Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chapter 13
Human Development
Economic policy has often to strike a delicate balance between the two goals of economic growth and
human welfare which need not necessarily be contradictory. Despite global shocks, India has not
compromised on welfare expenditures especially for the needy and marginalized, though growth has
lagged behind. A new impetus to growth along with targeted policies aimed at both social and f inancial
inclusion can help convert outlays into outcomes.
231
Table 13.1 : Indias Position and Trends in the Global HDI 2012
Country
HDI
2011
Value
HDI
2012
Value
Norway
United States
Germany
United Kingdom
Russian Federation
Malaysia
Brazil
Sri Lanka
China
Egypt
Indonesia
South Africa
Vietnam
India
Bangladesh
Pakistan
0.953
0.936
0.919
0.875
0.784
0.766
0.728
0.711
0.695
0.661
0.624
0.625
0.614
0.551
0.511
0.513
0.955
0.937
0.920
0.875
0.788
0.769
0.730
0.715
0.699
0.662
0.629
0.629
0.617
0.554
0.515
0.515
World
0.692
0.694
GNI per
Life
Mean
capita expectancy years of
2012$
at birth schooling
Rank
(years)
(years)
2012
2010a
1
3
5
26
55
64
85
92
101
112
121
121
127
136
146
146
Expected
years of
schooling
(years)
2011b
19801990
19902000
20002012
48688
43480
35431
32538
14461
13676
10152
5170
7945
5401
4154
9594
2970
3285
1785
2566
81.3
78.7
80.6
80.3
69.1
74.5
73.8
75.1
73.7
73.5
69.8
53.4
75.4
65.8
69.2
65.7
12.6
13.3
12.2
9.4
11.7
9.5
7.2
9.3
7.5
6.4
5.8
8.5
5.5
4.4
4.8
4.9
17.5
16.8
16.4
16.4
14.3
12.6
14.2
12.7
11.7
12.1
12.9
13.1
11.9
10.7
8.1
7.3
0.59
0.40
0.85
0.47
.
1.21
1.23
0.88
1.96
2.12
1.26
0.87
.
1.75
1.49
1.29
0.79
0.33
0.81
0.70
-0.23
1.15
1.26
0.72
1.78
1.68
1.21
0.01
1.98
1.23
1.83
0.89
0.29
0.27
0.47
0.33
0.84
0.64
0.73
0.76
1.42
0.92
1.28
0.11
1.22
1.50
1.46
1.74
10184
70.1
7.5
11.6
0.68
0.64
0.68
much faster and wider spread of basic health and education. Life
expectancy at birth in India was 65.8 years in 2012, compared to
81.3 years in Norway, 78.7 years in the United States, 73.8 years in
Brazil, 75.1 years in Sri Lanka, 73.7 years in China, and the global
average of 70.1 years. However the Indian life expectancy f igure is
signif icantly higher than that of South Africa (53.4 years) which
has higher HDI rank and even higher per capita income within
the same category. The Indian performance in mean years of
schooling (4.4 years) is not only much below that of countries like
China, Brazil, Sri Lanka, and Egypt which have higher per capita
incomes but also below that of Bangladesh and Pakistan which
have lower per capita incomes. It is also much lower than the
global average of 7.5 years. Though lower in HDI ranking, in terms
of average annual HDI growth rate for 2000-12, India is well ahead
of many countries with high and very high human development.
With 1.50 per cent average annual HDI growth it is ahead of China
(1.42), Brazil (0.73), Egypt (0.92), and Bangladesh (1.46), though it
is behind Pakistan (1.74). While China and Egypt performed very
well in terms of HDI growth in the 1980s and 1990s, there was a
deceleration in the 2000s. On the other hand, India, which seems
to have faltered in the 1990s, has picked up again during 2000-12
(Table 13.1).
