COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN KENNETH K. CLARKE DONALD 'f, HESS ‘Carke- Hess Communications Research Corporation Formerly: Postechae lnsiute of Brooklyn we ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Reading, Massachusetts - Menlo Pus., ColMoinia » London » Doo its, Ontario‘This book isin the ADDISONAVESLEY SERIES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Consulting Editors DAVID K. CHENG LEONARD A. GOULD FRED K, MANASSE CCopmigh © 1971 by Adclson-Wesley Publishing Company, Io FPhiiprnes coprigt 1971 by Addison Weney Publishing Company, ne. ‘All ights reserved. No part of this pubistion may’ be reproduced sored in artival yt, oF ‘Genus, in ny form ory sty means, eletoni, mechan, photocopying, resordhg, of tinerwise witout she prior wer permision of the publger. Banta i te Urea Sates of ‘Kmorca” Pubched sultan in Canada. Libary of Congress Cag CJ No, 7812561, To our wives, Nona and CarolePREFACE “This book has been written on the basis ofa combined experience of more than thirty ‘years of teaching about and working with electronic circuits of the type used in present-day communications and control systems, In this book we deal neither with Femicondastor or vacuum tube manufacture nor with overall system design, but with the understanding and Use of devices and configurations of devices that bridge the tap between thes? two disciplines, Although we do not deal particularly with the Drobiems of inteprated circuits, many of our results are indeed directly applicable t0 cireuits in integraced form. ‘Chapter I offers a preview of things to come. Chapters 2 and 3 may be considered ‘as a review of linear system concepts, Although the macril stressed in these chapters ‘usht to be presented in linear systems courses or textbooks, it has been our expert ‘ence that the viewpoints that we find useful ae often somewhat slighted there, ‘Chapters 4 dnd 5 provide the foundation for the rest ofthe book. Essentially they provide a reasonably rigorous but (we Pope) intelligible account of both the small Eignal and large-signal operation of both the single devices and the basic multiple device configurations that serve as the building blocks for all Later eireuits. ‘These ‘devises and configurations include the bipolar and field effect transistor, the difer= tential pair, and the combination of resistance and reactance with these devices “The approach taken allows one to make both largesignal and small-signal eal- culations ‘without any ambiguity as t0 the resultant distortions oF nonlinear y= products, While we did not invent all the results here, we have been sing them and Teaching them for some years. To our knowledge ths isthe first ime tha they have been coordinated and made evalable in one place Chapter 6 uses the vehicle of the sinusoidal oscillator to tie together all of the previous material, The techniques presented allow one to caleuate the actual ampli- {ode Frequency and distortion of real oscillators rather than just to catalog a number Dfcircuits. The squegging phenomenon in oscillators is treated in uniquesnd readily usable manner. ‘Chaplet 7 considers the deliberate use of the device nowlineerity 10 produce mixers and frequency converters, It explores the amplitude limitations upon “linear” mixing and the eect of deliberate or accidental series resistance upon the mixing process. ‘This chapter also examines the feedthrough and the fescback problems Involved in small signal RF amplifiers and AGC systems. ‘Chapter 8 is concerned with multipliers and amplitude modulators. Ut presents & step-by-step analysis of the popular Gilbert integrated four-quidrant multiplier asPREFACE ‘well as a number of other useful circuits. Chapter 9 diseusses all types of power amplifiers from linear broadband Class A types through both tuned and broadband (Class D types. Chapter 10 explores the amplitude demodulation problem in detail Tt presents useful design results for the common narrowband peak eavslope detector, which is usually used in circuits but rarely discussed in textbooks. Chapters 11 and 12 presenta large amount of new material in their complete coverage of FM generation and detection. ‘Because the general principles of the firs five chapters are applicable in some form to most of the circuits in the vest of the book, a unity is achieved that has often not ‘been apparent in past books in this field, Thus instead of considering a seemingly