Training report phase-1/2

Prepared by :
Mr. mayur a. agrawal (06dee020)
Mr. harshal j. chokshi (06dee022)
Mr. goldi g. makhija (07dee201)
Mr. akshay v. patel (08dee312)
Mr. pranay k. patel (08dee319)

Guided by :
Mr. dhiren k. rathod (assistant prof.)
[internal guide]

Industrial guide :

Mr. Satyen Dave (executive engineer)

Certificate
This is to certify that;
Mr. Mayur Agrawal (06Dee020)
Mr. Harshal Chokshi (06Dee022)
Mr.Goldi Makhija (07Dee201)
Mr. Akshay Patel (08Dee312)
Mr. Pranay Patel (08Dee319)
Student of 6th & 8th Semester Diploma in
Electrical Engineering Institute of Diploma
Studies, Nirma University has successfully
completed their industrial training at Siemens
(India) at Vadodra.
Date of submission:

Mr. Dhiren.K. Rathod. Prof. H.S. Pandya.

Internal Guide I/C HOD

EE Department

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We humbly like to thank to our respected
guide Mr. Dhiren K. Rathod, assistant professor in
Electrical Engineering Department, Nirma
University for his valuable time and constant
guidance given to us, from the concept stage to
the formation of our industrial training report.
We would also like to thank Prof. Hemang S.
Pandya, H.O.D., Electrical Engineering who was
always been prepared to offer us help at any time,
inspite of his busy schedule.
We would like to thank Mr. Kandarp.
Brahmbhatt sir (Electrical Head), Mr. Satyen
Dave (Executive engg.), Mr. Bhavesh Desai
(Project Manager), for providing us the
unforgettable training in their esteemed company
(Siemens India Ltd.)
We would also like to thank all the employees
of the SIEMENS for their co-operation and helping
us directly or indirectly during our training period.

Table of contents

Sr. No.

Topics

Pag
e
no.

Company profile (SIEMENS)

Introduction To SIEMENS BARODA PLANT

Planner of training period

Introduction to Captive Power Plant

Single Line Diagram of the power system

protection & control

L.A, S.C, C.T, P.T Panel

M.C.C Panel

Synchronising Panel

Relay and Metering Panel

10

A.V.R panel

11

GENERATOR PROTECTION

12

Selection Criteria of the components. ( L.A ,

S.C , C.T and P.T )

SIEMENS profile

Siemens has been associated with India since 1867. The Siemens Group in
India is a unique player in the field of electrical and electronics engineering
with a business volume aggregating about Rs 11,800 crores. Siemens is
present in over 190 countries. From power generation and distribution to the

efficient use of energy in industry, households and transportation to cuttingedge technologies for water management and pollution control.

Siemens Group in India comprises of 20 companies,

providing direct employment to over 17,200 persons.
Currently, the group has 19 manufacturing plants.

Innovations in the Energy sector - Solutions to ensure

tomorrows energy supplies

Products and solutions:

Grid connections for offshore wind farms

Gas insulated transmission lines

High-voltage direct-current transmission systems

Combined cycle power plants

INTRODUCTION TO SIEMENS
(BARODA PLANT):

SIEMENS plant in Baroda deals in manufacturing of the

Steam Turbines, the condenser unit and the designing of
the power plant for controlling the turbine and the
generator and miscellaneous components in the power
plant.

The process compressor consists of various parts such as

o Project Engineering
o Core Engineering
o Project Management.

The Project Engineering consists of B.O.P (Bills of project) of

the mechanical as well as Electrical components.

In the Electrical department the alternators, control panels

.M.C.C (motor control centre) Metering Section etc are being
designed.

In the Mechanical department the Turbine, lubricationoil

mechanism, pump sets, bearing mechanism, gear box etc are
being designed.

Core Engineering consists of the Turbine as well as the

Condenser Technology which is the Base of the total power
plant

Project Management consists of the three things:

o S.L.D (Single line diagram)

o L.A, S.C, C.T, P.T (lightning arrestor, surge capacitor,

current transformer, potential transformer)

o N.G.R (Neutral Grounding Resistance)

The process of the project management has three steps which are
being carried out initially S.L.D is being designed, later L.A.S.C.P.T is
being designed then the N.G.R is being designed as per the project
requirement.

PLANNING FOR THE TRAINING

Training schedule

Week 1:

Initial formalities of the company,

Introduction to the company, theory
lectures by Bhavesh Desai sir on basic
concept of electrical engineering and selfimprovement in technical field.

Introduction to the control circuits by

Bhavesh Desai sir, the over view of the
Turbine construction and the Rankin Cycle
of a power station by Bala Krishna sir.

TG MCC/LAVT
CT Panel

Akshar Seth

GENERATOR
PROTECTION

Satyen Dave

GENERATOR
SYNCRONIZATI
ON

Parikshit Gupte

(22/02/2010
to
(27/02/2010)

Week 2:
(01/03/2010
to
(06/03/2010)

Week 3:
(08/03/2010
to
(13/03/2010)

Week 4:
(15/03/2010
to
(20/03/2010)

Week 5:
(22/02/2010
to
(27/03/2010)

Week 6 :

GENERATOR
AND AVR

Bhavesh Desai

Battery and
Charger DC
Starter Panel /
NGR

Pranjal Desai /
vaibhav Tharot

Basic
Instrumentation
control and
Power cable

Anjali Dhampuria /
Yogesh Solanki

Visit to vendor place / industrial visits /

training at vendor place.

(29/02/2010
to
(03/04/2010)

Week 7:
(05/04/2010
to
(10/04/2010)

Week 8:
(12/04/2010
to
(17/04/2010)

Week 9& 10:

(19/04/2010
to
(01/05/2010)

Captive power plant

Captive power plants are associated with specific industrial

complexes, and their output is almost entirely consumed by that
industrial plant. Another term that may sometimes be synonymous
is 'cogeneration' in which the power plant produces multiple forms
of energy (e.g., electric power and steam), and where both are rawmaterials for a related industrial process. Probably the most classic
example is that of a paper mill.

Requirement of the captive power plants:

The Central Electricity Authority putting the figure at about 11600

MW while industry experts feel that it is much higher, close to 20000
MW Industrial sector is one of the largest consumers of electrical
energy in India However, a number of industries are now
increasingly relying on their own generation (captive or
cogeneration) rather than on grid supply, primarily for the following
reasons:

Non-availability of adequate grid supply

Poor quality and reliability of grid supply

High tariff as a result of heavy cross subsidisation

USE OF CAPTIVE POWER PLANT

Boilers produce steam. The steam passes through a turbine

that spins a generator to produce electricity. Exhaust steam from
the turbine is then used as a source of heat before is finally
condensed into water and returned to the boiler.

Captive power plants don't necessarily have to be islands that

are disconnected from 'the grid'. In fact, it is often the case that the
demand of the industrial process exceeds the capacity of the
captive plant, and power must be taken from the grid to make up
the difference. Also, there must be some provision to 'bootstrap' the
integrated process into operation - often this means relying on grid
power to start-up the plant following an outage. And it is possible
that there are times when the captive plant will produce more
power than can be consumed in the industrial process, and rather
than throttle back the excess is sold to the grid.

Making the captive plant is not a small job, so Siemens take

care of it. The companies desiring of laying their own captive plant,
generally consults Siemens and BHEL. They are the market leaders
for it. SIEMENS designs the plant as per the customer requirement
and whenever the company gets satisfied by the designs,
Installation of the plant starts and after the testing being done by
the officers of the Siemens the plant is brought in operation and
hand over to the customer.

Siemens not only designs the small captive plants but it also
designs the large power plants the highest plant designed by
Siemens is of the 25 MW T-G set.

THERMAL POWER PLANTS

In the plant there are two cycles:

Rankine cycle ( Heat energy to Mechanical energy)

Electrical cycle ( Mechanical energy to Electrical energy)

RANKINE CYCLE

Initially the coal is used as the main source of the energy. The
combustion of coal takes place, and by the calorific energy of
the coal the water is converted into the hot pressurised steam.

This steam is then used to move the turbine which converts it

into the mechanical energy and thus the initial cycle is being
completed.

Now this turbine is coupled with the gear box and further
connected to the alternator and electricity is produced.

Now once the generator generates the power, the output of it

is to be controlled as per the load demand and even each
section of the power system is to be controlled and protected
from fault.

Explanation of the single line diagram

The panels shown in the single line diagram are as follows:

L.A, S.C ,C.T, P.T Panel

Metering and relay panel

Synchronising panel.

A.V.R Panel (Automatic Voltage Regulator)

N.G.R panel ( Neutral Grounding Resistance)

M.C.C Panel ( Motor Control Centre)

D.C.S system (Discriminate control system)

[Note-All the panels are being interrelated to each other the relation between
each of them is being shown through the S.L.D as above].

THE FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS PANELS ARE AS BELOW

L.A, S.C, C.T, P.T Panel:

In this panel the L.A as well as S.C are used for the
protection of the system from the voltage surge due to lightning
as well as due to the transient situation, while the C.T and P.T are
being used for the protection, metering, synchronising and A.V.R
purpose.

Metering and relay panel:

This panel is being used for the metering of each and every
components used in the system, through which the proper
controlling can be easily done. The output of all the transducers
and the sensors as well as the C.T and the P.T are connected to
the panel for the metering and relay purpose.

Synchronising panel:

This panel is used when the synchronisation of the

generator is to be done. It has various modes of the

synchronisation of the generator stated as Auto, Manual and

Dead bus. The generator which has to be synchronised
with the infinite grid should have the same phase-angle,
voltage and frequency. For that the feedback has to be
taken through the P.T of the customers generator as well
as from the grid and after all the requirements are
fulfilled the generator is to be synchronised.

A.V.R Panel: (Automatic Voltage Regulator)

This panel is being used for the controlling the reactive

power, which is the input of the generator so that a regulated
voltage can be produced through it with the change in loads.

P.C.C panel: (Power control centre)

The Auxiliary transformer feeds the power to the P.C.C panel

and further the panel provides power to the M.C.C panel for the
controlling of various systems in the power station.

M.C.C Panel: (Motor Control Centre)

This panel is being used to control the various motors in the

plant from the single panel .This panel is used for easy as well as
the safe operation of the various motor used in the plant.

D.C.S system:
(Discriminate control system)

It is used for visual

monitoring of the total power plant and it shows whether all the
apparatus are in healthy situation or not and we can check out all
the parameters of the total system through a single D.C.S
system.

[Note-The photos beside show the controlling as well as the visual indication
of the air flue gas and the fuel feeding system as well as the turbine
generator operating system]

LA, SC, CT, PT Panel

(Lightning arrestor, surge capacitor, current transformer, potential transformer)

The LASCPT panel is required for

Protection

Metering and synchronising

A.V.R ( automatic voltage regulator)

In the panel the purpose of various equipments are as follows:

Potential transformers (P.T):

It transforms the high value primary voltage to substantially low
value secondary voltage which can be fed directly to measuring
instruments for measuring the current and power in the main
circuit. The purpose of the P.T is as follows in the panel

Protection

Metering

A.V.R

Synchronising

Current transformers (C.T):

It transforms the high value primary current to substantially low
value secondary current which can be fed directly to measuring
instruments for measuring the current and power in the main
circuit.

Metering

Protection

A.V.R

Lightning Arrestor (L.A):

It is used for directly grounding the lightning

stroke to the ground so that in case of the lightning the generator is
not affected because if the lightning stroke is not being grounded
then it may reach near to the generator and as the voltage of the
stroke is much higher than can directly damage the winding of the
alternator. It acts as a variable resistance; when an high voltage
surge comes it offers an low resistance path to it and directly
grounds it.

Surge Capacitor: (S.C):

Surge Capacitors pick up where lightning arrestors leave off and
protect against the switch over voltage, the smaller surges, which
occur every day. Varying levels of current occurring when
appliances turn on and off, or when power to a local grid is lost or
regained brings on these surges.

Location of the panel

Layout of the panel

Purpose of the panel

In the panel the C.T and the P.T used has single primary
winding and three secondary winding.

The output of the three of them is being sent for the

protection, A.V.R, synchronising as shown in the above figure.

Generally the two P.T with the three secondary are being
preferred. And even the three P.T with that of the two
secondary cores can also be preferred.

In this panel there are three pairs of lightning arrestors and

surge capacitors one pair for each phase

[Note-The selection criteria of the C.T, P.T, S.C and the L.A are explained
further in the report]

M.C.C PANEL:
(Motor Control Centre):

In the power station the power from the generator itself have
to be used for all the auxiliary running in the power station.

The auxiliary can be counted as the various motors fans etc.

The power generated is being send to the auxiliary transformer

and then send to the P.C.C panel and then further send to the
various M.C.C from where the motor can easily be operated.

The M.C.C is different for the different functions such as the

M.C.C for the turbine, Boiler, Cooling tower etc.

The M.C.C panel is being used for the control of the various
motors in the power station which are stated as follows:
o Boiler water pump
o Main oil pump
o Auxiliary oil pump motor which
o Condensed oil pump.
o Condenser extraction pump
o Circulating water pump

The M.C.C panel is being used for the control of the various
auxiliary supplies in various panels in the power station which are
stated as follows:

Auxiliary supply for A.V.R panel

Auxiliary supply for Battery- charger panel

Auxiliary supply for Barring-gear starter panel

Auxiliary supply for Generator and exciter space heater

Basic components of the control panel

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

It is high performing Thermal Magnetic Current limiting device with the

ability to disconnect short circuit up to 10KA

MCB are not listed as circuit breakers but as Supplementary Circuit

Protection

It menace that they cannot be used unless they have some other device
upstream.

We had learn that MCB are use for short circuit and overload protection, But
actually in industry MCB is use for switching and short-circuit Protection
Only, its overload protection is not that much effective, so not Use as Overload
Protection.

To make the function of overload protection of MCB more effective, Then

additional instrument called overload relay are used.

But the combination of MCB and overload relay seems to be somewhat costly.
Based on the type of application MCB are classified as B, C, and D curve type.

MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker)

MCCB is usually be used in much higher fault current condition.