TRENDS
IN
231
232
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
2011-12
2012-13 RE
2013-14 BE
4.27
2.09
2.54
0.23
0.41
0.28
1.15
0.00
1.55
12.52
4.56
0.88
17.95
4.15
2.00
2.39
0.20
0.43
0.22
0.87
0.02
1.67
11.94
3.77
1.11
16.82
4.56
1.98
2.35
0.21
0.58
0.24
1.01
0.02
1.66
12.61
3.51
1.87
18.00
4.73
2.02
2.11
0.19
0.64
0.26
1.28
0.01
0.20
11.43
2.88
1.48
15.79
4.38
1.81
1.88
0.18
0.54
0.26
1.13
1.56
0.19
11.93
2.49
0.70
15.12
4.38
1.99
2.20
0.17
0.62
0.29
1.21
1.80
0.16
12.83
2.57
1.30
16.70
1. Social service
a. Education,sports,youth affairs
b. Health & family welfare
c. Water supply, housing, etc.
d. Information & broadcasting
e. Welfare of SCs/STs and OBCs
f. Labour & employment
g. Social welfare & nutrition
h. North-eastern areas
i. Other social services
Total
2. Rural development
3. PMGSY
4. Social services, rural development, and PMGSY
Source : Based on Budget Documents.
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
2011-12
2012-13 RE
2013-14 BE
1599677
1852119
2145145
2421768
2839927
3219783
380628
446382
529398
580868
162008
197070
244156
277053
74273
88054
100576
110228
144347
161258
184666
193587
As percentage to GDP
28.4
28.6
27.5
26.9
6.8
6.9
6.8
6.4
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.1
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.2
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.1
As percentage to total expenditure
23.8
24.1
24.7
24.0
10.1
10.6
11.4
11.4
4.6
4.8
4.7
4.6
9.0
8.7
8.6
8.0
As percentage to social services expenditure
42.6
44.1
46.1
47.7
19.5
19.7
19.0
19.0
37.9
36.1
34.9
33.3
710410
334480
132134
243796
812139
375427
155633
281079
28.1
7.0
3.3
1.3
2.4
28.4
7.2
3.3
1.4
2.5
25.0
11.8
4.7
8.6
25.2
11.7
4.8
8.7
47.1
18.6
34.3
46.2
19.2
34.6
Source : Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as obtained from Budget Documents of union and state governments.
232
233
POVERTY
13.7 The Planning Commission has updated the poverty lines and
poverty ratios for 2011-12 based on the recommendations of the
Tendulkar Committee using Household Consumer Expenditure
Survey 2011-12 data of the National Sample Survey (NSS) 68th round.
Accordingly, with the poverty line at all India level at monthly per
capita expenditure (MPCE) of ` 816 for rural areas and ` 1000 for
urban areas in 2011-12, the poverty ratio in the country has declined
from 37.2 per cent in 2004-05 to 21.9 per cent in 2011-12. In absolute
terms, the number of poor declined from 407.1 million in 2004-05
to 269.3 million in 2011-12 with an average annual decline of 2.2
percentage points during 2004-05 to 2011-12 (Table 13.4). The
Planning Commission constituted an Expert Group under the
Chairmanship of Dr. C. Rangarajan in June 2012 to Review the
Methodology for Measurement of Poverty. The term of the Expert
Group has been extended up to 30 June 2014.
Year
Urban
Total
Rural
37.2
2011-12
25.7
13.7
21.9
Number of poor (million)
2004-05
326.3
80.8
407.1
2011-12
216.5
52.8
269.3
INEQUALITY
13.8 The HDR measures inequality in terms of two indicators.
The f irst is the income Gini coeff icient which measures the
deviation of distribution of income (or consumption) from a
perfectly equal distribution among individuals within a country.
For India, the income Gini coeff icient was 33.4 during 2011-12. In
this respect, inequality in India is lower than in many other
developing countries like South Africa (63.1), Brazil (54.7), Malaysia
(46.2), China (42.5), Sri Lanka (40.3), the Russian Federation (40.1),
Thailand (40.0), Turkey (39.0), and Vietnam (35.6), as well as
countries like the USA (40.8), Poland (34.1), and Switzerland (33.7)
that have otherwise very high HDI ranking. Not only is inequality
lower in India than many other countries, it has also decreased as
reflected in a 9.2 per cent fall in its Gini coeff icient from 36.8
during 2010-11 to 33.4 during 2011-12. The second indicator is the
quintile income ratio, which is a ratio of the average income of
the richest 20 per cent of the population to that of poorest 20 per
cent. The quintile income ratio for India was 4.9 in 2011-12.
Countries like the United States (8.4), Switzerland (5.5), Turkey
(7.9), Poland (5.5), the Russian Federation (7.3), Brazil (20.6), China
(9.6), Malaysia (11.3), South Africa (25.3), Philippines (8.3), and
Thailand (7.1) had higher ratios. This implies that the inequality
between the top and bottom quintiles in India was lower than in
a large number of countries.