endless variety of apparently different oscillators or detectors, one is able to group ieuite into rather broad classes and show straightforward design or analysis pro- ‘cedures applicable to all of them. Some of the early versions of this material were originally put into note form in 1962. All of it, except our last-minute revisions, has been used in various graduate and senior year courses-a the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Its not reasonable to try to cover all thie material in a one-semester course. Well-grounded students who can handle Chapters 2 and 3 by themseves, and who can absorb Chapters 4 and $ in say three weeks, should be able 1o cover selected material from the remaining chapters without undve difficulty ina semester. A number of selections of coberent {groups of material are possible. Most instructors should have no prottsm picking ‘outa set that is both interesting to them and instructive to their studem, Homework problems are included at the end of each chapter, lustrative examples are worked out in most chapters ‘Our former colleagues and students at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn deserve our thanks for their many stimulating critcisms and observations. Professors (Gerald Weiss, Ronald Juels, and Marvin Panzer were particularly helpful in pointing fut errots or areas in need of larflcation. A special debt of gratitude is due to the various people who struggled with the typing and the drawings for the manuscript and the various sets of notes that preceded it ‘As Department Head through much ofthe period that the book was in preparation, Professor Edward J. Smith and the rest of the administration of the Polytechnic ‘were most kind in extending the use of various typing and reproduction facilities. ‘While book writing is never really a pleasure, itis exciting to find a simple way to solve a heretofore dificult problem. We have had many such exciting moments in preparing this book and we hope that the reader will be able to share some of our excitement as he uses it ew York KK. May 1971 DT zp Chapter 3 aa 33 3a Chapter 4 4a 42 43 4a 43 45 a7 43. 49 CONTENTS Preview asi cree bising \Wideband ample miss on “small-signal” operation [Narrowband ampliers and limiters Frequency multiplies Miners Sinewave oxiltors Conclusions ‘esadband and Narrowband Transformerlike Coupling Networks Bros hand transformer coupling. ae . 6 Parallel RLC circuit pee foe ti Paretel LC creit with serie loss 2 Parallel resonant “transformelike” networks 38 Parallel resonant transformers» fit lle ‘Taree-winding parallel resonant transformer <* Dole Appendix to Chapter 2: Transformer Equivalent Cicuts- a ‘Transmision of Slenals Thigh Narrowband Fiers LLow-as equivalent networks for symmetrical bandpass networks. . 6S Inputs and ste response. ath 2 [Narrowband networks with modulated inputs : D2 [Narcowband networks with periodic inputs. B ‘Total harmonic distortion 2 ‘Appendix to Chapter 3: High-Q Fiter Measuremeats 58 Nonlinear Controlled Sourees General comments. : - 9 Pleceviselinear source, single discontinuity |< ot ‘Muliplosegment piecewiseLnear sources : a Squaredaw characteristics « a 198 ‘The exponential characterise” 21 Lf 2108 ‘The differential aractestic «11 Due Other gradual nonineries—pentodes || 120 ‘Bet of series resistance on the exponent! characteristic aac} CCramp-bissed squarew device cee eee [Appendix to Chapter 4: Fourier Expansions : M48x conreNts CChaptesS-Reactive Element and Nonlinear Pement Combinations 32 Capacitive coupling 1 nonlinear Toad 52. Transient build-up to steady state 53 Capacitive couple transistor amplifer constant current bis - 54 Capacitively coupled transistor amplier—ressor bias 55 Nonlinear loading of umed circuits 5.6. Transfer function for lowsinex AM inpt Chapter 6 Simsoidl Oseiators 61 Operating frequency and minimum esin conditions for liness-feedback ciltors 62 Amplitade-Timiting mechanisms 63. Frequency stably. 