Surface hydrology

The hydrologic cycle

Prof. W. Bauwens
Dpt. of Hydrology and Hydraulic Engineering
wbauwens@vub.ac.be

CONTENT
1

INTRODUCTION................................................................................1
1.1

Scope of the course........................................................................1

1.2

Water and sustainable development.................................................1

1.3

Practical applications of hydrology....................................................2

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE..................................................................4

2.1

The hydrologic cycle.......................................................................4

2.2

The hydrologic system....................................................................5

2.3

The water balance..........................................................................6

STORM RUNOFF PROCESSES.............................................................8

3.1

Introduction..................................................................................8

3.2

The analysis of the hydrograph - introduction....................................8

3.3

The Horton concept........................................................................8

3.4

Runoff processes............................................................................9

3.5

The partial area variable source concept.......................................11

3.6

The role of ground water...............................................................12

3.7

The hydrograph analysis...............................................................13

REFERENCES........................................................................................14

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic cycle

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Scope of the course

Hydrology means the knowledge (logos) or science of the water (hydro).

As such, hydrology is concerned with the analysis of:
the distribution of water on earth and in the hydrosphere (being ca. the
lowest 15 km of the atmosphere and the upper kilometer of the earth crust);
the circulation of water in the hydrosphere;
the physical and chemical characteristics of water;
the interactions between the water cycle and the environment,
and this for all the phases of water (solid, liquid, gaseous).
This course, however, will be limited to the so-called surface-hydrology. The
course will mainly focus on the water balance of the surface waters being the
water in rivers and lakes and on the processes that are relevant to the
transformation of precipitation to river runoff. Hereby, little attention will be paid
to the atmospheric processes nor to the ground water processes.
1.2

Water and sustainable development

Water is a vital resource for all life on earth. While there is a huge amount of
water available on earth, most of it ca 98 % - is salty water (Tab.1.1). This
salty water is not directly available for human consumption, nor for most animals
and plants. Only through costly and energy consuming desalinisation processes
could this water be made useable.
According to the World Resources Institute, a volume of 1000 m 3 of water per
person and per year is an absolute limit for water scarcity. According to the
same source, only 35% of the countries are in the privileged position to have
access to more than 10 000 m3 of water per person and per year. If all the
inhabitants of the world would consume water as is done in the West (150 l per
person and per day, for household consumption only), the yearly world water
consumption would amount to 328 500 km 3. In comparison: the yearly rainfall
amount over land is about 119 000 km 3.
A second important role of water on earth relates to the problem of the global
warming of the earth as a consequence of the so-called greenhouse effect. The
(transport of) water plays a key role in the climate control of the earth. The
prediction of the effect of the increased concentration of greenhouse gasses in
the atmosphere thus requires a thorough understanding of the hydrologic cycle.
History provides many examples of what men can do to disrupt the hydrologic
cycle on a small to medium scale. An example is (most probably) the extinction
of the Maya civilisation, as a consequence of injudicious deforestation and
irrigation, and the subsequent water scarcity caused by a climate change in the
Yukatan peninsula.
In the very far future (but before the extinction of the solar activity), erosion
and the transport of sediments to the oceans, in combination with a decreased
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volcanic activity will reduce the earth to a sphere surrounded with a layer of
water with a thickness of ca. 2.5 km.
Erosion processes are however already problematic on a smaller scale in many
regions. In many parts of the world, large areas of precious agricultural soil get
lost due to erosion, often related to deforestation or unsuited agricultural
practises.

Oceans
Ground water
Fresh
Salty
Soil moisture
Polar ice
Other ice & snow
Lakes
Fresh
Salty
Marshes
Rivers
Biologic water
Atmospheric water

Area
106 km2

Volume
103 km2

% of total
water amount

361.3

1338000

96.5

134.8
134.8
82
16
0.3

10530
12870
16.5
24024
340.6

0.76
0.93
0.0012
1.7
0.025

30.1

1.2
0.8
2.7
148.8
510
510

91
85.4
11.5
2.1
1.1
12.9

0.007
0.006
0.0008
0.0002
0.0001
0.001

0.26
0.03
0.006
0.003
0.04

100
2.5

100

Total water
510
1385985
Fresh water
148.8
35029
Tab.1.1: Water on earth (after Chow et al., 1988)
1.3

Practical applications of hydrology

Water

is used for many purposes, the most important being

drinking water
hygiene
transport of waste
industry (process water and cooling)
irrigation
recreation
fishing
navigation
energy production

% of
fresh water
amount

0.05
68.6
1

To fulfil the latter demands, the hydrologist gets involved in what we will call
direct actions, such as:
the pumping of (ground)water
the treatment of drinking water
the design of sewers
drainage and irrigation

