Diffraction

Diffraction occurs when waves spread out after passing through a gap or round an obstacle.
Diffraction becomes more significant when the size of the gap or obstacle is reduced
compared with the wavelength of the wave.

Coherent sources
Two sources of light are said to be coherent if the waves emitted from them have the same
frequency and have a zero or constant phase difference.

Christopher de Mel

Interference
Interference is said to occur when waves from two or more coherent sources superpose with
one another producing a resultant wave.

Interference of water waves can be demonstrated using a ripple tank with two vibrating rod
dippers. (see Figures below) The two dippers send our circular waves that are in phase and of
the same frequency. An interference pattern consisting of easily observed lines of
constructive(maxima) and destructive interference(minima) is seen.

For an interference pattern to be observable the two overlapping waves must be coherent.
This means they will have:
1. The same frequency
2. A constant phase difference
If the two waves are incoherent the pattern will continually change usually too quickly for
observations to be made.

Christopher de Mel

Constructive Interference
The lines of constructive interference (maxima) are places where the resultant amplitude is
double the amplitude of one wave.
Let the two sources (dippers) be S1 and S2 respectively. Assume that the two sources generate
waves in phase.
For constructive interference to occur at a point P, the two waves must arrive in phase at P.
This means that the wave crest from one source always meet the wave crest of the other. This
can only occur if the path difference of the waves from the two sources is zero or they differ
by an integral multiple of wavelength, i.e. n.
The condition for constructive interference is
Path difference S2 P S1 P = n where n = 0,1,2,3..is the order of the maxima.
Destructive Interference
The lines of destructive interference (minima) are places where the waves cancel out and the
resultant amplitude is zero.
Destructive interference occurs if the waves from the two sources arrive exactly out of phase
at point P, i.e. the wave crest always meets the trough. This happens when the path difference
of the waves is (n ).
The condition for destructive interference is
Path difference S2 P S1 P = (n- ) where n = 1,2,3..is the order of the minima.

Christopher de Mel

Double slit

interference with light

S is a narrow slit illuminated by a
monochromatic source of light. Two
fine slits A and B are placed
symmetrically parallel to S. When a
screen is placed at a large distance
from A and B, alternate bright and
dark bands parallel to the slits appear
on the screen. These bands are called
interference fringes. The solid arcs represent the crests and the dotted arcs represent the
troughs in the above diagram.

The maximum intensity at a point on the screen is due to constructive interference

i.e., the two wave trains having same amplitude, wavelength superpose in phase with each
other (i.e., crest falls on crest or trough on trough).
Similarly, the minimum intensity at any point on the screen is due to
destructive interference i.e., the two wave trains having the same amplitude and wavelength
superpose out of phase with each other (i.e., crest falls on a trough and vice versa).
The Doppler Effect

When the source of the waves is moving toward the observer, each successive wave crest is
emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore each wave
Christopher de Mel

takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Therefore the time
between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase
in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is
reduced; so the waves "bunch together".
Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted
from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between
successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave
fronts is increased, so the waves "spread out".
Application of Doppler effect
Sirens
The siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide
down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the
observer.
As the ambulance travels forwards:
The sound wave in front is compressed
- decreasing its wavelength
- increasing its frequency
- increasing the pitch of sound
The sound wave behind is stretched out:
- increasing its wavelength
- decreasing its frequency
- decreasing the pitch of sound

The Doppler Effect also occurs with light waves.

With light waves:
Source of wave moves towards an observer:
decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency makes the light BLUER
Source of wave moves away from the observer:
increasing wavelength and decreasing frequency makes the light REDER

Christopher de Mel