64. Setlimiting single transisteresilitor 65 Safdimiting diferentah-par oscillator 66. Slfimitng junction fal eflst transistor ocilators = 67 Coystal oelatrs 68 Saveesing « i 69 Bridge ossillaiors 610 The ono-port approach to oseiltors S615 The phase plane approuch Chapter 7 Mixers; RF and IF Ampiiers TH The superhero concert 72. Minor techniques 73. Series resistance in miners Practical misercicuits« 75. Semiconductor converte 16 Tuned narrowband small-signal amplifiers its + 77. Stages with donble-tunedeiexits 78 Gain cantroleealts 79. Noize, distortion, and eros! modulation « ‘Appentn 10 Chapter 7: Comparisons of Parameters for Bipolar Tr tSxtore: Sinele-Ended, DifleremiahYair, and Cascade te (Chapter 8 Amplitude Modulation 8.1 Amplitude modulation signals. £2 Amplitude modulation techniques 83. Pracicl analog modulators and multiplies 84 Practical chopper modulators 85. Squarelow modul 8.6 Tunod-lreit modulators + 612, The dntortonaperatingfequinsy relationship ue 19 12 19 a8 ws 0s 3 34 328 = 336 oe 333 362 316 sa 37 Chapter 10 101 102 103 oa 10s Copter 11 tna uz n3 ua us us a7 us u9 Chapter 12 12a 2 23 28 2s 26 nr conriurs Power Amplifiers ‘lée”power ampli ,sioended (Glass B linear RF amplifiers. piiiit Cass Cte" ampliiess RP class Campliies st Tete : ‘Narrowband class D power amplifiers : : ‘Broadband class Bamplifers ‘Broadband class D power amplifiers - Practical power amplifiers Higiv-level amplitude moduistion Appendix to Chapter 9: Pale Train Expansions Amplirude Modaators Amplitude demodulation techniques Practical average envelope detectors [Narrowband peak envelope detector Practical narrowband peak envelope detector Broadband peak envelope dotesor Generation of FM Signals yequeneyrmodulated signals wee : ‘Taxrcmision of FM signals through noolinar betworks < : ‘Tascbmission of FM signals through ner flies "Frequency modulation techaiques—the FM difeeatal equation Ouesistatc frequency modulation... ee ‘Tvianglarewave fequeney modulation © 1 | Practical square-wave frequency modulation ‘Miscellaneous frequency medulators—ihe Armsiroag metiod Frequency stabilization of frequeney modulators PM Modulators Liners. 7 Frequeney-demodultiontechsiqes | a Direct éfferentintion the Clrke-Hess frequency demodulator Frequeney-domain difeentiation—the slope demodulator ‘Time-dlay diferentitor, time-delay demodulatr, Foser-Seley de modulator, snd ratio detector ails : Pulse-count frequency demodulator || ‘More exotic FM detecors—te phastlocked top. the frequency locked Joop, and the frequency demodulator with feeback Appendix: Modied Bessel Functions . Answers to Selected Problems nde 40 Sas 410 as a 26 2 47 437 oe 296 509 315 a1 526 532 3a 383 539 om 3 618 65 osCHAPTER I PREVIEW “The purpose of this chapter isnot to reduce the excitement ofthe book by “revealing the plot.” We wich rather, by using one particular circuit as a vehicle, both to indicate a ntimber of the techniques that we wll explore late in detail and to demonstrate to the reader the power ofthese methods. We wil show how we may rather easly pet a ‘lear insight into the design of such apparently diverse circuits as wideband st signal amplifier, arge-signal narrowband amplifier, frequency multipiors, ative limiters, active mixers, and tuned-circttsine-wave oscillators. By doing so, we hope te provide a framework for the general developments that follow and to share with ‘thers the enthesiesm that comes from being able to solve many heretofore difficult design and analysis problems. In this chapter, because of its nature, we eannot develop all results or answer allquestions. We irust thatthe unanswered questions will receive adequate treatment ata later point. 1A BASIC CIRCUTT BIASING ‘The circuit that we shall use as a skeleton upon which to construct our various ‘examples is thown in Fig. Lic "This cieuit is shown in the manner in which it might be constructed in integrated form, The sole purpose of the lower two transistors is to provide a constant current Fig, 11-1 Base jnetion transistor ampli2 preview M bias source for transistor 1. (Transistor 3 might be viewed as a diode; however, in integrated circuits diodes are normally constructed as transistors) ‘Our key assumption is thatthe emitter current and the base-emitter voltage of the transistors are related by Eg. (1-1) ig = Tago, (its) (ietb) aye = en a Tes where k = 1.38 x 10°?