13.9 A related issue is the rural-urban disparity. One of the
parameters used to estimate the rural-urban gap is the monthly
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
233
234
Year
Round
Rural
Urban
1999-2000
2004-05
2009-10
8.2
6.6
2011-12
472.9
415.7
10.8
24.7
13.9
14.9
2.2
5.6
235
OF
S TATES
AND
I NTER - STATE
Population
Growth
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
235
236
Table 13.7 : Socio-economic Prof iles and Inter-State Comparison of Some Major States of India
Socio-economic Indicators / Items
Andhra
Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
11.0
993
17.1
958
25.4
918
19.3
919
19.9
879
12.9
972
754409
5.1
8.6
78958
4.5
141621
6.1
5.8
40475
4.6
313995
15.1
9.9
28774
13.9
670016
8.0
9.7
96976
6.6
345238
6.5
8.8
120352
5.0
73710
6.1
8.0
83899
5.1
11.0(32.3)
5.8(23.4)
9.2(29.6)
33.9(36.4)
20.5(21.8)
32.0(34.4)
34.1(55.7)
31.2(43.7)
33.7(54.4)
21.5(39.1)
10.1(20.1)
16.6(31.6)
11.6(24.8)
10.3(22.4)
11.2(24.1)
8.5(25.0)
4.3(4.6)
8.1(22.9)
1754
51.4
2685
42.3
1219
61.3
2189
47.7
1127
59.3
1507
50.5
1536
54.9
2581
45.2
2176
52.1
3817
39.2
2034
47.3
3259
42.4
12 (7)
43 (36)
45 (26)
56 (72)
32 (15)
56 (64)
3 (5)
8 (24)
24 (22)
42 (40)
10 (18)
40 (38)
41
17.5
7.4
55
22.5
7.9
43
27.7
6.6
38
21.1
6.6
42
21.6
6.4
36
16.2
6.7
Education related $
GER (6-10 years) (2010-11)
GER (11-13 years) (2010-11)
PTR Primary/Jr.basic school (2010-11)
PTR Middle/Sr. basic school (2010-11)
PTR High/Post basic school (2010-11)
99.5
80.1
31
25
26
94.3
67.9
28
17
26
127.7
64.6
76
51
68
120.3
85.7
NA
35
33
94.9
83.5
51
38
26
109.2
113.8
15
14
24
Financial inclusion @
All Off ices of commercial banks 2012 (Nos)
All Off ices of commercial banks 2013 (Nos)
8932
9573
1711
1841
4913
5301
5896
6525
3262
3772
1237
1338
1183
575
611
451
398
156
Population related*
Decadal growth of population (2001- 2011) (%)
Sex-ratio (Females per 1000 males)
GSDP growth and per capita income #
Absolute GSDP 2012-13 (` crore)
GSDP growth 2012-13 over previous year (%)
Average GSDP growth 2005-06 to 2012-13 (%)
Absolute per capita income 2012-13 (`)
Per capita income growth 2012-13 (%)
Poverty headcount ratio**
2011-12 (2004-05) Rural
2011-12 (2004-05) Urban
2011-12 (2004-05) Total
Rural-Urban disparity 2011-12##
Rural average MPCE (MMRP) (`)
Rural share of food expenditure (%)
Urban average MPCE (MMRP) (`)
Urban share of food expenditure (%)
Unemployment rates (per 1000)
under usual status (adjusted)##
Rural persons 2011-12 (2004-05)
Urban persons 2011-12 (2004-05)
Health related*
Infant mortality rates (per 1000 live births) 2012
Birth rate (per 1000) 2012
Death rate (per 1000) 2012
Haryana Himachal
Pradesh
50
24
42
40
36
52
58.7
24.8
34.9
44.0
41.7
62.6
172621
83.3
49978
36.0
260532
43.0
27780
25.8
3589
20.0
1206
17.1
236
237
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya
Pradesh
Maharashtra
Odisha
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil
Nadu
Uttar
Pradesh
West
Bengal
All
India
15.6
973
4.9
1084
20.3
931
16.0
929
14.0
979
13.9
895
21.3
928
15.6
996
20.2
912
13.8
950
17.7
943
524502
5.3
7.5
77309
4.2
349338
8.2
8.1
88527
7.7
372171
9.9
8.4
44989
8.6
1372644
7.1
9.3
107670
5.8
255459
8.1
7.7
49241
5.2
286809
4.7
6.8
86106
3.9
459215
4.5
7.9
59097
2.9
744474
4.1
9.5
98550
3.5
768930
5.5
6.9
33137
3.6
620160
7.3
6.7
62509
6.4
9388876
4.5
8.0
67839
2.1
25.7(41.8)
13.7(25.7)
21.9(37.2)
24.5(37.5)
15.3(25.9)
20.9(33.3)
7.7(22.1) 16.1(35.8)
9.2(18.7) 10.7(29.7)
8.3(20.9) 14.7(34.4)
1561
51.4
3026
40.1
2669
43.0
3408
37.0
1152
52.9
2058
42.2
1619
52.4
3189
41.6
1003
57.2
1941
45.4
2345
44.1
2794
41.0
1598
50.5
2442
44.8
1693
51.5
2622
42.7
1156
53.0
2051
44.0
1291
58.2
2591
44.2
1430
52.9
2630
42.6
9 (7)
29 (28)
68 (107)
61 (156)
4 (5)
26 (28)
7 (10)
23 (36)
22 (50)
35 (134)
19 (38)
28 (50)
7 (7)
31 (29)
20 (12)
27 (35)
9 (6)
41 (33)
27 (25)
48 (62)
17 (17)
34 (45)
32
18.5
7.1
12
14.9
6.9
56
26.6
8.1
25
16.6
6.3
53
19.9
8.5
28
15.9
6.8
49
25.9
6.6
21
15.7
7.4
53
27.4
7.7
32
16.1
6.3
42
21.6
7.0
104.7
90.7
17
27
21
91.4
103.9
23
25
25
135.2