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the design of dams and reservoirs

river training
the design of hydraulic control structures (e.g. weirs)
water diversion

Due to the fact that water is being used for many purposes, the hydrologist often
has to account for several often conflicting demands and constraints. Often,
the hydrologist will also be involved in the planning of measures to counteract
the consequences of direct hydrologic actions. Those remedial actions
include, among others,
limitation of salt water intrusion
waste water treatment
flood control
control of erosion and sediment transport
protection of the public health
environmental protection
The role of the hydrologist in the framework of these actions concerns:
the analysis of problems
the quantitative determinations of the interactions between the processes
of the water cycle and the antropogenic influences on these processes
the planning of actions
the design of structures in the framework of these actions
the management of the system
Other human activities do not belong directly to the hydrologic domain, but do
nevertheless have an impact on the hydrologic cycle, e.g.
urbanisation
deforestation
agricultural activities such as ploughing

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THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

2.1

The hydrologic cycle

The hydrologic cycle represents a continuous process, including the following

sub-processes (Fig.2.1):

precipitation
interception
surface runoff
infiltration

flow in the unsaturated soil

groundwater flow in saturated soil
river flow
evaporation & evapotranspiration

Fig.2.1: The hydrologic cycle (Chow et al., 1988)

On the scale of the globe, the precipitation and evaporation processes in
equilibrium (Tab.2.1).
While the concept of the hydrologic cycle is quite simple on a global time and
space scale, the practical assessment of its components becomes very complex
at the detailed scale. The reasons for this include e.g.:
the heterogeneous character and spatial distribution of the system
(climate, soil, vegetation, topography, )
the dynamic character of the processes
the interactions between the processes
Also, the hydrologists are usually not interested in the average behaviour of the
system, but especially in its extremes (extreme drought or flooding).

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Area

Oceans
361.3
mm/yr
km3/yr
1270
458000
1400
505000

(10 km )
6

Land
148.8
mm/yr
800
484

Precipitation
Evaporation
River runoff to oceans
Ground water runoff to
oceans
Tab.2.1: The global hydrologic cycle (after Chow et al., 1988)
2.2

km3/yr
119000
72000
44700
2200

The hydrologic system

A system is an entity of interconnected components. Within a system,

subsystems can be distinguished. The subsystems are a combination of
components that together form an entity that can be considered to be to a
certain degree independent of the other subsystems.
Fig.2.2 gives a representation of the hydrologic system.
For the solution of practical problems, the analysis will often be limited to one or
more subsystems of the global system. In this course, only the shadowed
system components of Fig. 2.2 will be considered.
Evaporation

Precipitation

Interception

Transpiration

River
runoff

Surface Runoff

Infiltration

Percolation

Unsaturated ground
water flow

Ground water
flow

Fig.2.2: The hydrologic system

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2.3

The water balance

The water balance of an area (a river basin or a part of it) is calculated by

considering the conservation of mass or continuity equation:

dS (t )
i (t ) o(t )
dt

[2.1]

Hereby S represents the (water) storage in the area, i the discharge of the water
entering the area (inflow) and o the discharge of the water leaving the area
(outflow).
For a river basin, S represents the water that is stored in the ground and the
water in the rivers and lakes within the area. The inflow consists of the
precipitation and of possible import of water from other river basins. The outflow
consists of the discharge at the outlet of the basin, of possible export of water to
other river basins and of evapotranspiration (Fig.2.3).

Precipitation

Evapotranspiration

Import

Export

River
flow
Ground
water flow

River
flow
Groundwater
flow

Fig.2.3: The water balance of a (part of a) river basin

If the import or export of water can be neglected, Eq. 2.1 can be rewritten as:

dS (t )
i (t ) q (t ) e(t )
dt

[2.2]

where
i
q
e

= the precipitation intensity over time step t

= the discharge at the outlet over time step t
= the intensity of evapotranspiration over time step t

Over longer periods (1 year or more), a natural system can be assumed to be in

equilibrium (there are no long term trends with respect to the evolution of the
storage) and thus the change of storage can be neglected. For long time
intervals, the water balance can thus be written as:
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i (t ) q (t ) e(t )

[2.3]

Traditionally, large scale water balances were made by using measured

precipitation and calculated evapotranspiration, the flows being the closing term
of the balance (Tab.2.2). More recently, use is also made of world wide flow
databases for assessing the flows experimentally (Schiklomanov, 1999).

Area
Precipitation
Evaporation
Runoff
Evaporation

Europe

Asia

Africa

S.
Amer.
17.8

Austr.