°J/°K is Boltzmann's constant, q = 1.6 x 1071? is the letronie charge, and Ig isthe emitter saturation current. Let us make a further sot of assumptions: that fe = ai and iy = (1 ~ ae, and that a is both close to unity and independent of ig. (The assumption of a constant alpha is rately true if fy Yeries over a wide range; however, if alpha approaches unity, then this variation is normally a second-order effect) Since zp is of the order of 2 x 10-"*A for small silicon integrated circuit transistors and since kT/q ~ 26mV at normal room temperatures (T = 300K), Eq. (J.1-1b) may be employed to determine the required values of vg (or Vag fr the ‘case of a bias voltage) to produce various values of (or 1). Several vals of Vy Ws Fe ate presented in Table L.1-1. It is apparent that Vg varies only slightly for large variations in fp; hence in many applications Vge may be approximated by a constant of approximately 3V. Table LI Valve of Vue teuived for orcs valves of fe Veo Testa 700 01 10 t 0 0 a0 100 ‘As connected in Fig, 1-1, transistors 2 and 3 must have the same value for ‘gp (t Vag). ney oocupy the same area and are on the same chip, they will have almostidenticl valves fot Fas. Therefore, ig, = igs oF for biasing purposes,.e> = Irs. Now In, = (ee ~ Vos/Ry. If Var is approximated by 3/4 V (50 long as Ver > Var this is reasonable), then Ip, is known. However, ley = Izy + (I ailx2 OF (1-2 {}Asomowhat more accurate representation would be fem Deseret, where} < y = 1 dependingon the ansistor material ie, germanium orsticon, In any situation hich warrants iy may Be included without acing any of the derived results Ma asic CMU RANING 3 and thus (3) Jeg = als © & So long as Zz contains a series capacitor (no de path, then Jey = Jen and the upper transistor is biased at a constant current level 12 WIDEBAND AMPLIFIER LIMITS ON “SMALL-SIGNAL” OPERATION Lot us first consider the ease where Z; isa resistor Ry, Zy is capacitor Cx, 0; = Vi ‘082, /wC approaches an ac short circuit, and eis low enough so that transistor feacanees may be ignored. Weasume that Yc and Yaar lee enough wo tha the tollecor hase junctions ofboth transistor 1 and 2 always stay revere hi Sco Ce ivanseshort cnc tappenr dren eros ie enters unstion of transistor 1. In addition, any de voltage Vg which is developed across Cy appears fsoross the junetion; hence yy = 2, + Va When 9, 8 ero, i, is forced to be equal 10 Fess henee (The subscript Q denotes the quiescent value of a parameter} For the case where isnot equal to zero, q,(I.1-a) may be employed to obtain gH Ife ot gM abr = Taleo, aay where expansion, V,g!kT "0 normalize the drive voltage, Now from a known Fourier series etitet = Joa) + 2F. yx eos not, (122) ‘where [is & modified Bessel function of the fist kind, of order and argument x. (Properties ofthese tabulated functions as wel as further references concerning them will be found in the Appendix atthe back ofthe book.) The modified Bessel functions areall monotonic and positivefor x = 2nd & 0; Ju(0)is unity, whereas al higher- lorder functions s:art at zer0. AS x > 10) SE, when nis posve intege. Combining Bas. (12-1) and (12-2, we obtain im tee ga 1425 9 coer] 0294 preview 2 tis apparent from Bq, (12-3) that the average (or de) value off is given by ig Mase Ife), (124) However, the biasing cireutry demands that iz = Jes; hence i may be written in the simplified form gi tented 2h In addition, Vi, may be obtained from Eq. (1.2-4) to be af the form corn | 02s wr eng he) iz = hoa 12-9 oy (12-6) ‘Table 1.2-1 presents several sets of data concerning the modified Bessel functions that will be of interest to us, From the fist column of this table we ee that if = 260 mV, so that x = 10, then the de voltage shifts by 206 mV from its Q-point value, ‘We can also see from the other columns that the peak value of ihe fundamenta) component of the collector current of transistor 1 is 19lcz, while the percentage second-harmonic distortion in this current is 85% Table 4 2h) 10) nd 2 ls) ay ‘0000 ‘000 can 0.082 aes one 2% | oss 2 am | 1396 oa 330 87 719 os |) tar oss 6 130 92s Apparently a 260 mV peak sinusoidal signa is nota small signal at all from the viewpoint ofthis amplifier. ‘The limits of small-signal operation are made cleuret by fa study of Figs. 12-1 and 1.2-2. Figure 12-1 shows that the output fundamental is only roughly linearly proportional to the input voltage, or equivalently x, for x < 1 However to keep /3)/s(3), which isthe percent second-harmonic distortion, below 025 (21%, distortion), itis necessary to Keep x below 0.1:} Consequently, for small-signal operation V, <2.6mV or equivalently jy) < 2.6 mV. tis apparent from Eq, (12-1 that the emitter current an, in turn, the collector ceurrent of transistor | are proportional to e****/e* for any fired value of x. (We | For smal ales of mJy (s) © sf Ba, (A-2) in the Appendix atthe back of the book 12 \WIDPRAND AMPLIFIER LIMITS ON “SMALLSIONAL” ovtiextiON 5 20) 1 1 24 Ca¥, os wiht) as Tanne ° 7 2 pena eee eer aK oT ig. 12-4 Functions of mode es! functions vs. the normalized parameters 10). For this ease £,~ ag and the mixer not only translates in frequency but also amplifies, ’as en example of this fact we consider the case in which x(?)