101.4
38
39
39
104.7
92.4
29
32
32
119.4
82.0
33
26
23
84.3
80.8
26
15
23
109.9
82.4
46
26
22
111.8
112.3
27
32
35
126.9
79.9
79
69
69
92.7
86.3
45
49
46
115.5
85.2
43
33
30
7605
8400
5303
5675
4983
5398
10118
10899
3481
3782
4742
5325
5235
5664
8048
8774
12771
14014
6335
6741
106903
116448
2328
660
685
994
487
426
1661
1848
1214
596
15835
50
57
42
45
42
33
51
59
35
37
46
46.6
93.4
42.6
43.7
33.6
52.8
67.8
84.1
22.2
35.4
52.9
72496
82.6
44679
97.7
29432
26.1
45848
33.4
53163
41.5
2063
10.6
63761
74.6
23033
26.0
79385
26.7
96702
52.1
1093157
44.1
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
237
238
Poverty
Rural-Urban Disparity
Unemployment
Health
238
239
Education
Financial Inclusion
239
240
collaboration
activities
like
construction of individual household
latrines under the Nirmal Bharat
Abhiyan (NBA), construction of
anganwadi centres under the
Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS) Scheme, construction
of village playf ields under the
Panchayat Yuva Krida aur Khel
Abhiyan, and convergence with
watershed management programmes.
Steps to open individual bank/post
241
241
242
243
243
244
As a percentage of GDP,
expenditure on education has
gone up from 2.9 per cent in
2008-09 to 3.3 per cent in
2013-14(BE). There is need not
only to increase it further, but
also address quality issues.
245
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
245
246
Skill Development
13.21 Skill development is vital not only for reaping the benef its
of demographic dividend, but also for greater inclusive growth. To
bridge the demand-supply mismatch of skilled persons, the National
Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) has approved 158 proposals
till March 2014. The overall commitment to 129 training proposals
and 29 sector skill councils stands at ` 2215.89 crore. A total of
19,54,300 persons have received job-oriented skills training through
NSDC skilling partners since 2010, of which 60 per cent have been
placed in different sectors. During 2013-14, NSDC partners trained
10,05,074 people across a wide array of sectors ranging from
healthcare, manufacturing, electronics and hardware, tourism,
hospitality and travel to banking, f inancial services, retail,
information technology, and textiles in 366 districts. The National
Skill Certif ication and Monetary Rewards Scheme, popularly known
as STAR with a budget outlay of ` 1000 crore provides monetary
reward to those who wish to acquire a new skill or upgrade existing
skills. The scheme became operational on 16 September 2013 and
has enrolled more than 4 lakh trainees in 206 courses. As on
31 March 2014, 3,44,545 trainees have completed their training with
559 partners in 6402 centres across the country. Under the special
skills training initiatives called Udaan, a private sector-led skills
training programme for diploma holders, graduates, and post246
247
Health Programmes
13.22 Providing quality and affordable healthcare to the large
Indian population, particularly the poor and underprivileged, is a
formidable task. The allocations for the health sector have increased
over the years. In 2013-14, there was an increase in outlay for the
health sector by 7.44 per cent over the previous year to ` 32,745
crore. The combined revenue and capital expenditure of the centre
and states on medical and public health, family welfare, and water
supply and sanitation has increased from ` 53,557 crore in 2006-07
to ` 1,36,296 crore in 2012-13 (BE). The central government outlay
for the health sector in the Twelfth Plan has been increased by
about 200 per cent to ` 3,00,018 crore over the actual outlay of
` 99,491 crore in the Eleventh Plan. The process of rolling out
universal health coverage has also been set in motion. Though the
progress in the health sector as reflected in selected health
indicators (Table 13.8) is impressive, with just a 1.4 per cent share
in Indias GDP, a lot more needs to be done to provide quality and
affordable healthcare for the large Indian population.
