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Chapter 4

BRAKING SYSTEM
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Brakes use friction to
convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be
employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical
energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into
potential energy in such stored forms as pressurize air or pressurized oil. Still other braking
methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the
energy to a rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms
such as the surface of a moving fluid. Some vehicles use a combination of braking
mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes
with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.1

Functions of Brakes:
Brakes perform the following main functions:
To stop the moving vehicle in shortest possible time.
To help in controlling the speed of the vehicle and to reduce the speed at turnings
and other places.
To hold the vehicle in a stationary position, after it has been brought to a stop.

Classification of Brakes:
Brakes may be classified as follows:
A. On the basis of position of brakes:
1. Outboard Brakes
2. Inboard Brakes
B. On the basis of actuation of brakes:
1. Mechanical Brakes
2. Hydraulic Brakes
3. Power Brakes
Outboard Brakes
Outboard brakes are the most commonly used brakes in automobiles to stop and
reduce the vehicle speed while in run. The brakes are mounted near the wheel and try to
stop the wheel in the due course of their application.
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Inboard Brakes
Inboard brakes are mounted on the axle of the wheels rather on wheels itself. On
application they stop the axle. Inboard brakes allow reducing the unsprung weight of the
vehicle.
Mechanical Brakes
In a mechanical brake system the pressure from the brake pedal is transmitted to
the wheel brakes either by means of rods and shafts or by means of cables and shafts. These
brakes are less commonly used nowadays. Parking brakes employee mechanical linkages.

Fig 4.1: Mechanical Brakes

Hydraulic brakes
Brakes which are operated by means of hydraulic pressure are known as hydraulic
brakes. In a hydraulic system, when the brakes are applied the pressure increased
sufficiently in the system to produce equal and uniform braking action on all the four
wheels. The hydraulic brakes function on the principle of Pascals law2 which is stated as:
Pressure applied to a liquid is transmitted equally in all directions

Fig 4.2: Hydraulic System

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The hydraulic braking system consists of four wheel cylinders, one at each of the four
wheels of the vehicle. The system is operated by a master cylinder which is connected to all
wheel cylinders by fluid lines.

Major Types of Brakes Used:

Drum Brakes
Disc Brakes
Antilock Braking System

Drum Brakes:
A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press
against a rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum. The term drum brake usually
means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum.
A drum brake system consists of hydraulic wheel cylinders, brake shoes and a brake
drum. When the brake pedal is applied the two curved brake shoes, which have a friction
material lining, are forced by hydraulic wheel cylinders against the inner surface of a
rotating brake drum. The result of this contact produces friction which enables the vehicle
to slow down or stop.

Fig 4.3: Drum Brakes

Disk Brakes:
The disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the friction
caused by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of callipers.

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Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert motion
to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon known
as brake fade.
When hydraulic pressure is applied to the calliper piston, it forces the inside pad to
contact disc. As pressure increases the calliper moves to the right and causes the outside
pad to contact the disc. Braking force is generated by friction between the lining and rotor
to increase braking power as drum brakes do; they are less likely to cause a pull.
The friction surface is constantly exposed to the air, ensuring good heat dissipation,
minimizing brake fade. It also allows for self-cleaning as dust and water are thrown off,
reducing friction differences.

Fig 4.4: Disc Brakes

Unlike drum brakes, disc brakes have limited self-energizing action making it
necessary to apply greater hydraulic pressure to obtain sufficient braking force. This is
accomplished by increasing the size of the calliper piston. The simple design facilitates easy
maintenance and pad replacement.

Antilock Braking System

Antilock Braking System address two conditions related to brake application, wheel
lockup and vehicle directional control. The brakes slow the rotation of the wheels, but it is
actually the friction between the tyre and road surface that stops the vehicle. Without ABS
when brakes are applied with enough force to lock the wheels, the vehicle may slide
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uncontrollably because there is no friction between the tyres and road surface. While the
wheels are skidding, steering control is lost as well.
ABS Systems use a speed sensor at each front wheel and either a single speed sensor
for both rear wheels or individual speed sensors at each rear wheel. The speed sensors are
monitored by a dedicated Electronic Control Unit (ECU). The system controls the front
brakes individually and rear brakes as a pair.

Fig 4.5: ABS System

The ECU constantly monitors rotational speed of reach wheel; if any wheel rotating
slower than the others; it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at
the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns
faster. If the ECU detects any wheel rotating faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure
to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel.

Selection:
While selecting the type of brake, the following factors are to be considered:
Braking Efficiency
Ease of Installation and System Complexity
Heat Dissipation and Cooling
Cost of the System
Reliability of System
Other minor factors are Unsprung Weight of the vehicle and Brake Fading Effects.