= (1 m¥) (1 Hosni eos coat (Where dp aa)s Ry = TOKO, Hey = 26mA, h, = 260_mVs fc© Land Z, isa parallel REC revit ned ate, ~ 03. Clearly then for this ceeuit10 Pxeview 16 24 = (010.948) mho = 0.0948 mho, Consequently, the output voltage ft) = Vec ~ (0948 V)(1 + £08 gt 208 (2, ~ ch The output signal is shifted in fequency and amplified by a factor of almost 1000. 1 is interesting that mixers of this form are employed in all superheterodyne receivers, that is, in more than 99% of the world’s receivers of any kind, 16. SINE-WAVE OSCILLATORS ‘To operate the mixer we required a locat oscillator; hence every superheterodyne receiver requires an oscillator. At the same time every transmitter also requires an Oscillator. ‘The lirst-order characteristics of an oscillator are its waveshape, its fre~ ‘auency, and its applitde. Second-order characteristics are the frequency and ampli- tude stability with changes in time, temperature, vollage, and physical movement. “To set the frequency ofa sine-wave oscillator we connect it into & feedback loop s0 that positive feedback of exactly 360° is possible only atthe desired frequency. To build frequency stability into it we concentrate most of the phase shift vs. fre quency dependence into one portion ofthe circuit (often a quartz crystal or a high-Q ttined circuit). The oscillator often attains its desired amplitude by reaching a balance between the feedback allowed by the passive portions of the circuit and the nonlinear ‘shin offered by the active portion ofthe circuit (the transistor inthe case we are about to consider). Figure 1.6-1 shows a sine-vave oscillator cireuit constructed from the basic circuit of Fig. 11-1. For this circuit a 360" phase shift around the loop is possible only inthe vicinity of the taned circuit resonant frequency wy; hence, ifn oscillation ‘occurs, it has a frequency of approximately 2. Let us now assume thet the resonant Circuit has a high Qy; then, ifthe cireuit estilltes, the voltage across itis almost yA cmc.ey/{6+e) Fig. 6-1. Sinewave osilatr. 16. SIne-WavE osciLtaTORS 1D sinusoidal even ifthe collector eurrent flows in narrow pulses. If we assume also that this voltage, v, = Hoos woh, stepped down by the capacitance ratio m= CyCx + C5) (el. Chapter 2), then a sinusoidal drive voltage of the form V, e05 wot ‘appears atthe emitter of transistor I, where ¥, = nb, Thisemitter voltage, in general, ‘uses a nonlinear, puselike collector current. ‘We demonstrate in Section 55 thatthe loading of the transistor emitter junetion upon C; is equivalent to a resistance of a/G,(x)- In addition, we demonstrate that this loading may be reflsted ueross the inductor Las a conductance of 1{Gql*Vah, where nis again Cy(C, + C,) Consequently, the tolal effective conductance appearing across the indvetor is nG,ho) Gy = 6, +S Acortng 0 We Bains eto fr a ai nia iain a on Ae ate i lony pn. oranteoy sn ne eak eile nl apie sano efor catheter eae Pease lla a) sts the al cs ee eee Tae ben anon In ig 162 Tecnu’ Ce sree acetone 9 ago sess shan sou Tepe oper th fe ba onto a Paykel ales («narod ampier worm wensy wot gas wt wn os Fig 16-2 Cireuit foe determining loop gin,12 preview 16 ‘Since the two capacitors act asa step-down transformer with ratio m, risasemns ett ul Stable sinusoidal oscil ‘or equivalently Gals) a6 al = aia) Equation (1.6-4) specifies the value of Gy(x) required by the passive portion of, the circuit, The amplitude must now adjust ise s0 thatthe transistor supplies this Guo). IIe is known, then gag = Ieag/KT follows, and from Fig. 45-6 we may determine the x that corresponds to the required Gy. For example, if Cy = 100pF, C= 11200pF, and R,=137kQ, then ooses and Thin ain dep = 85 mA hen fay 19200 mo and GylsVing = 0492: ence trom Fig 45-6, Yon erat) tris quite obvious that Vac mus exced 12 isoletor-bsse stration snot to oveur in transistor I. So longas Vee > 12 V, the previous amplitude isthe ampli- tude at which the citeuit siabilizes. In addition, inthis ease, xA4 Wed 2=10mV, and hm = 1av. CAC =a © CR © 137, Or OGG, Rr = MCR & | which is not nearly as igh a8 we would normally want the Q of an osillater to be However, even in this relatively low-Q case we have only 5% second-harmonic