Sl.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Parameter
1981
1991
2001
33.9
29.5
25.4
12.5
9.8
8.4
4.5
NA
3.6
NA
3.1
301
(2001-03)
110
80
66
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
26.5
19.3
(1989-93)
59.4
59.0
59.7
(1999-03)
63.4
62.3
64.6
Current
level
21.6
(2012*)
7.0
(2012*)
2.4 (2012*)
178
(2010-12*)
42
(2012*)
46
28
11
(2012*)
(2006-10)**
66.1
64.6
67.7
247
248
Sl.
No.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Facilities
SC/PHC/CHC (2012)*
Government hospitals
(rural & urban areas,
including CHCs) **
AYUSH hospitals &
dispensaries
(as on 01.04.12)**
Nursing personnel
(as on 01.01.12)**
Doctors
(modern system) (2012)**
Numbers
177248
35416
27586
2124667
883812
249
attached to district hospitals are also being set up which will add
16,000 MBBS seats during the Twelfth Plan. To meet the shortage
of faculty in pre- and para-clinical disciplines in state government
medical colleges, ` 686.02 crore has been released as on 15 October
2013 to 72 government medical colleges in 20 states for creation of
about 4000 postgraduate seats.
249
250
SCs
STs
13.26 Various policies and programmatic and legislative
interventions have been made for the socio-economic development
and empowerment of the STs. As per Planning Commission (200910), 47.4 per cent of STs in rural areas and 30.4 per cent in urban
areas were below the poverty line. Major schemes targeted at their
welfare are as follows:
250
251
Minorities
13.27 For the development of minorities, the plan outlay was raised
from ` 3135 crore in 2012-13 to ` 3511 crore in 2013-14. Three
scholarships schemes, namely Pre-matric, Post-matric and Merit
cum-Means based, were implemented exclusively for the notif ied
minorities with a total provision of ` 1770 crore in 2013-14. The
Multi-sectoral Development Programme, is a special area
development initiative to address the development def icits
especially in education, skill development, employment, health and
sanitation, housing, and drinking water in 196 minority
concentration districts under which projects worth ` 1466.98 crore
were approved during 2013-14. The corpus of the Maulana Azad
Education Foundation has been enhanced from ` 100 crore in
2005-06 to ` 910 crore up to March 2014 and will be further
enhanced by ` 113 crore during 2014-15 for expanding its activities.
13.28 There are also special programmes to benef it OBCs and
persons with disabilities.
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13.31 Providing jobs for all and a decent standard of living are
other challenges. While higher growth will have its trickle-down
effect, the quality of growth is equally important. The present focus
on development of infrastructure facilities and the employmentgenerating tourism sector are steps in the right direction. This
along with targeted and redesigned employment and povertyalleviation programmes can have the desired effect.
13.32 Another challenge is of dealing with multiple and sometimes
overlapping programmes. While India has not compromised on
expenditures on welfare activities despite the global shocks as
reflected in the rise in social expenditure as a percentage of GDP,
the outlays have not fully translated into outcomes. A mere mark
up each year in the Budget for existing programmes or starting
some new programmes will not suff ice. What is needed is a zero
budgeting approach with a revamp, reorganisation and convergence
of social-sector schemes with a minimum size prescribed for the
schemes (Box 13.4).
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
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