MCB is use up to 63Amp for higher rating MCCB is used.

When range of operation is more than 80Amp then MCCB is used instead of
MPCB It is used in heavy commercial and heavy industrial application

Mostly MCCB are available as single module and used for 3pole and 4pole
current range for AC 50-60Hz is from 80Amp to 1600Amp

Overload relay used with MCB (over loader)

Overload relay is a device which is to be upstream together with MCB to

increase the effectiveness of overload protection of MCB.

Overload relay is provided with adjustable switch with the help of which we
can set the current at which its contacts get operate as a result the coil of
contactor get de-energized and hence power to the motor is shutoff.

It have socket like structure and is connected to the output terminals of

contactor. Overload relay have auxiliary contacts for further use in any logical
circuit.

Single line diagram of the

D.O.L Starter

Thats the power and control circuit of DOL starter.

When motor get overload, so it will consumes more current and when this
current excides the current ratting set in overload relay for overload protection
then normally close contact will normally open.

This NC contact is usually connected in series with the relay coil of contactor,
so that when it opens the relay will automatically de-energize thereby shutting
off power to the motor by disconnecting the contactor .

MPCB (Motor Protection Circuit Breaker)

MPCB contain functioning of switching, short circuit and overload protection.

It is a combination of MCB and Overload relay. So it is widely used these days.

MPCB compact design save size of a panel by having both functions of MCB
and overload protection.

It is available with rotary or toggle switch.

MPCB are most suitable for switching and protection three phase induction
motor up to 45KW at 415V AC with thermal overload and magnetic short
circuit release an auxiliary switch is use together with MPCB is called ADDON. Add-on has NO/ NC contact and is connected with MPCB. Its main
purpose is that, when MPCB get trip, its contacts get as a result it makes a
some lamp or buzzer circuit which will indicate the tripping of MPCB It is
available in range 0.4 to 100Amp

D.O.L starter circuit which is used for

all the motors in the panel

In this circuit the 3 phase supply is directly given to the motor. As shown in the
figure the overload relays are being attached for the overload protection.

The indication lamps for each phase are kept so that we can know whether
each of the phases is healthy or not.

Now the further the supply is given to the MPCB and then given to the motor
contactors KM-1. The motor cannot directly be switched on

To start the motor the start push button is pressed by which the km-1 contact
gets energized and the motor can start.

In case of stopping the motor the Stop push button is pressed which deenergizes the KM-1 contact and the motor stops.

When the KM-1 gets energized then the lamp ON would be indicated and when
the KM-1 contacts get de-energized then the lamp OFF would be indicated and
in case of the tripping the TRIP lamp gets indicated.

ADVANTAGES OF M.C.C

Safety while operation

Protects the system through over-load as relays are attached to it which can
trip the faulty part

Manual operation is possible in case of emergency

Operating condition of machine can be checked through single place through

indicators

Remote operation through logic gates are possible

Synchronising panel

Why synchronizing of generators are

required?
Maintenance of generators at regular interval of time is
extremely important. When multiple machines are required or one
of the generators needs to the stopped and the other started in its
place
Example:
If a ship has three generators on board, two are used under
normal working conditions and one is kept as stand-by. Whenever a
requirement to service a running generator arises, the standby
generator is brought in line and the desired generator is taken off
line. For bringing the standby generator in line, the generator is
synchronised with the other running generators.

There are five conditions that must be met before the

synchronization between generators takes place. The
alternator must have equal line
voltage, frequency, phase sequence, phase
angle and waveform to that of the system to which it is
being synchronized.

Waveform and phase sequence are fixed by the construction of

the generator and its connections to the system, but voltage,
frequency and phase angle must be controlled each time a
generator is to be connected to a grid.

TYPES OF SYNCHRONISATION

Auto-synchronization

Manual- synchronization

Dead bus- synchronization

In the manual operation of the synchronization the two bright

lamp method is being used.

For the Auto- synchronization process the comparators for the

same frequency as well as the voltage are being used and for
the dead-bus synchronization initially it is checked whether
any source is connected to the grid or not if not then the
directly synchronization is being done.

In the past, synchronization was performed manually using

three-lamp method. Nowadays, the process is automatically
operated and controlled with the aid of synchronization relays.

The sequence of events is similar for manual or automatic

synchronization. The generator is brought up to approximate
synchronous speed by supplying more energy to its shaft - for
example, opening the valves on a steam turbine opening the
gates on a hydraulic turbine or increasing the fuel rack setting
on a diesel engine The field of the generator is energized and
the voltage at the terminals of the generator is observed and
compared with the system. The voltage magnitude must be
the same as the system voltage.

Synchronizing lamps:
Formerly, two bulbs are connected between the generator terminals
and the system terminals (or more generally, to the terminals of
instrument transformers connected to generator and system). As
the generator speed changes, the lights will rise and fall in intensity
at a rate proportional to the difference between generator
frequency and system frequency. When the voltage at the generator
is opposite to the system voltage (either ahead or behind in phase
the lamps will be bright. When the voltage at the generator matches
the system voltage, the lights will be glow. At that instant, the
circuit breaker connecting the generator to the system may be
closed and the generator will then stay in synchronism with the
system.

Synchroscope:

Another manual method of synchronization relies on observing an

instrument called a "synchroscope", which displays the relative
frequencies of system and generator. The pointer of the
synchroscope will indicate "fast" or "slow" speed of the generator
with respect to the system. To minimize the transient current when
the generator circuit breaker is closed, usual practice is to initiate
the close as the needle slowly approaches the in-phase point. An
error of a few electrical degrees between system and generator will
result in a momentary inrush and abrupt speed change of the
generator.

Synchronizing relays:

Synchronizing relays allow unattended synchronization of a machine

with a system. Today these are digital microprocessor instruments,
but in the past electromechanical relay systems were applied. A
synchronizing relay is useful to remove human reaction time from
the process, or when a human is not available such as at a remote
controlled generating plant. Sometimes as a precaution against outof-step connection of a machine to a system, a "synchro-check"
relay is installed that prevents closing the generator circuit breaker
unless the machine is within a few electrical degrees of being inphase with the system. (Synchro check relays are also applied in
places where several sources of supply may be connected and
where it is important that out-of-step sources are not accidentally
paralleled).

Synchronous operation:
When the generator is synchronized, the frequency of the system
will change depending on load and the average characteristics of all
the generating units connected to the grid. Large changes in system
frequency can cause the generator to fall out of synchronism with
the system. Protective devices on the generator will operate to
disconnect it automatically.

Metering and Relay panel

The panel gets the input from

the various C.T as well as the P.T and various transducers used
in the system in the system so that the total system output
can easily be monitored and controlled through the single
place.

The numerical as well as the graphical values of various

outputs can easily be observed as well as compared with the
predefined values and if any of the data is more or less as per
the expected the proper protective scheme can be activated to
protect the total system and maintain the total system healthy.

The signals are easily send as well as received through the

D.C.C system available.

This panel consists of the following meters:

FREQUENCY

AMMETER

VOLTMETER

WATTMETER

TRI-VECTOR METER

PF METER

KVAR MATER

KVA METER

RPM METER

Tripping system:
Generally the contactors are in the normally closed (N.C) condition
or that of the normally open condition (N.O) if there is a fault
condition the N.O becomes N.C and the N.C becomes N.O. for the
passive source such as the generator the N.O is used for the healthy
condition and the N.C is used for the unhealthy condition. For the
active source such as the turbine the N.O is being kept for the
healthy condition and the N.C is being kept for the unhealthy
condition.

A.V.R panel
(Automatic voltage regulator)

AVR is an abbreviation for

Automatic Voltage Regulator. It is important part in
Synchronous Generators; it controls the output voltage of the
generator by controlling its excitation current. Thus it can
control the output Reactive Power of the Generator

AVR increases or decreases exciter current for a more linear

voltage and frequency.

It is a device used to maintain a constant voltage at the

Alternators terminals. It functions by maintaining the
Excitation required maintaining the terminal voltage of the
Alternator with change in the load.

Increase in excitation voltage increases reactive volt-ampere

(KVAR) which decreases power factor (cos ()).

Generally, voltage (V) of the alternator is kept constant so the

rest of the components in VICos (), i.e. I and Cos () have to
vary according to the load.

Increase in I causes decrease in Pf and Decrease in I causes

increase in Pf. so it is clear that Excitation V is proportional to
KVAR and load current (I) and inversely proportional to power
factor Cos()) Increase in excitation voltage increases reactive
volt-ampere

(KVAR) which decreases power factor (Cos ()).

For the A.V.R system excitation is one of the main thing there are
two types of the excitation systems:

Static Excitation system

Brushless excitation system

The figure below shows one of the examples of the brushless

excitation system:

In this system of the excitation it is being shown that if the system

is to be excited then an excitation is to be provided through an
exciter generator which is connected to the A.V.R and further the
A.V.R is being connected to the excitation transformer and the total
excitation is being controlled the voltage generated by the
excitation generator is in A.C so it has to be converted into D.C in
order to produce the field so it is further converted into D.C through
the rotating diode and thus the controlled field is being provided to
the rotor field.
For the larger machines the PMG generators are being used instead
of the excitation generators and the controlled field is being
produced at the generators.
In the static excitation system the rotating rectifier is not being used
the supply to the rotor field is being given through the brushes
which are static and it is further controlled as the same system as
the static excitation system by the excitation transformers and the
excitation generators.

Generator protection

Generator represents the most complicated unit and demand extensive

protection system comprising a large number of protective relays.

Difficulty with the generator protection system is that unlike other equipments
opening a breaker to isolate the defective generator is not enough to prevent
further damage, since the generator will continue to supply power to its own
fault until its field excitation has been suppressed.

It is therefore, necessary to remove the field supply, shut-off the steam, water or
fuel supply to the prime-power, trip the boiler and shut-off all the auxiliaries of
the generator.

Further carbon dioxide is pumped into some large machines to extinguish any
burning of insulation which has been initiated by the rotor moment.

Major faults and abnormal conditions in case of generators are as under:

Failure of insulation of the stator winding.

Failure of insulation of the rotor winding.

Unbalanced loading.

Field failure.

Overload

Over voltage

Failure of prime-mover.

Loss of synchronism

Over-speed.

Under frequency

Overheating.

Protective schemes are employed for generator protection:

Differential protection.

Inter-turn fault protection.

Stator earth fault protection.

Over-current and earth-fault protection.

Rotor earth fault protection.

Negative phase sequence protection.

Field failure protection.

Overload protection.

Overvoltage protection.

Reverse power protection.

Class of the protections:

Class A:
If a fault is of very serious nature and reflects to the generator,
generator-transformer, prime mover or boiler (fault is likely to
cause a direct and very serious damage to the unit even after
isolating the unit from the infinite bus), the protective scheme
that operates is known as class A protection.

Actions are initiated when class a protection operates:

Generator breaker is tripped

Generator field breaker is tripped.

Incomer breaker of unit auxiliary transformer is tripped.

Tie breaker between auxiliary station bus auxiliary unit bus are
closed.

Boiler trips.

Prime-mover trips.

CLASS-A Trip annunciation will appear.

Class -B:

The consequences of certain faults of the class-A are such that

the generator is not required to be isolated from infinite bus
immediately but prime-mover and boiler are tripped
immediately.

Because of this tripping the generator will lose input and hence
the power output will gradually reduce. Because of this action
the generator does not speed up and stored kinetic energy is
utilized.

Generally in large generator, a low forward power relay is used

to sense the power output. When the power output reduces to
around 0.5% of rated power, low forward power relay trips and
hence class-A protection operates. The protective scheme
which initiates the sequence as depicted above is said to be
class-B protection.

Actions while the class-B operates:

Boiler is tripped

Turbine is tripped.

ClassA protection will operate through low forward power

relay. Low forward power relay is time delayed relay.

class-B trip annunciation will appear.

Class-C:

The consequences of certain faults are such that generator is

only required to be isolated from the infinite bus. The
generator thus will feed its auxiliary only. Once the cause of
the fault is found and fault is cleared by relevant breaker, the
generator can once again by synchronize with the system.
Process of synchronizing does not take much time. The
protective scheme which thus trips generator breaker only is
known as class-C protection.

The protection scheme where the CLASS-A Operates:

Differential protection

Stator Earth-fault protection

Inter-turn fault protection

Over-current and Earth- fault protection ( for small generators)

Rotor-Second Earth-fault Protection

Over-Voltage protection

Reverse Power-Protection

Generator Transformer Overall Differential Relay

Differential Protection of Unit Auxiliary Transformers.

Generator Transformer Buchholz Relay

Unit Auxiliary Transformer Buchholz Relay

Unit Auxiliary Transformer instantaneous Over current

protection

Generator Rotor Overvoltage Relay

Automatic voltage regulator Failure Relay

Vacuum Failure in outlet of L.P Turbine.

The protection scheme where the CLASS-B Operates:

Negative Phase Sequence Protection

Field Failure Protection

Generator Transformer Oil and Winding Temperature very high

Unit Auxiliary transformer Back-Up over current Protection

Unit Auxiliary transformer Oil and Winding Temperature very

high

Excitation Transformer temperature very high.

L.P / H.P heater water level very high

Lubrication oil (Turbine bearing) pressure very low.

Boiler Drum level very low.

Turbine Bearing Temperature very high.

H.P turbine inlet pressure low.

Loss of boiler water failure

Loss of I.D fans.

Loss of F.D fans

Condenser water level high

Excessive over firing in boiler.

The protection scheme where the CLASS-C Operates:

Generator Transformer Back-up earth fault relay

Generator Transformer Back-up Over current relay

Differential protection

The breakdown of insulation may result in fault between

conductors and between conductor and iron core.

The breakdown may be caused by the over voltage or by

overheating which in turn can be caused by over-loads,
unbalanced currents, ventilation problems, failure of cooling
system etc.

It may also be caused by damage to the insulation by

conductor movement due to forces exerted by short circuits or
out of step conditions.

It is obvious that the short circuit currents caused by these

faults can enormous damage the generator winding and the
core hence these faults should be cleared by high speed
instantaneous relays.