voltage across the tuned cireit; hence our assumption of « pure sinewave drive Ww promuins 13 was not bad, We shall show later that such a circuit oscillates within two pats in a thousand of the nominal center frequency of the tuned cireuit alone, 17 ConcLusicsss [Now that we have seen some of the possibilities of this simple circuit, we shall go buck and examice both a number of passive circcits and a number of other non lineavitisin detail. ‘Then we shall retura {0 explore in more depth each ofthe circuits discussed here, and also to discover many other circuits of immediate interest to the ‘communication or control system designer. Before we plunge into nonlinear con- trolled sources and then into circuits, we devote a chapter to passive transformerlike networks and a chapter to the response of narrowband filers 1o modulated signals. There are no review chapters on basic electronic, or instance, on biasing sill signal amplifiers, Por reales» who feel deficient in such areas, some suggested aground ceading 1 sted below. ‘SUGGESTED BACKGROUND READING IN ELECTRONICS Angel, E.3, Je lectroics: FET’ BUT and Micrcirents, McGraw, New York (1969) Gray. PE, troduction to Electrons, John Wiley, New York (960. A 325-pupe paperbock tveoped or an intectutory course in clestronics About half the book is dese! oye finde, and diode circuits oneird to junction transistors, and onesnth to fd fest tae Shor and wien tubes. PROBLEMS: Problems 1 through 1S aze al based on the eeu of Fig. 1-1 1 Supposing that Vo = 3¥, Ry = 340, all alphas = 098 and al transistors av intel, Siiton and have yy © 2 x 10" A, find Jey Fee +10, the deerine the wale of Re tat ean be wid to replace Z 80 that the output de Vl evel wll oe +5 V. Wht is ‘the approximate power dissipation in each transistor for this case? 12 Suppose Zs replaced by an ac short creit inthe eieut of Problem 1.1. Sketch for the cases where nf a pure sine wave having peak ampliudes of I mV, 26naV, 26mV, and ‘0 env. he Section 53 this cose considered in deal; only 2 reasonable cstnate of the ‘ups rai at this poi 1.3 Suppose Z,frephioed by 100.2 resistor in series with anae short circuit Rept Problem 12 forthe caves in whi v has peak amplitude of mV and of 20. Compare the“ 16 WW 18 PREVIEW jon ie covered in rests withthe previous problem. (The second eat tot rival; the os ‘etaiin Chapter 5) [Repeat Problenn 1.2 forthe case where , shunted by apart LC combination tuned to the sscnnt fequeesy ofthe inp sinosidal signal, Does saturation coeur? Repeat Problem 2 for he case where R, is shunted! bya parlsl LC combnation tuned to th second harmonic ofthe inp sinusoidal sgral and compete the resls with those of Problem 14 For the ica shown in Fig, LP-1,ditermine an expresion for 1)(Q3 and Q ecidenvica FFor the cisuit shown ia Fig. LP-2, deter the quiescent values of Zz. Unis and es Ween Teg = 1OTOPA, Fn = 2 10°! A, ad Tgp = 13 3 109A For the iret of Fig, 1.P-2,detemine (0) where w= (1 mV}c08 101 and Is lig = 102A, aka 2 wv Figure LP-2 IsCHAPTER 2 BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND TRANSFORMERLIKE COUPLING NETWORKS In this chapter we explore the similarities among « number of passive networks all of which have widespread practical application All of these networks have the property of being able to transform impedance levels and hence voltage and current eves. loitaly we consider a broadband transformer, and in later sections we show how a number of practical circuits may be reduced to the combination of & parallel RIC circuit and an ideal transformer. Throughout the chapter, emphasis is placed on plausible approximations, usually based on a consideration of the pole-2er0 diagram forthe circuit in question “The reader may question the necessity ofsuch a chapter, sine he has undoubtedly already had one or more courses in network theory or linear circuits. We have included the chapter because it has bean our experience that such courses—o¥ the textbooks used in them-—rarely bring out the similarities in the circuits discussed here or make evident the approximations that suffice to simplify them. Its our aim in later chapters to combine these circuits with various nonlinear elements to make Useful circuits Before undertaking this combination it seems wise to have & thorough fanniliarity with the individual pieces. ‘The reader eager to get on to complete circuits might examine the equivalences shown in Table 25-1 and the