World

30.3

N.
Amer.
20.7

(106 km2)

9.8

45

8.7

132.3

(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(%)

734
415
319
57

726
433
293
60

686
547
139
80

670
383
287
57

1648
1065
583
65

736
510
226
69

834
540
294
65

91
48

203
84

373
210

172
54

204
90

65

71

64

76

69

Surface runoff (mm)

210
217
Groundwater flow
109
76
(mm)
Surface runoff /
66
74
Total runoff
(%)
Tab.2.2: The yearly water balance for the
Leeden et al., 1990)

different continents (Source: Van der

For shorter time period, the change of storage cannot be neglected: the storage
typically fluctuates according to a seasonal pattern. As the change of the storage
cannot be measured, the water balance for short time periods cannot be
determined by means of the water balance and measurements only. Numerical
water balance models must be used for defining the terms of the water balance.

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STORM RUNOFF PROCESSES

3.1

Introduction

As stated before, the concept of the hydrologic cycle is quite simple in general,
but quite complex in its details. This will also be illustrated in the next chapter,
where different process mechanisms that lead to an increase of the river flow as
a consequence of a rainfall storm will be discussed.
3.2

The analysis of the hydrograph - introduction

A hydrograph represents the temporal evolution of the river discharge in a given

location along the river (Fig.3.1).

F
L
O
W

STORM

RUNOFF

BASE FLOW

TIME

Fig.3.1: The hydrograph

During a storm, the hydrograph consists of 2 components:
the base flow, being the flow that would have been observed at that location
if the storm had not occurred;
the storm runoff, as a direct and immediate consequence of the storm.
The separation between base flow and storm runoff will be discussed in more
detail in 3.7. In what follows, different possible explanations for the occurrence
of the storm runoff will be discussed.
3.3

The Horton concept

The Horton concept states that the storm runoff is caused by surface runoff only.
Ground water runoff is considered to be too slow to generate storm runoff.
According to the Horton concept, surface runoff occurs when the rainfall intensity
exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. The surface runoff concerns water
that did never infiltrate on its way to the river (Fig.3.2).
The source area for the surface runoff consists of the entire river basin.

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Infiltration and Horton runoff

Horton runoff
GW
T

RETURN
Infiltration
F.

RETURN
F.
SATURATED
ZONE

Fig.3.2: Hortonian runoff

Nowadays, there is a general consensus that the Hortonian runoff is predominant
for very specific conditions only:
on surfaces that were made impervious by human activity (urban areas)
on frozen soils
on soils with a very low infiltration capacity
o arid soils
o clay soils
o very poorly vegetated soil (arid zones)
o thin soil cover
3.4

Runoff processes

Although the Horton concept still forms the base of many hydrologic calculation
methods, it has been recognised since long that Horton overland flow is not the
major component of storm runoff. Instead, a differentiated approach is now
considered for the sources of the storm runoff. The following mechanisms may
play a role, depending on the topography, the pedology, the land use, the
vegetation and the climate:
Surface processes : Runoff caused by
Infiltration excess ( see Horton concept)
Saturation overland flow
Return flow
Soil processes: Runoff caused by
Percolation and saturated groundwater flow
Gravel (K = 100 m/day)
Sand
(K = 1 m/day)
Silt
(K<0.01 m/day)
Clay
(K<0.0001 m/day)
Unsaturated throughflow
Subsurface storm flow

Velocity (m/hour)
300
100

<0.0001
0.2

Surface processes (Fig.3.3)

Saturation overland flow occurs in those parts of the river basin where soil is
saturated throughout its depth and the ground water table thus reaches the soil
surface. The saturation may be caused by local rainfall and infiltration or by
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subsurface water flow from higher grounds. As the soil is saturated, no

infiltration occurs and the water reaches the river as surface runoff.
Return flow is subsurface flow that returns to the surface. This may happen
when the subsurface flow is forced to the surface by a downhill thinning of the
permeable soil layer or where the ground water table reaches the surface, at the
border with the unsaturated zone. The ground water supply that is directed to
the surface continues its way to the river as surface runoff.

Surface runoff (OA) and return flow (RS)

RS

OA

RETURN
F.

saturated

RS

GW
T
RETURN
F.

SATURATED
ZONE

Fig.3.3: Surface runoff and return flow

Ground water flow (Fig.3.4)
According to the classical theory of ground water flow, the precipitation
infiltrates into the unsaturated upper soil layer, percolates vertically to the
saturated zone and subsequently continues its way as a quasi-horizontal
saturated ground water flow. According to the classical theory, this process is
much too slow to explain the rapid river flow increase during storms.