The differential protection is being provided for the machines

greater than the 10MW for the smaller machine the voltage
monitored time over-current relay is being used.

Faults between the conductors can sometimes be repaired by

retaping or replacing the conductors but faults between the
conductors and the iron laminations are a serious matter
because the arc (due to fault) may sinter the laminations
together which may necessitate rebuilding the core.

However the ground impedance greatly influence the

protection offered by differential relays in case of ground faults
in the generator. In very large generators it is usual practice to
limit the earth fault currents to a very low value. Hence the
separate earth fault protection is desired. Hence the

differential protection is reserved for phase faults only as the

fault current in this case will be very high as it is limited by the
reactance of the generator only.
A scheme of the differential protection is shown in the below
figure:

The differential protection is a unit protection it responds to

the internal fault only and it must be stable against the
external faults.

The voltage across the relay coil is zero in case of the external
faults and hence the relay does not operate.

However if the Emf induced in the secondary of the C.T1 and

the C.T2 are not equal or if the relay is not connected at the
equipotential points, there will be some voltage across the
relay coil .this problem ,due to which there can occur an
unwanted operation of the relay can be solved either by using
the biased differential relay or the stabilizing resistance

Requirements of the Generator differential protection:

CT1 and CT2 should be connected with the correct polarity.

Differential protection shall operate sensitively for internal

faults and it shall remain stable against external faults.

C.Ts on both sides of generator should have identical

saturation characteristics. The non-identical C.Ts may not
cause mal-operation for normal load conditions but it can
cause inavident tripping of the generator for very high through
fault currents.

Relay coil should be connected to the points which are

equipotential, under normal conditions .the C.Ts are the
machine to be protected are located at the turbine floor and
the relay is located in the control room. Hence normally it is
not possible to connect the relay coil to the eqvipotential
points.

Differential relay should be immune to the harmonics.

Remedial measures employed to full fill the

requirements listed above:

Ideally identical CTs and equal length cannot be in practice. If

the lead length is not equal adjustable extra resistance can be
connected in series with pilot wires so the relay coil is
connected to the equipotential points.

For tackling the problem of the non-identical C.Ts a biased

differential relay is being used.

The current through the bias (restraining) coil is made

proportional to the through current thus making the relay

stable with negligible loss of sensibility on light faults the

biased differential relay can be set up at 5% of C.T rating and
percentage bias setting is used about 10%.

Another way of the guarantying stability against external fault

is the selection of the C.Ts the knee point voltage (KPV) of the
C.Ts should be high.

Larger the KPV greater will be working range of the C.Ts and
higher will be the saturation flux density for this reason grain
oriented silicon steel have higher saturation level are used as
core material for the protective C.T.

It is the customer to choose the KPV ( for the C.Ts) equal to

twice the operating voltage VR.
Differential protection is a Class-A protection. It operates
instantaneously because the internal fault has to be cleared
without any time-delay otherwise the damage to the stator core
and the winding would take the generator out of service for a
longer period of time before repair resulting into loss of power
and in turn loss of the revenue.

Inter turn fault protection

The failure of the insulation between two turns of the same

phase causes the inter-turn fault. In lap wound machines an
inter-turn fault affects only a single pole-pitch but in wave
wound machine it would affect the whole stator.

Such faults are associated with very high local currents which
can cause damage to the generator core. The inter-turn fault
itself is not so dangerous but it leads to an earth fault which is
a dangerous fault.

The differential protection scheme cannot take care of the

intern-turn faults as with such a fault on a phase winding the
currents at the ends would be equal. An inter-turn fault in this
case would have to burn through the insulation to ground or to
another phase before it could be detected.

With the generators having the parallel winding, separately

brought out to terminals an arrangement shown in the figure is
used. The protective scheme basically similar to the
differential relay the relay calculations are also made in the
similar way only.

For the faults without the access of the parallel winding the
arrangement in the above figure cannot be used the protection
scheme is based on the fact that voltage drops in the faulted
phase .the zero sequence component of the unbalanced
voltage so produced is detected across the open delta of the
P.T secondary the voltage operated watt-hour meter type relay
will then operate

Intern-turn fault protection is a Class-A protection and

instantaneous in the operation.

However some power companies use inverse time over-current

relay also. A very high sensitive setting is preferred because
the relay must respond when a single turn is short-circuited.

On the other hand the relay must not be responsible to any

transient unbalance that may be envisaged during external
faults the time delayed relays will be stable against the
transients as the transient would have vanished by the time of
relay

Operation for severe inter turn faults in this case an inbuilt

high-set instantaneous over current can be used so that its
operation will save the generator from developing phase to
earth or phase phase fault. The biased differential relay
cannot be used because the restraint caused by load current
would make the relay too insensitive at full load.

Stator earth fault protection

The fault from the stator conductor to the core of a generator

stator occurs due to failure of the insulation between the
conductor and the core.

As the conductor is at high voltage, core being earthed the

breakdown of insulation between the conductor and core will
result in arc between the conductor and the core.

The ground fault current will flow through this arc if this earth
fault current is high the arc energy will also be high resulting in
very high arc temperature. This high temperature can cause
failure of the insulation between laminations this will result in
increase of the eddy currents losses and damage to a large
portion of the stator core.

Repair of such damage will take quite a long time resulting in

loss of revenue due to the absence of power that could have
been otherwise generated. If the earth fault occurs near the
terminals the destruction would be even irreparable
necessitating complete replacement of the stator core.

The stator ground faults are the very destructive faults; if the
ground fault current is large hence for the large generators the
ground fault current is usually limited to a very low value such
that the resultant arc is not very intense.

The arc temperature in this case will be very low and therefore
the damage to the stator core can be reduced to a minimum
as such no damage may occur during the time of the relay
operation and consequent tripping.

The earth fault can be limited by impedance placed in the

neutral circuit of the generator. It has been found by test that
to avoid the possibility of harmfully high transient over voltage
because of the Ferro-resonance the resistance of the resistor
should not be higher than

Ra=106/6fc

C= capacitance of the generator stator circuit to earth per

phase in microfarads

F = system frequency

The neutral of the generator will be normally at zero potential

will rise to a steady state potential equal to 9086.44 volt due
to such an earth fault the peak value for the rms calculation
will be 12.85kv hence a high ohmic resistance with high
voltage rating will be required .

The modern practice instead is to use a resistance( or reactor)

loaded distribution transformer is being used as shown in the
figures below:

By using the NGT in the system the ohmic value of the

resistance will reduce to 4246*N22 /N12 where N2 and N1 are the

number of turns of the secondary and the primary winding of

the transformer.

NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE PROTECTION AGAINST

UNBALANCED LOADING:

The negative sequence component of unbalanced stator

currents induces double frequency currents in the rotor during
normal synchronous rotation. If the degree of unbalance is
large severe overheating can be caused in the structural parts
of the rotor. Which tend to soften and weaken slot wedges and
retaining rings, these components are otherwise also, normally
already under great stress in large turbo-generators

The system conditions that would cause these harmful

unbalanced conditions are:

Open-circuiting of the phase or failure of one contact of the

circuit breaker

An unbalancing fault near the power station which is not

promptly cleared.

A fault in the stator winding.

The time for which the rotor can withstand this condition varies
inversely as the square of the negative sequence current i.e.
I2t=K where K is a constant which varies from 7 in a large
steam Turbo-generator to about 60 for a salient pole hydro
machines.

It is important for the protective relay to have a time-current

characteristics I22t=K which closely matches with that of the
machines because while it is important to disconnect the
generator if K exceeds it is even more necessary not to take it
off the system unnecessarily.

FIELD FAILURE PROTECTION

Field failure can be caused by a faulty field breaker or failure

of the exciter. When a generator loses its field it speeds up
slightly and act as an induction generator.

Wound rotor generators are not suited to such operation

because they do not have damping windings that can carry the
induced rotor currents because of the loss of field.

Consequently rotor of the steam turbo- alternator will over

heat very fast due to induced currents flowing in the rotor
core. The period of time to reach dangerously high overheating
depends on the rate of slip and it may be as short as 2 to 3
minutes. Salient pole generators invariably have the damping
windings and therefore they are not subject to such
overheating.

The stator of any type of the synchronous generator may

overheat owing to over current in the stator winding because
of the machine running as an induction generator. The stator
currents may be as high as 2 to 4 times the rated current of
the generator depending on the slip.

Moreover, when a generator loses excitation it draws the

reactive power from the system (supplies leading active
power) as the system has to provide the excitation. As it has
been already stated, the stator of the generator takes current
of order of 2 to 4 times the rated current because of this

action. Before it loses excitation, the generator might have

been delivering reactive power to the system.

Thus large reactive load suddenly thrown on the system,

Together with the loss of the reactive power output of the
generator that has lost excitation may cause widespread
voltage reduction, which in turn may cause extensive
instability unless the other generators can automatically pickup the additional reactive load immediately.

As such the quick acting automatic-voltage regulations can

relieve the system to a great extent. However this relief is
dependent on the rate and amount of voltage reduction this is
the reason why the field failure relay is to be accompanied by
an under voltage relay.

If the system is capable of supplying additional reactive power

to the generator the field of which has failed, there is no risk of
system instability. There is no immediate danger to a set
operation as an induction generator.

If steps are taken to shed the load automatically to

approximately half load this condition can be tolerated for
several minutes the size of the machine relative the system is
an important factor to be considered while setting the timedelay.

Over load protection

When the generator is over loaded the winding insulation can

be damaged because of excessive temperature and this can
shorten the service life of the generator.

So the stator winding temperature must be maintained within

safe limits if a given permissible limit is exceeded alarm must
be sounded or machine should be switched off.

The normal practice in case of overload is to sound an alarm to

warn the operator so that he can take the necessary steps to

relieve the load on the generator a definite time over-current

relay can be used for the protection against overload.

As the overloading will be symmetrically in all the three phases

single phase relay fed from C.T on any one of the phases is
sufficient for the purpose. The relay can be set to operate at
105-110 % of rated current of the generator.

Over voltage protection

Apart from the transient overvoltage caused by lightning etc,

the overvoltage can be associated with over speed or it can be
caused by a defective voltage regulator.

The protection against transient high frequency or impulse

overvoltage due to lightning and switching surges can be
offered by lightning arrestors. But overvoltage relay is required
to protect the stator conductor insulation of the generator
against power-frequency over-voltage.

On modern steam-driven generators the voltage regulators act

sufficiently fast to prevent serious over voltage from occurring
when the generator loses its load and terminal voltage
increases either due to acceleration or as a consequence of
line charging current.

The most suited overvoltage relay can have two units; an

instantaneous unit tripping on 25 % (steam) or 40% (hydro)
overvoltage and an inverse time unit starting at 10% over
voltage the relay will be energized from a P.T. secondary.

In the modern protective scheme the operation of an overvoltage relay initially causes the alarm to be sounded and thus
warns the operator. Should the automatic voltage regulator not
restore the voltage to normal within preset time the machine
has to be tripped completely as the over voltage, so produced

can deteriorate the generator insulation. Thus over voltage

protection is a Class-A protection.

Reverse Power-Protection

Reverse power protection is against failure of the prime mover

of an alternator.

When the prime-mover of one of the alternator fails in a power

plant the alternator will stop but will run as synchronous motor
taking power from the bus. There is no harm for the alternator
when it is run as a synchronous motor but the reversal of
power is harmful to the prime mover.

Referring to the above figure the normal flow of power is from

the alternator to the bus if now the input to the prime mover of
any one of the alternator stops, the busbar will feed that
alternator and make it run as a synchronous motor.

The prime mover will act as a load on the motor this means
that flow of power is reversed. The reversal of Power is sensed
by a reverse power relay.

Effect of the reverse power on different prime-movers is

discussed as below:
Steam turbine:

A steam turbine requires protection against over-heating when

its steam supply is cut off and its generator runs as a motor.

The turbine then acts as a pump and the steam is trapped

.Hence the turbine blades get over heated due to windage. In
modern steam turbines the steam may be at a temperature
causing red heat and it is difficult to envisage the steam as a
coolant. However the heat caused by the turbulence of the
trapped steam can de-temper and damage turbine blades.

The length of the time required for a turbine to overheat when

the steam is cut-off, varies from about 30 seconds to about 30
minutes depending on the design of the turbine.

For the small turbines the relay are set to operate when
forward power reduces below 3% of the rated power. For large
turbines the sensitive setting of 0.5% of rated power is being
used. These relays are known as low-forward power relays

A reverse power relay is basically a directional relay with

leading maximum torque angle. This is because the alternator
runs as an over-excited synchronous motor.

A reverse power relay is a time delayed relay because of

following reasons

As the overheating of turbine blades does not occur

instantaneously once the generator starts motoring,
instantaneous tripping is not required.

In case of an internal fault in the generator differential

protection will act instantaneously. But the busbar will feed the
internal fault and if the reverse power relay is not provided
with the time delay it will also operate simultaneously with the
operation of the differential relay. In such a case, the operation
will be in doubt whether the tripping of the generator is due to
failure of turbine or an internal fault. The reverse power relay
has to operate only due to failure of the prime-mover.

Sufficient time delay should be provided to prevent undesired

operation on transient power reversals such as those occurring
during synchronizing or system disturbances.

Over-speed protection

When a generator loses its load either due to opening of its

breaker or due to a long line, emanating from the power
station, being suddenly disconnected the generator over
speeds.

The speed governor however acts to throttle the steam before

any great increase in speed takes place in case of steam
turbo-generators. In hydro-sets, on the other hand, water flow
cannot be stopped or deflected quicky and hence over speed
can occur. Over speeds in such a case of over 150 % of normal
are possible.

Over voltage or over- frequency relay can be employed in case

of hydro-alternators

Stator Over-Heating Protection:

The main causes of stator over heating are ventilation failure,

overloading, and failure of cooling system. Short circuited
laminations and failure of core-bolt insulation.

The method used to protect the stator of generator against

overheating is given in the figure below

The method uses resistance temperature detectors embedded

in slots at different locations in the stator winding.

If the overheating occurs, the resistance of RTD changes,

disturbing the balance of the bridge thus the operating a relay.