illustrative examples atthe end of Section 24 IF these fare all “old hat,” then we urge him to push on; if no, we recommen this chapter us 1 foundation for later work 2.1 BROADBAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING {in this section we study the frequency and time-¢amain properties of linear network consisting ofa resistive load coupled toa driving voltage source by means of a broad- band transformer as shown in Fig. 21-1. Such networks are useful for providing de Fnolation and the possibilty of phase inversion between the input and the oviput; thoy are also employed when the load res'stor musi be scaled in value to “match” thedriver over broad band of frequencies. For example, a transistor power amplifier might require a 2000 resistive load over the frequency range of 20-20,000 Hin ‘order to deliver a required amount of power without exceeding its maximum voltage, current, and power ratings, whereas the speaker it hus 10 drive might have an im- pedance of 82; hence transformer coupling is required. Transformer coupling is also employed where the load resistor must “float” referenced to the input voltage souroe both for de and for ae signals 6 2 DROADEAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING [7 ow AVG yuo a3 fe RSH Fig, 21-1. Transformer coupling newore Since our objective in this section is to gain familiarity with the bisie operation of the transformer as « coupling element, we neglect second-order elects such Winding capacity and core nonlinearities ip our analysis, In addition, we modal th ‘ese lomes ia the transformer sl gesistors in Series with the input snd output Terminals. This model is quite ceasonable where core loss is not excessive i eom- parison with winding loss, ass the case in most commercial broadband transformers “The transformer model most useful for analyzing broadband coupling networks isshown in Fig,21-2, where andr represent the transformer loss. The equivalence Fig. 21-2 Transformer ‘model replacing trans emer of Fig 21-1 ofthis model, as wells other possible models, and th orginal wansformerisexplored in the appendix and in the problems atthe end of the chapter. The model expliily, indicates the cause ofthe loss of high- and low-frequency transmission. 1 particular, fat low frequencies the impedance of L4 = KL, approdches 2ero and shunts to ‘ground the signal path 10 Ry; and at “igh frequencies the impedance of Ly (1 —)L; approuches infinity and thus opens the signal path to Ry. However if Ly» L, (or equivalently k = I}. frequency range exists where ol, is parison with the inapedance it shunts, while aL, is small in comparison with the Impedance in series with it, Over this range, which we call the midbnd (c Fig 2-7) the inductances L, and L, may be approximated by short and open circuits; this yields the simplified model shown in Fig. 1-3 for the network of Fig, 21-118 BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 2 eee Be Men ne ivi a ae enalh ue nett Fig. 21-3 Midbund model for iansfomet coupling network With the aid of the midband model, we fst observe that for the usual ease where 1, 6, and ry Ky. a mpedanoe Of mR, is presented 10 the driving source, ‘Therefor, by choosing n? = KLy/Ls appropriately, we may obtain any load resist- ance required by the driving souree. For k © 1 and Ly and I wound on the same core, fy Nt NP where N, and A are the numbers of turns in the windings of Ly and L respectively; Ihence inthis ease n may be related tothe physical turns ratio ofthe transformer. ‘Second, we observe that in the midband n may be chosen to maximize the voltage across R, fr the case where vf) Ry, and Ry are fixed. Situations ofthis type arise ‘when a transducer, such 28 2 phonograph pickup, with a high source impedance {ii)and s Bxed developed signal (e) must be coupled inthe midband to an amplifier sth ow input resistance (4, Wnting the miand transfer function in the form ed na, ee lured 5G) AER we Rd and equating d#f,/dn with zero, we obtain the value of m which maximizes Fy: = RFR With this value of n = ng, the midband transfer function is given by Re DR iB +) ‘The value of t = nig given in Eq, (2.1~2) is intuitively reasonable ws the value which produces maximum signal to Ry, since it yields a resistance atthe stansformer inst Terminals which is equal to the source resistance R, + 74. Such a match ensures ‘maximum power into the transformer and thus into Ry. tis apparent from Eq, (241-3) thas