and how a formation will react to various drilling and stimulation designs that change in
situ stresses, King advises.
That makes geophysics, geology, petrophysics and rock physics vital to success in tight oil plays, he suggests. There is
a lot of laboratory work that can be done on the micro scale to study the fabric of the rock, but when you really get
down to fracturing, you have to do it in the field and evaluate the specific behaviors you are generating, King relates.
He adds that factors such as flow, pressure and the tectonics of the area all play roles in developing a successful
fracturing job. These are all factors that we routinely experience while monitoring a frac job. There are probably 20
things we can research as we go along from geological exploration to successful fracturing application, King says. That
first fracturing job is going to be an experiment. After the data from the first job are analyzed and production data are
received, that information is evaluated against 3-D seismic data to delineate a sweet spot within the reservoir that has the
potential to be stimulated and completed in a favorable way.
King adds that once drilled, stimulated and completed, all types of reservoirs have a certain degree of natural lift, or
the tendency to flow of their own accord. The flow can be artesian in nature, he observes, where the reservoir pressure
is higher than the pressure exerted by a full column of a single-phase well bore fluid, and the fluid flows to the surface if
the flow path is unobstructed.
The other type of lift, hindered settling, is caused by gas bubbles rising rapidly and expanding as they get shallower and
pressure decreases, King explains. He says the gas passing through the water will prevent it from settling quickly, and if
the gas flow is high enoughabove the critical gas flow velocityit will force the water up the hole and out to the
separators at some rate less than the gas velocity.
Of course, he notes, the goal of applying artificial lift systems such as electric submersible pumps, jet pumps, sucker rod
pumps, progressing cavity pumps, chemical systems (foamers) and gas lift, in horizontal liquids-rich wells is to enhance
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the reservoirs ability to flow at economic rates. Applying artificial lift systems increases the ability of the liquids to flow
to the surface, and by minimizing back pressure from the liquid rich column, assists in draining oil through fractures
connected to parts of the reservoir outside the near-well-bore area to increase production and recover more reserves,
King says.
However, there are a number of complicating factors when it comes to applying artificial lift in horizontal wells. One is
the obvious restriction to certain types of lift systems because of the well bores tight turns and long laterals, King
mentions. Another, he says, is multiphase flow regimes. It is common for a well to have a multiphase flow of liquids
(both oil and water) as well as free and dissolved gases (Figure 1), especially in resource plays, such as the Eagle Ford,
that have windows of predominately dry gas, wet gas and oil, he observes. It is not unusual at all to see wells in these
plays that produce natural gas liquids, crude oil/condensate, and dry gas. This not only complicates the physics involved
in artificial lift, but also makes some types of lift systems completely impractical.
FIGURE 1
Multiphase Flow in Wells
Cleon Dunham, president of the Artificial Lift Research and Development Council, points out that another complicating
factor is the steep decline rates typical of unconventional reservoirs. Artificial lift must be considered up front when
designing completions for liquids-rich plays because initial production rates can be very high, but they decline rapidly,
he states. The artificial lift system must be flexible enough to handle the widely fluctuating production volumes.
The kickoff point usually is thousands of feet below the surface, and the design of the build area and positioning of the
lateral out to the toe can be key in implementing an appropriate artificial lift solution, according to Dunham. The lateral
section is designed to contact as much of the formation as possible. However, the profile of the lateral also impacts the
type of artificial lift system that is most appropriate, as well as where it should be positioned in the well bore, he says.
Dunham says three potential well bore profiles (Figure 2) commonly are used, with each presenting its own unique set of
challenges. The toe-up profile provides a single liquid accumulation spot at the heel of the lateral near the kickoff point.
In this type of design, the well does not stay perfectly horizontal, but actually rises a bit as it goes along the formation
path, Dunham observes.
FIGURE 2
Well Bore Design Profiles
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The toe-down profile provides a single liquid accumulation spot at the toe, farthest away from the kickoff point. This
type of profile creates a sump that collects the liquids at the end of the lateral. Because artificial lift systems have
difficulty moving liquids through a 5,000-8,000 foot lateral and up the vertical section, King says the toe-up design, with
the low point of the lateral positioned in the heel and the horizontal section angled upward at 92-95 degrees as it
extends into the formation, is emerging as the preferred option.
The third lateral design, the undulating profile, where the well bore is a series of peaks and valleys, is a nightmare for
production operations, according to King.
Dunham agrees. The multiple high and low points create a big problem because they allow for spaces where liquid can
accumulate in the lateral, which means it will not produce a steady flow. This creates slugging, which can be a major
problem from an artificial lift standpoint because it is very difficult for most systems to handle production without a
steady input of liquid or gas.
FIGURE 3
Artificial Lift Options
Artificial Lift Options