The relay can be arranged to sound an alarm and annunciate

the condition in the control room.

Vibration Protection

The vibration takes place due to unbalanced stator currents or

rotor ground faults.

The vibrations can result from a mechanical failure or

abnormality also.

The protection against unbalanced currents NPS protection

and rotor earth-fault protection will prevent or minimise
vibration under these condition.

The general practice is to provide vibrations recorders that can

also be used to sound an alaram, should the amplitude of
vibration cross a pre-set limit.

Bearing Failure and Bearing over heating

protection

Failure of oil cooling equipment or failure of lubrication system

may cause bearing overheating and in turn failure of bearing.

The temperature of the oil can be monitored by an instrument

with alarm contacts. The failure of oil cooling equipments is
detected in large machines by comparison of inlet and outlet
temperature of oil.

Auxiliary failure

Because of failure of the auxiliaries like condensate extraction

pump, loss of vacuum is resulted. It is usual on loss of vacuum
to reduce the load until the condition is controlled.

If however, the vacuum continues to fall until a dangerous

value is reached, a vacuum relay closes its contacts and the
set is automatically shutdown.

The failure of the Auxiliary like induced draughts fans can

cause loss of boiler pressure. In this case a steam pressure
device is arranged to remove the load from the turbine.

Power station control and instrumentation deal with such

devices. These Devices will automatically (and if auto-control is
lost or found slow-acting, manually also) annunciate the
abnormal condition due to auxiliary failure and also reduce the
load on the generator by throttling steam input to the turbine
or trip the generator if required.

Field Suppression

The field is required to be disconnected from the exciter in

case of operation of class-A protection.

When the field is disconnected. The D.C current passing

through the field coils tries to reduce to zero.

But because the field coil is an inductive coil having high

inductance the current cannot reduce to zero abruptly. The
electromagnetic energy (1/2) LI2 gets stored in the inductance
of the field coil.

The high voltage produced because of the high rate of change

of current being interrupted, may deteriorate the insulation of
the field coil leading to rotor earth fault. Also the field winding
may get distorted due to high electromagnetic forces
generated Field Suppression is a remedy to such a situation.

The circuit for it shown below

The figure shows how the field gets suppressed. When the field
breaker is opened due to operation of Class-A protection.

The arrangement is made as per above figure such that the

field is shorted by a discharge resister R. Hence the stored
energy of the field gets dissipated into the resistor.

Selection criteria of various components

used in the system

LIGHTNING ARRESTOR (LA):

It is used for directly grounding the lightning stroke to the ground so

that in case of the lightning the generator is not affected

because if the lightning stroke is not being grounded then it may reach near to
the generator and as the voltage of the stroke is much higher than can directly
damage the winding of the alternator.

A lightning arrestor helps to provide immediate and reliable protection against

the high voltage surge (such as that of a lightning strike) on your building or
power lines. These units will last a lifetime, except in the extreme cases of rare
excess surges.

Lightning arrestors limit the crest value of an impulse voltage. When the
voltage reaches a pre-determined value it provides a discharge path to ground.

This particular type of surge is particularly devastating to electrical

components, almost always rendering them useless. In addition, if you are not
protected against high voltage surges, an electrical fire can easily be started
within moments as a result of high current levels rushing through building
wires.

Breaker box is incapable of providing protection against this "lightning fast"

surge of electricity. By the time your breaker has switched off, the surge has

literally already done its damage. Although a lightning arrestor helps to

prevent high voltage spikes from infiltrating your circuits, it does not protect
against the common smaller surges.

SURGE CAPACITOR (SC):

It is used for the protection of the system from the

surges occurring in the system due to the transients and as the frequency of the
transients are not as the normal frequency so it charges the capacitor and thus
the system is protected and an resistor is being connected with the surge
capacitor which discharges the capacitor acting as an load for the capacitor
Surge Capacitors reduce the slope of the surge (rate of voltage rise) by
momentarily absorbing initial energy, then releasing it.

Surge Capacitors pick up where lightning arrestors leave off and protect you
against the smaller surges, which occur every day. Varying levels of current
occurring when appliances turn on and off, or when power to a local grid is
lost or regained brings on these surges.

Over time, the constant wear-and-tear of these surges will permanently damage
delicate electrical components. While surge capacitors are fully capable of
guarding against the smaller fluctuations in current and voltage, they are
unable to provide protection against large voltage spikes. This is why it is best
to have both a lightning arrestor and a surge capacitor installed.

If the surge capacitor is not being connected then it may even cause the line to
ground fault and even the surge may not be prevented.

Power apparatus is continuously subjected to abnormal voltages due to

internal or external reasons. These may occur on account of lightening,
switching operations, system faults and other abnormal conditions. Surge
capacitors are capable of bringing down the steepness or slope of over voltage
transients, that may appear across transformer and other A.C. line connected
equipments.

Table

System Voltage

Capacitance in Mfd
per Phase

Rated Voltage of Surge

Capacitor per phase

Impulse Voltage

3.3 kV

0.1 to 0.5

6 kV

60 kVP

Transient Voltage Conditions:

During recent years substantial evidence has come to light indicating that a
significant number of large motors are exposed to transient voltage conditions which
result in reduced winding life or premature failures (either turn-to-turn or turn-toground).
Under the certain circumstances, these transient voltages can be caused by any of the
following power system conditions:

Lightning strikes, direct or indirect.

Capacitor switching.

High speed contactor operation. (Automatic line recloses)

Distribution system failures.

Repetitive restrikes (arcing).

Estimates of the magnitude of these surges normally range from two to five times the
normal line-to-neutral crest voltage with rise times ranging from .1 u seconds
(microseconds) to 10 u seconds.

Typical Transient Voltage Wave Front

Recommended Guide for Selection of Surge Capacitors & Lightning Arrestors

Max Motor
Maximum Peak
Maximum Rate
Rated Voltage Voltage (VM) in KV of Rise in KV/u Sec
600

2.3

.6

2400

10

1.0

4160

16

1.6

4800

19

1.9

6600

25

2.5

6900

26

2.6

The table above indicates the maximum withstand voltages (VM) and rate rise for
Line Motors.
For applications where the values in the table above are exceeded, it is recommended
that a special insulation system with increased dielectric strength be used (turn-toturn and turn-to-ground) or that surge capacitors and / or lightning arrestors be
utilized. From an availability and economic standpoint the latter alternative should be
used.

Surge Protection and Lighting Arrestors

Lightning arrestors limit the magnitude of the transient voltage spike. This is achieved
by the arrestor conducting to ground when the voltage reaches a given value. Surge
capacitors limit the rate of rise of the voltage. This is achieved by the capacitor

momentarily absorbing some of the initial energy thereby slowing down or sloping the
steep wave front.
System
Voltage
Capacitor Rating
Arrestor Rating ( KV )

UFD
RMS

600
1.0
.6
.65
2400
.5
2.4
3.0
4160
.5
4.16

4.5
4800
.5
4.8
6.0
6600
.5
6.6
7.5
6900
.5
6.9
7.5

Recommended Application of Capacitors & Arrestors

The surge capacitor should be located between the motor and the lightning arrestors
and as close to the motors as possible for maximum effectiveness (limiting capacitor
lead length to 3 feet is recommended). Fusing of the arrestors or capacitors is not
recommended because of the difficulty in determining if or when the fuse has blown

Current transformers:
It is necessary that the fault is cleared at the shortest possible
time in order to reduce the effect of the short circuit on the system.
While isolating the faulty section the healthy portion shall remain
uninterrupted this means there must be selectivity while clearing
the faults so that healthy sections are not affected.
Today there are fast operating relays and circuit breakers for
achieving the above. However it is necessary that the instrument
the instrument transformer feeding the relay shall be accurate in
order that the operation of relay is reliable. Therefore the reliable
performance of the current transformer for satisfactory operation of
system assumes great importance.
Performance of the C.T for a particular application depends on
the right choice whether needs the under-standing of the various
parameters which go into the design and manufacture as well as
different types of C.T available for the choice.
Instrument transformer is defined as transformer intended to
feed the measuring instruments, meters relays and other similar
apparatus .A current transformer is an instrument transformer in
which the secondary current ( in normal condition of use) is
substantially reduced proportional to the primary current and differs
in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for
appropriate direction of connections.

Functions of the current transformer

It transforms the high value primary current to substantially
low value secondary current which can be fed directly to measuring
instruments for measuring the current and power in the main
circuit.
The other five important function of the CT many times not
realize to isolate the CT secondary side from the high voltage side of
the main network, so that the secondary current can be handled
safely. Often CTs are used simply to isolate the secondary from the

high voltage on the primary side. For this purpose CTs having a
ration of 5/5A are common. They are frequently used to measure
small currents at high voltage in the test labs.
Sometimes it may be necessary to give a feed back of actual
load to certain control devices for taking corrective actions ( in the
case of voltage regulators) the current transformers are used for
giving such feedback of load to the regulators/control equipments.
Two identical breakers are used many times for sharing the
current in case of medium voltage switch gear for high current
feeders. Due to slight difference in path resistance there may be
current imbalance in current can be corrected by providing suitable
cross connected by providing suitable cross connected current
transformers.
Following are the definitions of some of the main terms used
in the selection of the C.T and in specifying the
characteristics of the C.T:

Rated burden and output:

The rated burden of a current transformer is the apparent
resistance of the secondary circuit (expressed in ohms together with
the power factor) for which the specified accuracy limits are valid.
The rated output of a current transformer is the apparent power
( expressed in VA together with the power factor) which the current
transformer can deliver to the secondary circuit at the rated current
and burden while maintain its accuracy in the specified class.
The rated output is equal to the product of the rated secondary
current and the voltage drop in the external secondary circuit due to
this current.
The standard values of the rated outputs up to 30 VA are
2.5 5 10 15 30 VA
Above the 30 VA rated output may be selected as per requirements

The internal consumption of the secondary winding of the

current transformer is the apparent power in VA given by the
product of the rated secondary current and the voltage drop in the
secondary winding due to this current.

Accuracy Limit Factor:

The accuracy limit current is the highest primary current at
which a current transformer still meets the specified requirements
as regards total error.
The accuracy limit factor is the ratio of the accuracy limit
current to the rated primary current. The standardised accuracy
limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.
Specification of accuracy limit factor:
The accuracy limit factor defines the behaviour of a protective
current transformer core under over-current conditions. In
accordance with the definition given above, the accuracy limit factor
is that multiple of the rated current at which the total error attains
the maximum permissible value i.e. the current at which the
saturation commences.
The accuracy limit factor for the current transformer cores for
protection purposes represents a minimum value. In this case it
should be chosen as high as possible-late saturation and linear
transformation up to a large multiple of the rated current ensures
the correct response of the protective devices to a short circuit. A
current transformer for protection purposes is specified by stating
its class followed by the required accuracy limit factor. For example
5P 20 means a current transformer for protection purpose having
maximum total error of 5 at 20 times rated current.
In order to avoid excessively large and expensive cores
particularly at small currents the VA requirements should be kept as
low as possible and the minimum possible ALF specified.

Knee point voltage:

This is the sinusoidal e.g. of rated frequency applied to the
secondary terminals of the C.T all other winding being open
circuited which when increased by 10% causes the exciting current
to increase by 50% or more.
The knee point voltage indicates that voltage above which the
C.T enters into the saturation and exciting current increases rapidly
with any further increase in the voltage. Since exciting current is
mostly responsible for the introduction of the errors in the C.T
(higher the exciting current higher will be the errors) the errors of
C.T above knee point voltage are very high
Rated short time terminal current:
The R.M.S value of the primary current which the current
transformer will withstand for one second without suffering harmful
effect the secondary being short circuited this rating is for a very
short time and it is usually assumed that entire heat generated is
stored in the primary winding itself.

Classification of the current

transformers

Depending on the location of installation:

Indoor

outdoor

Depending on the application:

Metering

Protection

Depending on the location in the circuit :

Main C.T

Auxiliary C.T

Depending on the type of construction:

Bar

Ring

Wound

Split Core

Linear

Cascade.

Depending on the type of insulation:

Dry type

Oil impregnated paper

Epoxy

Sf6

Depending on the location of secondary core and winding:

Tank type

Inverted type

Insulator type

C.T as per the Application:

Normally the C.T are used for the feeding the instruments,
relays , voltage regulations etc equipment being feed will impose a
specific requirement on the C.T.
C.T for the Metering purpose:
C.Ts feed for the metering instruments shall be able to
transform the current at an acceptable degree of the accuracy to
the secondary side from 10% to 120% of the rated current however
at the same time under fault condition secondary reflected current
should not be very high so as to damage the instrument
Normally the ISF of the 0.5 is specified it is found from
experience that the instrument are not damaged even if the current
of 10 times the rated current or more passes through them for a
short duration therefore the ISF of 5 is not always a must and can be
relaxed when there are design constraints the cost of the C.T
depends on the burden as well as the accuracy class. While
selecting C.T attention is to be paid towards the application.
C.T for the protection:
In this case the C.T shall have the desired accuracy between
the rated current up to the maximum desired reflected secondary
current under fault condition. Required by the type of the protection
C.T generally need not be accurate below the rated current .
Many times because of design limitations it will be difficult to
achieve the accuracy class of 5P. However for most of the protection
accuracy of 10P should be acceptable since under fault condition
accuracy of the 5P to 10P will not have any appreciable effect on
most of the relay characteristics.
Apart from the general protection class 5P 10P the
requirement for some of the specific type of relays are specified in
terms of the knee point voltage are known as PS class.
For protection CT international practice is to specify accuracy
class of 5P only the relays of most of the reputed manufacturers are
working satisfactorily with C.Ts of the above specifications
therefore under most of the circumstances CT of 5P/10P shall be
sufficient to feed the relays of most of the manufacturers.

Recommended accuracy class for relays and metering

instruments are indicating in the table below
In case an interrupting CT is used attention shall be paid to the
combined accuracy of the main CT and interposing CT as a block
apart from the reflected burden on the main CT.
ACCURACY
CLASS

APPLICATION AND TYPE OF APPARATUS.