Percolation (PC) & groundwater flow (GS)

PC

PC
GW
T

GS

RETURN
F.

saturated

RETURN
F.

GS

SATURATED
ZONE

Fig.3.4: Percolation and return flow

Instead, the process supplies water for the base flow.

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Lateral flow processes (Fig.3.5)

If the surface slope is high and if the soil has a high permeability, lateral flow
may occur in the soil above the ground water table.
Subsurface stormflow may occur during intense rainstorms, when the soil
becomes saturated at some depth (above the impeding layer) and the water
migrates laterally through the fissures, root- and wormholes and pores
Unsaturated throughflow may even occur for low rainfall intensities for very
permeable soils. In this case, the soil does not get saturated.

steep slope
high k

low k

Fig.3.5: Subsurface storm runoff and unsaturated storm flow

3.5

The partial area variable source concept

The concept of the partial area variable source states that only a limited and
variable part of the river basin is the source of the storm runoff. This source area
is normally situated near the rivers and is determined by geologic, topographic
and pedologic factors. Also the antecedent precipitation (or the lack of it) is very
important for the extent of the source area. The concept is believed to be
applicable in humid climates.

Fig.3.6: The partial area variable source concept

In the source area, the ground water table is at a high level. Consequently,
precipitation will cause a rapid saturation of the soil and a consequent surface
runoff to the river: surface runoff through saturation of the soil. Also the

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precipitation that falls directly on the river and lake surfaces, return flow and
subsurface storm flow can be important.
During the storm, the source area further expands due to the rise of the ground
water table (Fig.3.6).
When the storm has ended, de surface of the source area will shrink, as a
consequence of the decrease of the level of the ground water table (ground
water flow to the river) and due to evapotranspiration.
3.6

The role of ground water

According to the above mentioned concepts, the role of the ground water in the
process of storm runoff generation is marginal. Isotope measurements are at the
origin of a totally different view on this problem. Through such measurements, it
was possible to date the water in the river. Several researchers (e..g. Stichler en
Herrmann, 1982) hereby found that an important fraction of the water in the
rivers during storms is ground water (50% or more).

Fig.3.7: The characteristic curve

The classical theory of ground water flow cannot explain the rapid dislocation of
the ground water that is required for the participation of the ground water to the
storm runoff. Herrmann en Stichler (1982) suggest that such a dislocation could
be due to a rapid disruption of the soil water pressure potential, due to the
hysteresis of the characteristic curve (Fig.3.7). Hereby, a pressure wave presses
the soil water through the main drainage channels. The hypothesis was

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confirmed experimentally and by means of numerical simulation, but only on a

limited scale and under specific conditions (Stauffer et al., 1981: Sklash &
Farvelden, 1979).
3.7

The hydrograph analysis

As stated before, a hydrograph consists of a base flow component and of a

storm runoff component. It is traditionally stated that the base flow is generated
by the ground water flow and the storm runoff by surface runoff.
The start of the storm runoff coincides with the moment at which the river flow
starts to increase, after the start of the precipitation.

Flow (cumecs)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Time (minutes)

7
6

ln Q

5
4
3
2
1
0
0

100

200

300

400

t-tp

Fig.3.8 : Separation of base flow and storm runoff

Many methods exist for the determination of the end of the storm runoff. Most
methods are based on the empirical evidence that when the logarithm of the
river flow during the recession is represented as a function of time, two straight
lines can be observed (Fig.3.8). This means that the recession can be expressed
by:
q(t ) q p . exp[ k t ]
ln[q (t )] ln[q p ] k t

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[3.1]
with

q(t)
qp
k

the river discharge

the peak flow
the recession parameter

The intersection of both lines is considered to represent the end of the storm
runoff.
The storm runoff is obtained by subtracting the base flow from the total flow.
Many methods also exist for the determination of the evolution of the base flow
during a storm(see e.g. Chow, 1988). Most of the time, a linear increase of the
base flow during the period of the storm runoff is assumed Fig.3.8).
REFERENCES
Chow V.T., D. Maidment & L. Mays (1988). Applied hydrology. Mc Graw Hill Book
Cy.
Sklash M. & R. Farvelden (1979). The role of groundwater in storm runoff. J.
Hydrology, V.43, p.45-65.
Stauffer F., D. Job & T. Dracos (1981). Reaktion des grundwasserspiegels auf
lokale Hebung und ihre hydrologic Bedeutung, eine experimentelle Untesuchung.
Wasser und Boden, V.12, p.582-586.
Shiklomanov I.A. (1999). World water resources at the beginning of the 21 st
century, UNESCO
Van der Leeden F., F. Troise & D. Todd (1990). The water encyclopedia. Lewis
Publishers.

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