There are a variety of artificial lift systems that can be used in liquids production (Figure 3). Each system brings its own
set of challenges when applied to horizontal wells, in part because of the deviation angle of the well (Figure 4).
FIGURE 4
Deviation Limits on Lift Systems
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FIGURE 5
Back Pressure and Beam Lift Systems
While beam pumping may be the most efficient method, it is also the most susceptible to gas locking in highly deviated
wells, King says. Beam pumps are used in a majority of the United States onshore wells, but they were developed for
vertical wells, he points out. In the deviated section of a horizontal well, the rods slide against the tubing and may
erode it unless rod guides are used to keep the rods from contacting the tubing wall. In addition to rod wear and gas
locking, they also can experience the effects of back pressure (Figure 5).
Dunham says rod wear is a reason beam pumps are not used more frequently in deviated wells. If I have a rod string
going through the deviated part of the well all the way to the surface, I have drag forces and erosion of the rods and
tubing that have to be dealt with. That adds costs that can be avoided with different approaches.
Like beam pumping, gas lift is used widely in vertical wells, but faces challenges in horizontal wells. The biggest
challenge is getting the gas lift equipment in place, Dunham says. Normally, gas lift equipment is installed with wireline
tools, which only work to a deviation angle between 65 and 75 degrees from vertical. Putting the gas lift equipment in
the highly deviated or horizontal part of the well requires coiled tubing or other special tools.
Dunham says installing gas lift equipment in those sections of the well can be worthwhile if the lateral undulates. Liquids
and solids can collect in the low parts of an undulating lateral and hit the vertical section in large slugs, which can make it
difficult to produce the well, he says. If the gas lift equipment goes out to the horizontal and the operator injects
enough gas, it can move the liquid and solids along before they have the chance to collect, eliminating the slugs.
King says gas lift has many limitations in deviated wells. Gas lift only turns about 18 percent of the energy it consumes
into lift, he assesses. That is efficient offshore, where you only need a little help to get the production moving, and
where solids in the flowing fluid are a factor. Onshore, the gas rises to the horizontal laterals ceiling and stays there until
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it approaches the vertical section. Until that happens, the gas does not help lift the production (Figure 6). This is
frustrating, but there is not much that can be done to make gas lift better.
FIGURE 6
Gas Lift Challenges
What operators are looking for is a lift system that will work in a fully horizontal well and remain cost-effective, even in
areas with high energy costs, which are a major slice of the overall expenditure for artificial lift, King says. There are
some promising new solutions, but field trials will take a while to yield a usable system.
ESPs
Electric submersible pumps are a viable option for producing large volumes of liquid. If a well has a straight area long
enough to hold the ESP itself, the motor and the associated equipment30-40 feetproducers can land the pump there
and get good results, Dunham says. ESPs need that straight area because flexing the drive shaft on the motor or the
pump will cause the bearings to fail.
High gas-to-liquid ratios can be problematic and cause ESPs to gas lock, Dunham observes, adding that ESPs require a
constant flow of liquid to prevent overheating.
King agrees that liquid-heavy production streams are vital. If the reservoir has a lot of liquid, you can probably use an
ESP in a fully horizontal well. But any time you are running a motor, you are creating heat, he comments. Without
enough liquid to provide cooling, the natural heat from the reservoir can combine with the motor heat to burn out the
motor, shortening the ESPs run life.
The bottom line, according to King, is that a successful ESP application in a horizontal well requires a straight section of
the well bore to land the pump, a low gas-to-liquids ratio, effective gas shielding at the intake, and sufficient liquids flow
over the motor to keep it cool. The final requirement means that ESP users must have instrumentation in place that can
automatically shut down the motor to avoid pumping a well dry. If an operator has the exact right conditions to run an
ESP successfully, it is a very effective and efficient pump, King assesses. However, if an ESP burns up or has other
problems, it will require a rig to pull it out and run it back, which can be expensive.
Dunham adds one other factor for consideration: solids tolerance. Like all pumps, ESPs do not like sand, he says.
Considering the huge amounts of proppant placed in horizontal wells during the hydraulic fracturing process, a certain
amount of proppant invariably will be swept from the fractures and into the production stream over time. That reality can
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make ESPs less desirable than systems with a higher sand tolerance.
Other Pumps
Progressing cavity pumps are less susceptible than ESPs to sand and other solids, but their application envelope has its
share of limitations, according to Dunham. PCPs can work at any deviation angle, but they do not work well in hotter
downhole environments, he details.
Like ESPs, PCPs handle dry operation or gas production poorly, and must be set in a straight section of the well bore
to prevent bearing failure, King adds.
Jet pumps are another option for operators, King says. They can be used at any deviation angle through the full length of
a horizontal well, but are less efficient than ESPs and have limited tolerance to solids and gases. They also require a
dedicated flow path for the power fluid, he notes.
All these options involve trade-offs in horizontal wells, Dunham observes. To use artificial lift effectively in horizontal
wells, operators will need to look at each wells characteristicsfrom their deviation and lateral profile to production
stream variability and downhole temperatures and pressuresto determine which approaches will be effective and
reliable.
Editors Note: For additional information on selecting artificial lift systems for liquids-rich horizontal wells, consult the
gas well deliquification section of the Artificial Lift Research and Development Councils recommended practices.
This story is a complement to the print edition of the American Oil & Gas Reporter. For other great articles about
exploration, drilling and production, subscribe.
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Sunday, May 04, 2014

May 2012 Exclusive Story

in Kansas and Oklahoma, and the Niobrara Shale in Colorado.

Artificial Lift Options

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