0.1

Very accurate measurements in laboratories and testing

equipments.

0.2

Accurate power measurements and terrify metering for

special requirements.

0.5

Active and reactive power meters for normal terrify

metering.

Wattmeters check counters, power and directional relays.

Current relays and thermal relays

5P10,5P20

Differential and distance protection relay and direction

comparison relays.

SELECTION OF C.T

Finding the burden:

o Burden =( burden of equipment+ burden of cable ) * 1.2

Finding the C.T Ratio:

P=1.73*V*I*Cos

Knee point voltage > fault voltage

For understanding the way to select the C.T ratio let us assume
an practical example where we have to select the C.T ratio.
(Note: The values which are being used in the example are not
practical values but are only assumed)

Initially to calculate the C.T ratio:

P=1.73VICOS

P=45MW

V=11KV

COS =0.8

Therefore I =2952.3A

I to be selected = (2952.3A *1.2) = 3542.83A

Therefore the current ratio is 3600:1

Burden is calculated for each and every C.T as per the formula

Burden =( burden of equipment+ burden of cable ) * 1.2

The class is decided as per the table shown above.

The solution for the above problem is being shown

below

Potential Transformer
Potential transformer are used for the measurement and the
protection purpose accordingly they are of two types measuring
type or the protective type and they may be either single phase
or three phase units
There are two types of the construction:

Electromagnetic type in which the primary and the secondary

are wound on the magnetic core like in usual transformers

Capacitor potential transformer in which the primary voltage is

applied to a series capacitor group. The voltage across one of
the capacitors is taken to auxiliary voltage transformer the
secondary of the voltage transformer is taken for the
protection or the measurement.

The CCVT combines the function of the coupling capacitor as

well as the potential transformer.

The specifications for the Voltage Transformer are as follows

Rated primary voltage

Rated secondary voltage

Rated burden

Supplied frequency

Number of phases

Class of the accuracy

Insulation level power frequency and impulse voltage withstand.

Limits of dimensions type of construction etc.

Rated primary voltage:

The primary voltage marked on the rating plate of the voltage
transformer. The method of connection of primary winding to
system and system voltage should be considered while selecting the
P.T of correct primary voltage rating.

Voltage factor:
The upper limit of the operating voltage is given by (Rated voltage * Voltage
factor) is specified for certain time e.g. 1.1 continuous 1.5 for 60 sec 1.9 for
30 sec

Measuring voltage transformer error limits.

Accuracy class

0.8 - 1.2 * rated voltage

0.25- 1.0* rated burden at 0.8PF
Voltage ration
error

Phase displacement
(minutes)

(%)
0.1

+/-0.1

+/-5

0.2

+/-0.2

+/-10

0.5

+/-0.5

+/-20

1.0

+/-1.0

+/-40

3.0

+/-3.0

Not specified

Limits for protection voltage transformers:

0.25 1.0*rated burden at 0.8 PF
Accuracy
class

0.05 Vf * rated primary voltage

Voltage ratio
error

Phase displacement
(%)

(%)
3P

+/-30

+/-120

6P

+/-60

+/-240

Voltage Transformer permissible duration of maximum voltage.

Voltage
factor

1.2

Time

Phase displacement

rating
continuous

Between lines in any network

Between transformer star point and
earth in any network.

1.2

continuous

1.5

30 s

1.2

continuous

1.9

30 s

1.2

continuous

1.9

8 hours

Between line and earth in an

effectively earthed network.

Between line and earth in a non

effectively earthed neutral system with
automatic earth fault tripping

Between line and earth in an isolated

neutral system without automatic
earth fault tripping or in a resonant
earthed system without automatic
earth fault tripping.

References:

Power System Protection

By - B.A.OZA.

www.siemens.com

www.allinterview.com

Reference manuals from Siemens.

CONCLUSION:
During our training period we came
much closer to the industrial environment
and their managing capabilities.
Due to this training our technical as
well as non-Technical skills have been
polished.
Due to this training we came to know
AN ENGINEERING WITHOUT TRAINING IS
JUST LIKE A SHIP WITHOUT RUDDER

87 |SIEMENS TRAINING REPORT

Bhavik Electrical funda

Wednesday, July 4, 2012
Electrical Funda

Electrical Questions and Answers Part-4

(1) When Neutral Isolation is required? Or PCC Incomers & Bus Couplers are
normally 4-Pole.

Neutral Isolation is mandatory when you have a Mains Supply Source and a Standby Power Supply Source. This is necessary because if you do not have neutral
isolation and the neutrals of both the sources are linked, then when only one source
is feeding and the other source is OFF, during an earth fault, the potential of the OFF
Sources Neutral with respect to earth will increase, which might harm any
maintenance personnel working on the OFF source.

It is for this reason that PCC Incomers & Bus Couplers are normally 4-Pole. (Note
that only either the incomer or the bus coupler needs to be 4-pole and not both).

3pole or 4pole switches are used in changing over two independent sources, where
the neutral of one source and the neutral of another source should not mix.

The examples are electricity board power supply and standalone generator supply
etc. the neutral return current from one source should not mix with or return to
another source.

As a mandatory point the neutral of any transformer etc are to be earthed, similarly
the neutral of a generator also has to be earthed. While paralling (under uncontrolled
condition) the neutral current between the 2 sources will cross and create tripping of
anyone source breaker.

Also as per IEC standard the neutral of a distribution system shall not be earthed
more than once. Means earthing the neutral further downstream is not correct.

(2) NGR grounded system vs. solidly grounded system

In India, at low voltage level (433V) you must do only Solid Earthing of the system
neutral. This is by IE Rules 1956, Rule No. 61 (1) (a).

Because, if you opt for impedance earthing, during an earth fault, there will be
appreciable voltage present between the faulted body & the neutral, the magnitude
of this voltage being determined by the fault current magnitude and the impedance
value.

This voltage might circulate enough current in a person accidentally coming in

contact with the faulted equipment, as to harm his even causing death. Note that, LV
systems can be handled by non-technical persons too.

In solid earthing, you do not have this problem, as at the instant of an earth fault, the
faulted phase goes to neutral potential and the high fault current would invariably
cause the Over current or short circuit protection device to operate in sufficiently
quick time before any harm could be done.

(3) Transformer tertiary winding

Providing a tertiary winding for a transformer may be a costly affair. However, there
are certain constraints in a system which calls for a tertiary transformer winding
especially in the case of considerable harmonic levels in the distribution system.
Tertiary winding is may be used for any of the following purposes:

1) To limit the fault level on the LV system by subdividing the in feed that is, double
secondary transformers.

2) The interconnection of several power systems operating at different supply

voltages.

3) The regulation of system voltage and of reactive power by means of a

synchronous capacitor connected to the terminals of one winding.

(4) The transmission tower construction Middle arm is longer than the upper and
lower arm

To prevent a broken upper line from falling on one or more of the phase lines below.

The clearance from other phase.

o Mutual inductance minimization.
o Preventing droplet of water/ice to fall on bottom conductor.
o To prevent big birds from bumping their heads against the overhead line
when they sit on the wire below.

(5) What is the difference between Insulating, Isolating, and Shielded Winding
transformers?

Insulating and isolating transformers are identical.

These terms are used to describe the separation of the primary and secondary
windings.

A shielded transformer includes a metallic shield between the primary and secondary
windings to attenuate (lessen) transient noise.

(6) Why Dont We Break Neutral in AC Circuits?

Neutral is connected to earth at some point, thus it has some value as a return path
in the event of say and equipment earth being faulty. Its a bit like asking why dont
we break the Earth connection

It was stupid and dangerous, as it was possible for the neutral fuse to blow; giving
the appearance of no power when in fact the equipment was still live.

(7) Insulation Resistance / Polarization Index:

Motor Insulation Resistance:

The acceptable meg-ohm value = motor KV rating value + 1 (For LV and MV Motor).

Example, for a 5 KV motor, the minimum phase to ground (motor body) insulation is
5 + 1 = 6 meg-ohm.

Panel Bus Insulation Resistance:

The acceptable meg-ohm value = 2 x KV rating of the panel.

Example, for a 5 KV panel, the minimum insulation is 2 x 5 = 10 meg-ohm

IEEE 43 INSULATION RESISTANCE AND POLARIZATION INDEX (min IR at

400C in M)

Minimum
Insulation
Resistance

TEST SPECIMEN

For most windings made before about 1970, all field windings,
R1 min = kV+1 R1
and others not described below For most dc armature and ac
min = 100
windings built after about 1970 (form wound coils)
R1 min = 5

For most machines with random -wound stator coils and formwound coils rated below 1kV

(8) What method is used for Protection of Lighting in Transmission Line and
Building?

Transmission Line Lightning Protection General:

The transmission line towers would normally be higher than a substation structure,
unless you have a multi-storey structure at your substation.

Earth Mats are essential in all substation areas, along with driven earth electrodes
(unless in a dry sandy desert site).

It is likewise normal to run catenary (aerial earth conductors) for at least 1kM out
from all substation structures. Those earth wires to be properly electrically to each
supporting transmission tower, and bonded back to the substation earth system.

It is important to have the catenary earth conductors above the power conductor
lines, at a sufficient distance and position that a lightning strike will not hit the power
conductors.

In some cases it is thus an advantage to have two catenary earth conductors, one
each side of the transmission tower as they protect the power lines below in a better
manner.

In lightning-prone areas it is often necessary to have catenary earthing along the full
distance of the transmission line.

Without specifics, (and you could not presently give tower pictures in a Post because
of a CR4 Server graphics upload problem), specifics would include:

Structure Lightning Protection General:

At the Substation, it is normal to have vertical electrodes bonded to the structure,

and projecting up from the highest points of the structure, with the location and
number of those electrodes to be sufficient that if a lightning strike arrived, it would
always be a vertical earthed electrode which would be struck, rather than any
electrical equipment.

In some older outdoor substation structures, air-break isolator switches are often at a
very high point in the structure, and in those cases small structure extension towers
are installed, with electrodes at the tapered peak of those extension towers.

The extension towers are normally 600mm square approximately until the extension
tower changes shape at the tapered peak and in some cases project upwards from
the general structure 2 to 6 meters, with the electrode some 2 to 3 meters projecting
upwards from the top of the extension tower.

The substation normally has a Lightning Counter which registers a strike on the
structure or connected catenary earth conductors, and the gathering of that
information (Lightning Days, number per Day/Month/Year, Amperage of each strike)
gives the Engineering Staff good statistics for future substation design.

1. Location
2. Country
3. Site soil type and resistivity
4. Number of Lightning Days
5. Expected Voltage + Current of a local lightning strike
6. Other Advise please.
(9) What is service factor?

Service factor is the load that may be applied to a motor without exceeding allowed
ratings. For example, if a 10-hp motor has a 1.25 service factor; it will successfully
deliver 12.5 hp (10 x 1.25) without exceeding specified temperature rise. Note that
when being driven above its rated load in this manner, the motor must be supplied
with rated voltage and frequency.

Keep in mind, however, that a 10-hp motor with a 1.25 service factor is not a 12.5-hp
motor. If the 10-hp motor is operated continuously at 12.5 hp, its insulation life could
be decreased by as much as two-thirds of normal. If you need a 12.5-hp motor, buy
one; service factor should only be used for short-term overload conditions.

(10) Use of Stones/Gravel in electrical Switch Yard helps in

Reducing Step and Touch potentials during Short Circuit Faults

Eliminates the growth of weeds and small plants in the yard

Improves yard working condition

Protects from fire which cause due to oil spillage from transformer and also protects
from wild habitat.

(11)Transformer body earthing and Neutral earthing connections

The earthing must have minimum resistance. yes for small trans. if neutral is directly
earthed then the same earthing point can be used for body earthing too, but in case
of big size trans. where neutral is grounded through impedance or resistance, the
length of body earthing increases that time, so better to use separate earthing pit
which will provide minimum resistance path for body,

You can also ensure that the resistance between two different earthing pits in your
company is having almost negligible resistance, so both are redundant.

In India It is mandatory as per IE rules that u have 2 neutral earth pits exclusively
which can also be connected to the earth grid .Body earthing needs separate pits.
Earthing does not receive as much attention as one would desire. It may never be in
use in its life time. But if and when a fault occurs it should be in condition.

(12) Why the up to dia 70mm live conductors, the earth cable must be same size?
Above dia 70mm live conductors the earth conductor need to be only dia 70mm?

The current carrying capacity of a cable refers to it carrying a continuous load. An

earth cable normally carries no load, and under fault conditions will carry a significant
instantaneous current but only for a short time most Regulations define 0.1 to 5
sec before the fuse or breaker trips. Its size therefore is defined by different
calculating parameters.

The magnitude of earth fault current depends on:

(a) The external earth loop impedance of the installation (i.e. beyond the supply
terminals)

(b) The impedance of the active conductor in fault

(c) The impedance of the earth cable.

i.e. Fault current = voltage / a + b + c

Now when the active conductor (b) is small, its impedance is much more than (a), so
the earth (c) cable is sized to match.

As the active conductor gets bigger, its impedance drops significantly below that of
the external earth loop impedance (a); when quite large (here in 70mm 2) its
impedance can be ignored. At this point there is no merit in increasing the earth
cable size

i.e. Fault current = voltage / a + c

(c) is also very small so the fault current peaks out.

The neutral conductor is a separate issue. It is defined as an active conductor and

therefore must be sized for continuous full load. In a 3-phase system, if balanced, no
neutral current flows. It used to be common practice to install reduced neutral
supplies, and cables are available with say half-size neutrals (remember a neutral is
always necessary to provide single phase voltages). However the increasing use of
non-linear loads which produce harmonics has made this practice dangerous, so for
example the current require full size neutrals. Indeed, in big UPS installations need
to install double neutrals and earths for this reason.

(13) The difference between Ground and Neutral?

NEUTRAL is the origin of all current flow. In a poly-phase system, as its phase
relationship with all the three phases is the same, (i.e.) as it is not biased towards
any one phase, thus remaining neutral, thats why it is called neutral.