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All the above parameters are reviewed and the following table is prepared for the
ease of comparison among the various types of brakes:
Sr. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Parameter

Drum Brakes

Disc Brakes

Good
Difficult
Low
High
Good

High
Easy
High
Economic
High

Braking Efficiency
Ease of Installation
Heat Dissipation
Cost of System
Reliability

Antilock Braking
System
High
Difficult
High
High
High

Table 4.1: Comparison of Brakes

Considering all the foresaid factors we would prefer disc brakes for the vehicle, which will
be actuated by a hydraulic circuit.

Components of Disk Brakes:

Disc Rotor:
Generally, the disc rotor is made of gray cast iron, and is either solid or ventilated.
The ventilated type disc rotor consists of a wider disc with cooling fins cast through the
middle to ensure good cooling. Proper cooling prevents fading and ensures longer pad life.
Some ventilated rotors have spiral fins which creates more air flow and better cooling. Spiral
finned rotors are directional and are mounted on a specific side of the vehicle.
There are two major types of discs:
1. Non-Ventilated Disc
2. Ventilated Disc
Non-Ventilated Disc:
The solid type disc rotor is found on the rear of four wheel disc brake systems and on
the fronts of earlier model vehicles. A third style rotor can be either the ventilated or solid
type which incorporates a brake drum for an internal parking brake assembly.

Fig 4.6: Non-Ventilated Brake Disc

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Ventilated Disc:
Many higher-performance brakes have holes drilled through them. This is known as
cross-drilling and was originally done in the 1960s on racing cars. For heat dissipation
purposes, cross drilling is still used on some braking components, but is not favoured for
racing or other hard use as the holes are a source of stress cracks under severe conditions.

Fig 4.7: Ventilated Brake Disc

Calliper:
The Calliper, also called the cylinder body, houses one to four pistons, and is
mounted to the torque plate and steering knuckle or wheel carrier. It also houses brake
pads. The pistons are usually made of aluminium or chrome-plated steel.
The Callipers are of two types:
1. Fixed Calliper Type
2. Floating Calliper Type
Fixed Calliper Type:
The fixed calliper design has pistons located on both sides of the calliper providing
equal force to each pad. The calliper configuration can incorporate one or two pistons on
each side. The ability to include multiple pistons provides for greater braking force and a
compact design. Because these assemblies are larger and heavier than the floating calliper,
they absorb and dissipate more heat. This design is able to withstand a greater number of
repeated hard stops without brake fade.

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Fig 4.8: Fixed Calliper Type

Floating Calliper Type:

It is also called a sliding calliper. A floating calliper moves with respect to the
disc, along a line parallel to the axis of rotation of the disc; a piston on one side of the disc
pushes the inner brake pad until it makes contact with the braking surface, then pulls the
calliper body with the outer brake pad so pressure is applied to both sides of the disc.

Fig 4.9 Floating Calliper Type

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Floating calliper (single piston) designs are subject to sticking failure, caused by dirt
or corrosion entering at least one mounting mechanism and stopping its normal movement.
This can lead to the callipers pad's rubbing on the disc when the brake is not engaged or
engaging it at an angle. Sticking can result from infrequent vehicle use, failure of a seal or
rubber protection boot allowing debris entry, dry-out of the grease in the mounting
mechanism and subsequent moisture incursion leading to corrosion, or some combination
of these factors. Consequences may include reduced fuel efficiency and excessive wear on
the affected pad.
Brake Pads:
Brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the
disc in the process of bedding while wearing evenly. Friction can be divided into two parts:
Adhesive and abrasive.
Depending on the properties of the material of both the pad and the disc and the
configuration and the usage, pad and disc wear rates will vary considerably. The properties
that determine material wear involve trade-offs between performance and longevity.
Master Cylinder:
Master cylinder is the main component of the hydraulic system. When brake pedal is
pressed, the fluid in the master cylinder, under pressure, moves out of it and in the fluid
lines which takes it to the wheel cylinders.
Tandem Master Cylinder
The hydraulic braking system with a simple master cylinder has a drawback that any
leakage or loss of power anywhere in the oil lines will lead to breakdown of the entire
system. The tandem master cylinder overcomes this problem to some extent. The other
parts of the system remain the same; a tandem master cylinder has two opposing pistons
instead of one as in the master cylinder.

Fig 4.10 Tandem Master Cylinder

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Diagonally Split Arrangement

In diagonal split arrangement, one front and one rear wheels are diagonally
combined and connected to each outlet of the tandem master cylinder. In case of failure of
any one circuit, other will work providing half brake force.

Fig 4.11: Diagonally Split Arrangement

Configuration of the Brakes:

The selected disc brakes will be of outboard type brakes having Tandem master
cylinder. The brake disc will be of non-ventilated type as the vehicle is open wheel so there
will be no issues regarding the ventilation of discs.
Only one calliper per disc will be used and that will be of floating type. The hydraulic
circuit will follow diagonally split arrangement to maintain the vehicle control in case of
failure of one circuit.

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