Whereas, GROUND is the EARTH on which we stand. It was perceived to utilize this
vast, omnipresent conductor of electricity, in case of fault, so that the fault current
returns to the source neutral through this conductor given by nature which is
available free of cost. If earth is not used for this purpose, then one has to lay a long.
Long metallic conductor for the purpose, thus increasing the cost.

Ground should never be used as neutral. The protection devices (e.g. ELCB, RCD
etc) work basically on principle that the phase currents are balanced with neutral
current. In case you use ground wire as the neutral, these are bound to trip if they
are there and they must be there. At least at substations. And these are kept very
sensitive i.e. even minute currents are supposed to trip these.

One aspect is safety when someone touches a neutral, you do not want him to be
electrocuted.

Usually if the switches at home are on the phase and not neutral (except at the MCB
stage). Any one assumes the once the switch is off, it is safe (the safety is taken care
of in 3 wire system, but again most of the fixtures are on 2 wire) he will be shocked
at the accidental touching of wire in case the floating neutral is floating too much.

(14)

What is impedance of a transformer?

It means the ratio of the voltage (that if you applied it to one side of the transformer
while the other side of the transformer is short circuited, a full load current shall flow
in the the short circuited side), to the full load current.

More the %Z of transformer, more copper used for winding, increasing cost of the
unit. But short circuit levels will reduce; mechanical damages to windings during
short circuit shall also reduce. However, cost increases significantly with increase in
%Z.

Lower %Z means economical designs. But short circuit fault levels shall increase
tremendously, damaging the winding & core.

The high value of %Z helps to reduce short circuit current but it causes more voltage
dip for motor starting and more voltage regulation (% change of voltage variation)
from no load to full load.

Follow the steps below:

(1) Short the secondary side of the transformer with current measuring devices
(Ammeter)

(2) Apply low voltage in primary side and increase the voltage so that the secondary
current is the rated secondary current of the transformer. Measure the primary
voltage (V1).

(3) Divide the V1 by the rated primary voltage of the transformer and multiply by 100.
This value is the percentage impedance of the transformer.

When we divide the primary voltage V1 with the full load voltage we will get the short
circuit impedance of the transformer with refereed to primary or Z01. For getting the
percentage impedance we need to use the formula = Z01*Transformer MVA /
(Square of Primary line voltage).

(15) Why a neutral grounding contactor is needed in diesel generator?

There wont be any current flow in neutral if DG is loaded equally in 3 phases, if

there any fault (earth fault or over load) in any one of the phase, then there will be
UN balanced load in DG. At that time heavy current flow through the neutral, it is
sensed by CT and trips the DG. So neutral in grounded to give low resistance path to
fault current.

An electrical system consisting of more than two low voltage Diesel Generator sets
intended for parallel operation shall meet the following conditions:

(i) Neutral of only one generator needs to be earthed to avoid the flow of zero
sequence current.

(ii) During independent operation, neutrals of both generators are required in low
voltage switchboard to obtain three phases, 4 wire system including phase to neutral
voltage.

(iii) required to achieve restricted earth fault protection (REF) for both the generators
whilst in operation.

Solution:

Considering the requirement of earthing neutral of only one generator, a contactor of

suitable rating shall be provided in neutral to earth circuit of each generator. This
contactor can be termed as neutral contactor.

Neutral contactors shall be interlocked in such a way that only one contactor shall
remain closed during parallel operation of generators. During independent operation
of any generator its neutral contactor shall be closed.

Operation of neutral contactors shall be preferably made automatic using breaker

auxiliary contacts.

(16) Calculate the size the CT on the neutral point of the secondary side of 11/0.415
kV Transformer

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

For high impedance relays (differential or restricted earth fault relays), Class X
current transformers are recommended to be used.

Please note that both CTs (neutral & phase) shall have the same characteristics. The
following is an example to size the CT:

Input data:

11/0.415 kV Power transformer capacity: 2500 kVA (given);

Transformer % impedance (Z): 6% (assumed);
Length of cable from neutral CT to the relay located at LVSP: 200 m (given);
Cross section of CT cable to be used: 6 mm -copper (assumed);
CT cable resistance: 0.0032 /m (from manufacturer data).

Step 1: Calculation of CT Rated Primary Current

1. I = kVA/ (0.4151.732) = 2500/ (0.4151.732) = 3478.11 A, CT with primary current of

4000 A to be selected.
2. Select the secondary current of the CT 1 or 5 A. selecting 1 A secondary current, as the

cross section and length of pilot wires can have a significant effect on the required knee
voltage of the CT and therefore the size and cost of the CT. When the relay is located some
distance from the CT, the burden is increased by the resistance of the pilot wires.

1.
2.

Step 2: Calculation of max. Fault Current

Ift = kVA/ (0.4151.732x Z)

Ift = 2500/ (0.4151.7320.06) = 57968.59 A (rounded to 58000 A)

Step 3: Calculation of the Knee Voltage of the CT (Vkp)

1. Vkp = (2x Iftx (Rct+Rw)/CT transformation ratio)

2. Where:
3. Rct: is the CT resistance (to be given by the manufacturer), for the purpose of
illustration, we will use a typical Rct value in this example (1.02 ) given by one of the CT
manufacturers.
4. Rw: total CT cable resistance= 2x cable length (200 m) x wire resistance=
2x200x0.0032= 1.28
5. CT transformation ratio = CT Primary Current/CT Secondary Current
6. CT transformation ratio = 4000/5= 800 A, for CT with 5 A secondary current; or,
7. CT transformation ratio = 4000/1= 4000 A, for CT with 1 A secondary current. We will
use 1 A in this example.
8. Vkp = (2x58000x (1.02+1.28)/4000)= 66.7 V

The Vkp of the CT should be higher than the setting of relay stability voltage (Vs), to
ensure stability of the protection during max.

Through fault current. To calculate the stability voltage, you should follow the related
formula given by the relay manufacturer, as each relay manufacturer has its own
formula.

You may calculate the Vkp as above using a CT with secondary current of 5 A, and
you will notice the difference in the Vkp.

(17) Why do we ground the wye windings of transformers and generators?

In section 1.4.2, IEEE Std 142-1991 (Green Book) states: Numerous advantages
are attributed to grounded systems, including greater safety, freedom from excessive
system overvoltage that can occur on ungrounded systems during arcing, resonant
or near-resonant ground faults, and easier detection and location of ground faults
when they do occur.

If you effectively ground the neutral, you have just replaced the hazards associated
with ungrounded systems with new hazards in the form of arc flash / blast hazards,
which are associated with solidly grounded systems.

In section 7.2.4, IEEE Std 141-1993 (Red Book) states: A safety hazard exists for
solidly grounded systems from the severe flash, arc burning, and blast hazard from
any phase-to-ground fault. For this reason, IEEE Std 142-1991 (Green Book), in
section 1.4.3, states the benefits of resistance grounding: The reasons for limiting
the current by resistance grounding may be one or more of the following:

(1) To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric equipment, such as
switchgear, transformers, cables, and rotating machines.

(2) To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying fault currents.

(3) To reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground-fault

currents in the ground return path.

(4) To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who may have accidentally
caused or who happen to be in close proximity to the ground fault.

(5) To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by the clearing of a ground
fault.

(6) To secure control of transient overvoltage while at the same time avoiding the
shutdown of a faulty circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault (highresistance grounding).

Its best to not only ground the neutral, but also to ground through high-resistance
(typically 5A) for all systems less than 600V and most systems from 600V to 5kV.
For systems more than 5kV, low-resistance grounding (typically 200A or 400A) is
used.

(18) What are the results of if we do not ground a 480/277V, 3-phase, 4-wire diesel
generator set? Take into consideration the two options of switching or not
switching the neutral.

By not grounding, lets assume to an ungrounded system. Ungrounded systems

can be extremely unsafe, as per our previously cited excerpts from the IEEE Buff
and Red Books. In bonding your neutral to the grounded chassis, you are effectively
solidly grounding your generator. The consequence of doing this is that you have
now replaced hazards. By limiting the ground fault to 5A, you have avoided the
hazards with solidly grounded systems.

In addition, several generator set manufacturers require resistance grounding, since

the generators are not rated for ground faults. In fact, these faults are often

significantly higher than 3-phase faults. In section 1.8.1, the IEEE Green Book
states: Unlike a transformer a generator will usually have higher initial groundfault current than 3-phase fault current if the generator has a solidly grounded
neutral. According to NEMA, the generator is required to withstand only the 3-phase
current level unless it is otherwise specified

This is due to very low zero-sequence impedance within the generator, which causes
very high earth fault currents. For generators 600V or below, this may not be an
issue. However, it is almost always an issue as the voltage class increases.

The resistor also significantly reduces any circulating currents, which are typically
triple harmonics, leading to reduced overheating in the generator windings.
Circulating currents are caused by different pitch windings in generators.

For solidly grounded systems, neutral switching is a viable option. According to the
NEC, when the service falls under the requirements of 230.95, you should ground
the neutral at each source and switch it where the Code requires ground-fault
detection coordination.

When the service rating equals or exceeds 1,000A (833kVA), 230.95 requires
ground-fault protection on the service disconnect. Along with this, if you have an
alternate power supply, you must switch the neutral. If you have a service larger than
1,000A, the NEC requires ground-fault protection at the main service disconnect.

If the generator neutral grounding runs via a solid connection to the main service
neutral and the generator experiences a ground fault while feeding the load, the
main service disconnect will open. This will not disconnect the arc fault from the
generator, and coordination will be lost.

Furthermore, if the neutrals of the two sources are separately grounded, you must
switch the load neutral conductor to the source feeding the load, as per 230.95(C)
FPN No. 3. Ground-fault current will return only to the source from which it
originates, providing for coordination of the ground-fault protection scheme. Its not
always necessary to separately ground the generator neutral conductor. However, if
you do, you may need to switch a load neutral along with its phase conductors when
transferring loads between power sources, particularly when you use ground-fault
protection. The NEC requires ground-fault protection for 480/277V, 3-phase, 4-wire,
wye-connected services rated 1,000A or more, but its optional in other
configurations that dont include ground-fault protection. However, where a branch
circuit neutral conductor transfers between sources, the switching means should
assure the neutral conductor switching contact does not interrupt current.

(19) If one lamp connects between two phases it will glow or not?

If the voltage between the two phases is equal to the lamp voltage then the lamp will
glow.

When the voltage difference is big it will damage the lamp and when the difference is
smaller the lamp will glow depending on the type of lamp. On the type of lamp.

(20) Why transmission line 11Kv OR 33KV, 66Kv not in 10kv 20kv?

The form factor of an alternating current waveform (signal) is the ratio of the RMS
(Root Mean Square) value to the average value (mathematical mean of absolute
values of all points on the waveform). In case of a sinusoidal wave, the form factor is
approximately 1.11.

The reason is something historical. In olden days when the electricity becomes
popular, the people had a misconception that in the transmission line there would be
a voltage loss of around 10%. So in order to get 100 at the load point they started
sending 110 from supply side.

This is the reason. It has nothing to do with form factor (1.11).

Nowadays that thought has changed and we are using 400 V instead of 440 V, or
230 V instead of 220 V.

Also alternators are now available with terminal voltages from 10.5 kV to 15.5 kV so
generation in multiples of 11 does not arise.

(21) When should We use Molded Case Circuit Breakers and Mini Circuit Breakers?

First of all MCB is Miniature Circuit Breaker, since it is miniature it has limitation for
Short Circuit Current and Amp Rating Both.

MCB:

MCB are available as Singe module and used for :-

Number of Pole :- 1,2,3,4 1+ N , & 3 + N

Usually Current range for A.C. 50-60 HZ, is from 0.5 Amp 63 Amp. Also available
80A, 100A, and 125 Amp.

SC are limited 10 KA

Applications are as: Industrial, Commercial and Residential application.

Tripping Curve: (1) B Resistive and lighting load, (2) C Motor Load, (3) D Highly
inductive load.

MCCB: Moulded Case Circuit Breaker.

MCCB:

MCCB are available as Singe module and used for :-

Number of Pole :- 3 pole , & 4 Pole

Usually Current range for A.C., 50-60 HZ, are from 3.2 /6.3/12.5/25/50/100/125/ 160
Amp. SC 25/35/65 KA.

200 250 Amp. SC 25/35/65 KA

400 630/800 Amp SC 50 KA

Protection release :-Static Trip :- Continuous adjustable overload protection range 50

to 100 % of the rated current Earth fault protection can be add on with adjustable
earth fault pick up setting 15 to 80 % of the current.

Micro processor Based release:

Over load rated current 0.4 1.0 in steps of o.1 of in trip time at 600 % Ir (sec)
0.2.0.5,1, 1.5 , 2 ,3

Short Circuit :-2 10 in steps of 1 lr , short time delay (sec) 0.02.0.05,0.1, 0.2 ,0.3

Instantaneous pick up ;- 2 10 in steps of 1 in Ground fault pick up Disable, 0.2

0.8 in steps of 0.1 of in Ground fault delay (sec) 0.1 -=to 0.4 in steps of 0.1

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) Trip characteristics normally not adjustable, factory
set but in case of MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker)Trip current field
adjustable.

(22) How to Check Capacitor by Multi Meter.

Most troubles with Capacitors either open or short.

A multi meter is good enough. A shorted C will clearly show very low resistance. An
open C will not show any movement on ohmmeter.

A good capacitor will show low resistance initially, and resistance gradually
increases. This shows that C is not bad. By shorting the two ends of C (charged by
ohmmeter) momentarily can give a weak spark.

(23) How to identify the winding starting and ending leads in a motor which is
having 6 leads in the
terminal box

If it is a single speed motor then you have to identify 6 leads.

Use IR tester to identify 3 windings and their 6 leads. Then connect any two leads of
two winding and apply small voltage across it and measure the current.

Then again connect alternate windings of same two windings and apply small
amount of voltage (same as before) and measure current.

Check in which mode you get the max current and then mark it as a1-a2 & b1-b2.
You get max current when a2-b1 will be connected and voltage applied between a1b2.

Follow the same process to identify a1-a2, b1-b2, c1-c2.now you will be able to
connect it in delta or star.

(24) What happens if I connect a capacitor to a generator load?

Connecting a capacitor across a generator always improves power factor, but it will
help depends up on the engine capacity of the alternator, otherwise the alternator will
be over loaded due to the extra watts consumed due to the improvement on pf.
Secondly, do not connect a capacitor across an alternator while it is picking up or
without any other load.

(25) Transformer tertiary winding

Providing a tertiary winding for a transformer may be a costly affair. However, there
are certain constraints in a system which calls for a tertiary transformer winding
especially in the case of considerable harmonic levels in the distribution system.
Tertiary winding is may be used for any of the following purposes:
o (1) To limit the fault level on the LV system by subdividing the in feed that is
double secondary T.C.
o (2) The interconnection of several power systems operating at different supply
voltages.
o (3) The regulation of system voltage and of reactive power by means of a
synchronous capacitor connected to the terminals of one winding.
o It is desirable that a three-phase transformer should have one set of threephase windings connected in delta thus providing a low-impedance path for
third-harmonic currents. The presence of a delta connected winding also
allows current to circulate around the delta in the event of unbalance in the
loading between phases, so that this unbalance is reduced and not so greatly
fed back through the system.

o Since the third-order harmonic components in each phase of a three-phase

system are in phase, there can be no third-order harmonic voltages between
lines. The third-order harmonic component of the magnetizing current must
thus flow through the neutral of a star-connected winding, where the neutral
of the supply and the star-connected winding are both earthed, or around any
delta-connected winding. If there is no delta winding on a star/star
transformer, or the neutral of the transformer and the supply are not both
connected to earth, then line to earth capacitance currents in the supply
system lines can supply the necessary harmonic component. If the harmonics
cannot flow in any of these paths then the output voltage will contain the
harmonic distortion.
o Even if the neutral of the supply and the star-connected winding are both
earthed, then although the transformer output waveform will be undistorted,
the circulating third-order harmonic currents flowing in the neutral can cause
interference with telecommunications circuits and other electronic equipment
as well as unacceptable heating in any liquid neutral earthing resistors, so
this provides an added reason for the use of a delta connected tertiary
winding.
o If the neutral of the star-connected winding is unearthed then, without the use
of a delta tertiary, this neutral point can oscillate above and below earth at a
voltage equal in magnitude to the third-order harmonic component. Because
the use of a delta tertiary prevents this it is sometimes referred to as a
stabilizing winding.
(26) If 200watt, 100watt and 60 watt lamps connected in series with a source of 230V
AC supply, which lamp glow brighter??Each lamp voltage rating is 230V.

Each bulb when independently working will have currents (W/V= I)

200/230=0.8696 A

100/230=0.4348 A

60/230=0.2609 A respectively

Resistance of each bulb filament is (V/I = R)

230/0.8696= 264.5 ohms

230/0.4348 = 528.98 ohms and

881.6 ohms respectively

Now, when in series, current flowing in all bulbs will be same. The energy released
will be I2R

Thus, light output will be highest where resistance is highest. Thus, 60 watt bulb will
be brightest.

The 60W lamp as it has highest resistance & minimum current requirement.

Highest voltage drop across it X I [which is common for all lamps] =s highest power.

Note to remember:

Lowest power-lamp has highest element resistance.

And highest resistance will drop highest voltage drop across it in a Series circuit

And highest resistance in a parallel circuit will pass minimum current through it. So
minimum power dissipated across it as min current X equal Voltage across =s min
power dissipation.

(27) Difference between Restricted Earth Fault & Unrestricted Earth Fault
protections?

Restricted earth fault is normally given to on star connected end of power equipment
like generators, transformers etc. mostly on low voltage side. For REF protection 4
nos CTs are using one each on phase and one in neutral. It is working on the
principle of balanced currents between phases and neutral.

Unrestricted E/F protection working on the principle of comparing the unbalance on

the phases only. For REF protection PX class CTs are using but for UREF 5P20 CTs
using.

For Differential Protection CTs using on both side HT & LV side each phase, and
comparing the unbalance current for this protection also PX class CTs are using.

(28) Why do transformers hum?

Transformer noise is caused by a phenomenon which causes a piece of magnetic

sheet steel to extend itself when magnetized. When the magnetization is taken away,
it goes back to its original condition. This phenomenon is scientifically referred to as
magnetostriction.

A transformer is magnetically excited by an alternating voltage and current so that it

becomes extended and contracted twice during a full cycle of magnetization.

o The magnetization of any given point on the sheet varies, so the extension
and contraction is not uniform. A transformer core is made from many sheets
of special steel to reduce losses and moderate the ensuing heating effect.
o The extensions and contractions are taking place erratically all over a sheet
and each sheet is behaving erratically with respect to its neighbor, so you can
see what a moving, writhing construction it is when excited. These extensions
are miniscule proportionally and therefore not normally visible to the naked
eye.
o However, they are sufficient to cause a vibration, and consequently noise.
Applying voltage to a transformer produces a magnetic flux, or magnetic lines
of force in the core. The degree of flux determines the amount of
magnetostriction and hence, the noise level.
o Why not reduce the noise in the core by reducing the amount of flux?
Transformer voltages are fixed by system requirements.
o The ratio of these voltages to the number of turns in the winding determines
the amount of magnetization. This ratio of voltage to turns is determined
mainly for economical soundness. Therefore the amount of flux at the normal
voltage is fixed. This also fixes the level of noise and vibration. Also,
increasing (or decreasing) magnetization does not affect the magnetostriction
equivalently. In technical terms the relationship is not linear.
(29) What are the advantages and disadvantages of Low Resistance Grounding
(LRG) systems compared to High Resistance Grounding (HRG) systems? Also, what
ratings of resistance (in ohms) are considered low and high resistance?

The first parameter is voltage. By choosing HRG on systems 600V or below, you
reduce ground-fault currents to less than 25A. For systems between 600V and 5kV,
we can use either HRG or LRG arrangements.

In either case, the resistance chosen must be such that the desired let-through
ground-fault current is above the system capacitive charging current. On systems
above 5kV, LRG is the typical choice in that it reduces ground-fault currents to
between 25A and 1,200A. (Most people use a value of 200A or less.)

The next parameter is system capacitive charging current. Every system has a
capacitance value, mostly due to the systems cables and surge arresters/capacitors.
The general rule of thumb for estimating this charging current is to use 1A per
1,000kVA. If necessary, you can perform a more detailed calculation based on
system components.

During commissioning, you should determine this value by taking an actual

measurement. Once you know the system capacitive charging current, you can
select the resistor let-through current or desired current. As previously stated, the

desired resistor current (IR) must be greater than the system capacitive charging
current to avoid transient overvoltage. You determine the neutral grounding
resistance by using the following equation: R = VL-N IR

Where R is neutral grounding resistance, V L-N is line-to-neutral voltage, and IR is

ground-fault current

For systems less than 600V, the system capacitive charging current is typically 1A to
3A. Therefore, most people use 5A neutral current as a standard. Because this is
less than 10A, all 600V systems are high-resistance grounded.

For systems between 600V and 5kV, you can use either HRG or LRG. The decision
is typically based on system capacitive charging current, which can vary from 1A to
10A. This value then determines whether to use HRG or LRG. For systems above
5kV, the system capacitive charging current may be greater than 25A, so LRG is
almost always used.

Another factor is system continuity. An HRG system allows a distribution system to

continue to operate with one fault, without the faulted feeder being tripped. When the
possible total earth fault current is such that an earth fault can be sustained
continuously without risk of further fault damage, then the system is considered
HRG. Electrical installation codes in various jurisdictions have rules governing this.

On systems with grounding resistor let-through currents higher than 10A or for
systems of voltage ratings greater than 5kV the faulted feeder should be tripped
and the fault isolated. These are generally called LRG systems.

(30) What are the advantages and disadvantages of the various grounding
methods for medium- voltage systems in power plants?

You can broadly classify medium-voltage (MV) grounding systems into four
categories: solidly grounded, low-resistance grounded (LRG), high-resistance
grounded (HRG), and insulated neutral (ungrounded) systems. A good reference is
ANSI/IEEE Std. 242 (Buff Book), Protection and Coordination of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems.

(1) Solid Grounding:

The neutral point of the system is grounded without any resistance. If the ground
fault occurs, high ground current passes through the fault. Its use is very common in
low voltage system, where line to neutral voltage is used for single phase loads.

Direct or solidly grounded system showing phase-to-ground fault and ground-fault

current path. The NEC requires ground-fault protection on services of more than
150V to ground, but not exceeding 600V phase-to-phase, for each service
disconnect rated 1,000A or higher.

With the solidly grounded system, there is no intentional impedance in the neutral-toearth path. Instead, the neutral is solidly connected to earth. This is why the term
earthing is sometimes used in place of grounding.

The phase-to-ground voltage remains constant during a ground fault, and there are
very high fault current flows, which can result in extensive damage. The protective
device closest to the fault must trip and isolate the circuit as fast as possible.

If the fault is in a rotating machine, then there is a high possibility of core damage
and replacement costs. The cost associated with the downtime also can be
significant.

(2) Low Resistance Grounding:

This is used for limiting the ground fault current to minimize the impact of the fault
current to the system. In this case, the system trips for the ground fault. In this
system, the use of line to neutral (single phase) is prohibited. The ground fault
current is limited to in the rage from 25A to 600A

Low-resistance grounding system showing phase-to-ground fault and ground-fault

current path. Ground resistor limits the magnitude of the ground-fault current.

With LRG systems, the ground-fault current is controlled and normally limited to
between 25A and 1,000A. The voltage to ground on the un-faulted phases can
increase up to the phase-to-phase voltage level, so you must use adequately rated
insulation systems and surge suppression devices.

You also must detect and isolate the ground fault. Since the ground-fault current is
smaller and controlled, ground-fault relaying still has the requirement of fast tripping.
However, you can achieve better time current coordination with this type of
grounding system. Damage at the fault point is also reduced; therefore, maintenance
and repair costs are reduced.

The neutral grounding resistor needs to be short time rated (usually 10 seconds), as
the fault will be cleared by the protective relay closest to the fault.

(3) High Resistance Grounding:

For high-resistance grounding, there are two options:

(1) Install resistance grounding on each source; or

(2) Derive a neutral on the paralleling bus via a zigzag transformer, and then add
resistance grounding on the derived neutral.

It is used where service continuity is vital, such as process plant motors. With HRG,
the neutral is grounded through a high resistance so that very small current flows to
the ground if ground fault occurs. In the case of ground fault of one phase, the faulty
phase goes to the ground potential but the system doesnt trip.

This system must have a ground fault monitoring system. The use of line to neutral
(single phase) is prohibited (NEC, 250.36(3)) in HRG system, however, phase to
neutral is used with using the additional transformer having its neutral grounded.

When ground fault occurs in HRG system, the monitoring systems gives alarm and
the plant operators start the standby motor and stop the faulty one for the
maintenance. This way, the process plant is not interrupted. The ground fault current
is limited to 10A or less.

There are other two types such as Corner Grounding (for Delta system) and
ungrounded system but they are not commonly used.

(1) Install resistance grounding on each source :

High-resistance grounding system showing phase-to-ground fault and ground-fault

current path. Ground resistor limits the magnitude of the ground-fault current to very
low levels and allows continuity of power while locating the fault.

With an HRG system, the ground-fault current is in the 10A range. The intention
here is to allow the system to operate without tripping, even with a phase-to-ground
fault on one phase.

When a ground fault does occur, only an alarm is raised. This permits time to locate
the fault while power continuity is maintained. This also allows repairs to be done at
a scheduled shutdown of the faulty equipment. Maintenance costs should be less
than that for a low-resistance grounding system. Damage at the fault location also
should be small.

If the fault is in a rotating machine, there usually is no iron damage in the stator. The
system, with one phase faulted to earth, operates with the un-faulted phases now
raised from earth to the full phase-to-phase voltage for an extended period.

As such, the insulation system needs to be rated for phase-to-phase voltage. For
phase-to-ground voltages to remain at the phase-to-phase level and not
increased beyond that level the net capacitive charging current at the fault must
be less than that from the controlled resistive ground-fault current fed from the
neutral grounding. The grounding resistor also needs to be continuously rated
because it will carry the let-through current in the event of a fault for an extended
period of time.

(2) Derive a neutral on the paralleling bus via a zigzag transformer, and then
add resistance grounding on the derived neutral.

Zigzag transformer used to derive a neutral. Resistance grounding can then be

added on the derived neutral.

Be careful here in that you cannot use this neutral for any loads or connect it to
anything except the resistor. There are advantages/disadvantages for each option.
By having a resistor on each source, the total ground-fault current is dependent upon
the total number of sources in operation. However, the system is always grounded. If
the resistor is on the paralleling bus, the ground-fault current is always the same
value however, the system is only grounded if the paralleling bus in operation. Most
people choose option 2 and have a resistor on the paralleling bus

(4) Ungrounded System (Phase To Earth):

Ungrounded system showing phase-to-ground fault and ground-fault current path.

When a ground fault occurs, the fault current is contributed by the system
capacitance to earth on the un-faulted phases. This is usually small, and the system
can be operated without tripping.

With the insulated neutral (ungrounded) system, there is no intentional connection of

the system to ground. In effect, the three phases of the system float.

When a ground fault occurs, the fault current is contributed by the system
capacitance to earth on the un-faulted phases. This is usually small, and the system
can be operated without tripping.

Because the system is floating, if the ground fault is of the arcing or intermittent type,
then there is the possibility of substantial transient overvoltage, which can be six to
eight times the phase voltage.

These transients often cause a subsequent failure elsewhere, thus raising the
possibility of a phase-to-earth-to-phase fault, and leading to high fault current and
extensive damage. Coordinated tripping is often difficult, and extensive damage is
seen at the two faulted locations. Maintenance costs are typically the highest among
the four types of grounding systems now at least two pieces of equipment need
repair.

(4) Ungrounded System (Phase To Phase To Earth):

Ungrounded system showing phase-to-ground-to-phase fault and ground-fault

current path.

If the ground fault is an arcing or intermittent type, there is possibility of substantial

transient overvoltage, which can be six to eight times the phase voltage.

These transients often cause a subsequent failure elsewhere, thus raising the
possibility of a phase-to-earth-to-phase fault.

The standards and best practices in various countries generally follow ANSI or IEC
standards. The technical literature supports these practices. In power plant
applications, MV systems occur in two places: generation and station service. In
practice, both station service and generators are low- or high-resistance grounded.

For station service at distribution voltages of less than 15kV, power continuity is very
important. Here, we would size the neutral grounding resistor so that the let-through
ground-fault current is higher than the net current from the distributed capacitance. If
the let-through ground-fault current is less than 10A, then this would be highresistance grounding. If this current were more than 10A, then it would be lowresistance grounding.

Although its rare to have station service voltage that is higher than 15kV, if the
voltage is higher than this, then the same rule as noted above would apply, except

the fault should be detected and isolated by tripping the faulted feeder at the closest
protective device.

For generators, the ground-fault current is almost always controlled, and we can
employ resistance grounding. The resistor let-through current will be dependent on
the size of the generator and generation voltage. Typically, 5A to 400A let-through
current grounding is used.

(5) Hybrid System:

More recently, hybrid grounding has been proposed. Here, two resistors in parallel
are used: one of low resistance; the other of high resistance (5A).

In the event of an internal earth fault in the stator winding of the generator, a fastacting generator ground differential relay opens the low-resistance grounding path,
thus allowing the high resistance (5A let-through resistor) to control and lower the
fault current and reducing the stator damage caused by the internal ground fault after
the generator has been isolated (while it is slowing down).

Without this reduction of current, the generator would continue to feed energy into
the fault while it is coming to a stop. The result would be extensive stator iron
damage at the ground-fault location.

(31) Why 3No of Current transformer in 3 phase Star point is grounded.

For CTs either we use for 3 phases or 2 phase or even if you use only 1 CTs for the
Over current Protection or for the Earth Faults Protection, their neutral point is
always shorted to earth. This is NOT as what you explain as above but actually it is
for the safety of the CTs when the current is passing throuw the CTs.

In generally, tripping of Earth faults and Over current Protection has nothing to do
with the earthing the neutral of the CTs. Even these CTs are not Grounded or
Earthed, these over current and the Earth Faults Protection Relay still can operated.

Operating of the Over current Protection and the Earth Faults Relays are by the
Kirchhoff Law Principle where the total current flowing into the points is equal to the
total of current flowing out from the point.

Therefore, for the earth faults protection relays operating, it is that, if the total current
flowing in to the CTs is NOT equal total current flowing back out of the CTs then
with the differences of the leakage current, the Earth Faults Relays will operated.

(32) Power Transformer Neutral Earthing

The following points need to check before going for Neutral Grounding Resistance.

(1)Fault current passing through ground, step and touch potential.

(2) Capacity of transformer to sustain ground fault current, w.r.t winding, core
burning. Manufacturer shall be able to give this data.

(3) Relay co-ordination and fault clearing time.

(4) Standard practice of limiting earth fault current. In case no data or calculation is
possible, go for limiting E/F current to 300A or 500A, depending on senility of relay.

Posted by Bhavik Panchal at 4:21 AM

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4.1 Connection scheme with three over-current relays

Over-current protection can be achieved by means of three over-current relays Fig. 2 or by tow
over-current relays Fig. 3.

Referring Fig. 2 the three current transformers and relay coils connected in star and the star
point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the protected zone the secondary current of CT's
increase. The current flows through coiler and the relay pick-up. The relay close, thereby the trip
circuit is closed and the circuit breaker operates.
The over-current protection scheme with three over-current relays (Fig. 2) responds to phase
faults and earth faults including single phase to earth fault. Therefor such schemes are used with
solidly earthed system where phase to phase and phase to earth faults are likely occurs.
In Fig. 2 the polarities of CT's are indicated by dots. For proper functioning of over-current and
earth fault protection, the choice of CT's and polarity connections should be correct.
Fig. 3 illustrates the modified circuit with additional auxiliary relays and a definite time relay.
Definite time relay can be set to get desired delay. Auxiliary relays is used to close trip circuit.

5. Earth fault protection

(Called ground fault protection in USA)
When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called earth fault. Other faults
which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since earth faults are relatively frequent, earth
fault protection is necessary in most cases. When separate earth fault protection is not economical,
the phase relays sense the earth fault currents. However such protection lacks sensitivity. Hence
separate earth fault protection is generally provided. Earth fault protection senses earth fault current.
Following are the method of earth fault protection.

6. Connection of CT's for earth fault protection

6.1 Residually connected earth fault relay
Referring to Fig. 4.
In absence of earth fault the vector sum of three line currents is zero.
Hence the vector sum of these secondary currents is also zero.
as + bs + cs = 0
The sum (as + bs + cs) is called residual current (IRS).
The earth fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through it (Ref Fig.4 and
Fig. 7)
In the absence of earth fault
residual = as + bs + cs = 0
Therefor, the residually connected earth fault relays does not operate. However, in presence of
earth fault the condition is disturbed and (as + bs + cs) is no more zero. Hence residual Iresidual
flows through the earth fault relay. If residual current is above the pick-up value, the earth fault relay
operate.

Fig. 4 Earth fault relay connected in residual current

In the scheme discussed here the earth fault at any location near or away from the location of
CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the protection zone is not definite. Such protection is
called unrestricted earth fault protection. For selectivity directional earth fault protection is necessary.

Fig. 5 Methods of connection of OC and EF Relays

OC = over-current

; EF = earth fault

6.2 Earth fault relay connected to neutral to earth circuit (Fig. 6)

Another method of connecting an earth fault relay is illustrated in Fig. 6. The relay is connected
to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth connection. Such protection can
be provided at various voltage levels by connecting earth fault relay in the neutral to earth connection
of that of voltage level. The fault current find the return path through the earth and then flows through
the the neutral to earth connection. The magnitude of earth fault current is dependent of type of
earthing (resistance, reactance or solid) and location of fault. In this type of protection, the zone of
protection

can

not

transformer/generator

be

accurately

winding

alone.

defined.
The

The
relay

protected
sense

the

area
earth

is

not
faults

restricted

to

beyond

the

transformer/generator winding. Hence such protection is called unrestricted earth fault protection.

Fig. 6 Earth fault protection by earth fault relay connected in neutral to earth circuit

The earth fault protection by relay in neutral to earth circuit depends upon the type of neutral
earthing.. In case of large generators, voltage transformer is connected between neutral to earth.
The earth fault relay is connected to secondary of VT.
7. Combined earth fault and phase fault protection
It is convenient to incorporate phase fault relays and earth fault relay in a combined phase fault
and earth fault protection (Fig. 7). The increase in current of phase causes corresponding increase in
respective secondary currents. The secondary current flows through respective relay units.Very often
only toe phase relays are provided instead of three, because in cause of phase faults current in any
at least tow phase must increase. Hence tow relay units are enough. The earth fault relay is
residually connected as explained earlier.

Fig. 7 Earth fault protection combined with phase fault protection

8. Earth fault protection with core balance current transformer (Zero sequence ct)
In this type of protection Fig. 8(a) a single ring shaped core of magnetic material, encircles the
conductors of all the three phases. A secondary coil is connected to a relay unit. The cross section of
ring core is ample, so that saturation is not a problem. During no earth fault condition, the component
of fluxes due to the fields of three conductors are balanced and the secondary current is negligible.
During earth faults, such a balance is disturbed and current is inducted in the secondary. Core
balance protection can be conveniently used for protection of low voltage and medium voltage
system. The burden of relay and exciting current are deciding factors. Very large cross section of
core are necessary for sensitivity less than 1A. Thus form of protection is likely to be more popular
with static relay due to the less burden of the latter. Instantaneous relay unit is generally used with
core balance shcemes.

Fig. 8(a) Principle of core balance CT for earth fault protection

Theory of core balance CT. Let a, b and c be the three line currents and a, b and c be
corresponding components of magnetic flux in the core. Assuming linearity, we get resultant
magnetic flux r as,
r = k(a + b + c)
Where k is constant r= k Ia. Referring to theory of symmetrical components
a + b + c = 3c = n
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In is current in neutral to ground circuit.
During normal condition, when earth fault is absent,
a + b + c = 0
Hence r= 0 and relay does not operate
During earth fault the earth fault current flows through return neutral path. For example for single line
ground fault.

If = 3Ia0 = In

Fig. 8(b) Mounting of core balance CT with cable terminal box

Hence the zero sequence current component of Io produces the resultant in the core. Hence
core balance current transformer is also called as zero sequence current transformer (ZSCT)
Application for core balance CT's with cable termination joints
The termination of a three core cable into three separate lines or bus-bars is through cable
terminal box. Ref. Fig. 8 (b), the core balance protection is used along with the cable box and should
be installed before making the cable joint.
The induced current flowing through cable sheath of normal healthy cable need particular
attention with respect to the core balance protection.
The sheath current (Ish) flow through the sheath to the cover cable box and then to earth
through the earthing connection between cable box. For eliminating the error due to sheath current
(Ish) the earthing lead between the cable box and the earth should be taken through the core of the
core balance protection. Thereby the error due to sheath current is eliminated. The cable box should
be insulated from earth.
9. Frame leakage protection

The meta-clad switchgear can be provided with frame leakage protection. The switchgear is
lightly insulated from the earth. The metal frame work or enclosure of the switchgear is earthed with
a primary of a CT in between Fig. (9).

Fig. 9 Principle of frame leakage protection of metal clad switchgear

The concrete foundation of the switchgear and the cable boxes and other conduits are slightly
insulated from earth, the resistance to earth being about 12 ohms. In the event of an earth fault
within the switchgear, the earth fault current finds the path through the neutral connection. While
doing so, it is sensed by the earth fault relay.
Circulating current differential protection also responds to earth faults within its protected
zone .
Summary
Earth fault protection can be achieved by following methods :
- Residually connected relay.
- Relay connected in neutral to ground circuit.
- Core balance scheme.
- Frame leakage arranged for detecting earth faults on line.
- Circulating current differential protection.
10. Directional over-current protection
The over-current protection can be given directional feature by adding directional element in the
protection system. Directional over-current protection responds to overcurrents for a particular
direction flow. If power flow is in the opposite direction, the Directional over-current protection
remains un- operative.

Directional over-current protection comprises over-current relay and power directional relay in a
single relay casing. The powers directional does not measure the power but is arranged to respond
to the direction of power flow.
Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved by directional
relaying. The directional relay recognizes the direction in which fault occurs, relative to the location of
the relay. It is such that it actuates for faults occurring in one direction only. It does not act for faults
occurring in the other direction. Consider a feeder XY (Fig. 10.) passing through subsection A. The
circuit breaker in feeder AY is provided with a directional relay 'R' which will trip the breaker CBy, if
fault power flow in direction A, alone, therefor for faults in feeder AX, the circuit breaker CBy does not
trip unnecessarily. However for faults in feeder Ay the circuit breaker CBy trips because its protective
relaying in set with a directional feature to act in direction Ay.

Fig. 10 Principle of direction protection

Fig. 11 Reverse powers protection against motoring action of generator

Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power protection of

generator (Fig. 11) . If the prime mover fails, the generator continues to run as a motor and takes
power from bus-bar.
Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of power flow.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in relation to the
normal power flow. Reverse power relay is different in construction than directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional current does not measure the magnitude of
power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in Reverse Current Relays, the directional
element measures magnitude and direction of power flow.

Relay connection of single phase directional over-current relay

The current coils in the directional over-current relay (Fig. 12) are normally connected to a
secondary line of a CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected to a line VT, having
phase to phase output (of 11o V). There are four common method of connecting the relay depending
upon phase angle between current in the current coil and voltage applied to the voltage coil..
Relay connection. (e.g. 90, 60, 30 etc) refer to the angle by which the current applied to the
relay is displaced from the voltage applied to the relay (Fig 13 )
The maximum torque angle refers to the angle between the current applied to the relay and
the voltage applied to the relay to produce maximum torque.
The choice of relay connection is basically to select the phase across which the voltage coil is
connected wit respect to current coil. Number of different connections can be used. The suitability of
each connection should be examined by considering the limiting condition of voltage and current for
limiting fault conditions, source and line impedances etc.

Fig. 12

Directional relay induction disc type

Fig. 13 90 connection of directional relay : phase relationship

11. Directional earth fault protection

In the Directional earth fault protection the current coil of relay is actuated from secondary
current of line CT. whereas the current coil of directional earth fault relay is actuated by residual
current.
Directional earth fault relay sense the direction in which earth fault occurs with respect to the
relay location; and it operate for fault in a particular direction. The directional earth fault relay (single
phase unit) has tow coils . The polarising quantity is obtained either from residual current
(RS= a + b + c)
or residual voltage
V'RS = V'ae + V'bc + V'ce,
where Vae, Vbe and Vce are phase voltages.
Referring to Fig. 14 the directional earth fault relay has tow coils. One to the coils is connected in
residual current circuit (Ref. Fig. 6). This coils gets current earth faults. The other coil gets residual
voltage,
V'RS = V'ae + V'bc + V'ce,
Where V'ae V'be V'ce are secondary voltages of the potential transformer.(Three phase five lamb
potential transformer or three separate single phase potential transformer connected as shown in
Fig. 14). The coil connected in potential transformer secondary circuit gives a polarising field. The
residual current Ires is given to the voltage Vres is given to the voltage coil of the relay. The torque is
proportional to
T = IRES, VRES cos( - )
= Angles between IRES, VRES.
= Angle of maximum torque.

Fig. 14

Connections of directional earth fault relay

Summary
Over-current protection responds to increase above the pick-up value over-currents are caused
by overloads and short circuits. The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current
transformer. The characteristic of over-current relays includes inverse time characteristic, definite
time characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and double line to ground faults.
The current coil of earth fault relays is connected either in neutral to ground circuit or in residually
connected secondary CT circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metal-clad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and directional earth fault relay responds to fault in which power
flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT locations. Such directional relays are used when
power can flow both directions to the fault point.