the existence of transformer loss reduces the signal available to R,, To obtain a better ineasure of this signal attenuation, we assume that vfs ofthe form V, €0s ea, where ais some midband radian frequency, — 4 B sna: Bs Rye ne Ba > Res nae En Rye Pe Ra > 4, en 7 13) ers) BROADBAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING — 19, 000 50 ig. 2-4 ‘Typist eansfonmer speciation, Fi-20 May fe 1500 He fand that n = nq, and then compute the ratio ofthe average power delivered to Ry tothe average power delivered to R, with ry = ry = 0. This ralio, which isu measure of efficiency nis given by crete ee RARE OR Bg VERE Ranke OD FR TR Ctealy then, unless 7 « R, and ry « Ry, much ofthe available signal powers not supplied to Ry "The transformer manufacturer usually indicates what minimum values of R, and R,, ensure R., > rs and R,> r, in his specification ofthe turns ratio. Typically, the specification appears in the form shouin in Fig. 21-4, whieh is interpreted to imply that if a $0 resistor is connected across terminals b and 6, $001) is “seen” at tecminals @ and a’ in the midband range extending from 20 Hz to 15,000 Ha; hence n= /500/5 = 10, In addition, the fact that R, = $0 and R, = 5000 ensures R, > rz and Rr, usually 10 the extent that y > O8. Using smaller values of Ry does not alter the twrns ration but does decrease the efiieney 7 and alter the midband frequency range “To extend our analysis beyond the range of the midband, we obtain the transfer Iunetion Hip) = VpVVp) forthe circuit of Fig, 21-2 inte form He) ers where Reo y+ ray Ry= MR, + rah Le LW iLy, and Ly = ML. Since all RL (ot RC} networks have their poles On the negative real axis, the pole-zer020 BROADBAND AND NARKOWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 24 Fig. 21-8 Poleaero diagram of 1). m * ingram for Hp) takes the form shown in Fig. 21-5, where py and pare the roots ofthe denominator of Hip). In general, the expression for p, and pa is quite compli Gato; however, forthe broadband transformer where Ly > L,, und b Simplified approximate expressions for Py ‘We note [As Ly increases relative to Lay Pa + Pa su py Bas ‘and p may be obuained, From Ba, (21-3) that the sum and product ofthe roots ofthe denominator of Hip) are given by +R, Ri RR Bt Band nena [E m= Ei approaches a constant value while pips Mprdaches zero. But p,p, can approach 7270 onl i one ofthe poles, ps in this ease, aaproaches the origin. ‘Thus as L, increases relative to , the larger pole is approx mated by the sum of the poles; that is, and ‘As the reader can readily d ‘approximations of Eqs. (21-6) and (21 Ly > 100L, should be noted that pois t pao isthe network pole obtained with Shows the two simplified single-pote circuits nentnee seta mo Re Pw Sealey ng PAE ss ey ho lemonstrate numerically, i R, © Rp and Loy > 10g, the 7) are accurate within 5% In addition, sf the approximations are valid within 1% for any ratio of Ry 0 Ry, Mt by inspection ‘With the poles widely soparated, H(p) is piven by He) aR ie Ga Fle Pod [yy \ ne network pole obtained with £, open-circuited und that HL, replaced by a short circuit. Figure 2.146 fom which pio and pzy may be abtainsd ers) Ra 2 Pee ay Peeled ROADUAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING — 21 Coors ase eat ‘cuits for determining 19 Rewrt Ry RnR) oo 201g |HUOK = 20108 Hy + 210g o/Pa0) 20108 JT + CalPiok ~ Oleg VT ClriP 1-9) ‘where Hz is the midband transfer function, The magnitude 201og|F1(jo and a sketch of arg Ha} vs. are given in Fig. 21-7. ‘Since [pyol > iPaak the corrections at each comner to the asymprotes do not interact; hence the range of frequencies over which (jo) has not decreased by more than 3B from its midband value is just the range between ipyo and [page This range is conventionally defined as the ~3 4B bandwidth of the transformer coupling network One should note also that as the poles become widely separated, arg H( ji) approaches +2/4 at o = [psol and — 4 at @ = pol If the transformer coupling network is now excited by a step of voltage of the form of0) = Yuh then Yip) = Vile, Vip) = YH, at az iit ofty = ED gr — e-em 7 e 7 Lip ee 2 Ga save Fig. 21-7 Magnitude and hse vs w for tansfor~ ‘er coupling network. Rs22 -BROADUAND AND NARRONPAND COUPLING NETWORKS 21 / HaViBe ctr ames Fig 21-8 Step response of trgosocmer coupling network where £7? is the inverse Laplace transform operator. A plot of v{t) vs. ¢ is shown satig 2.18 Note thn the high-frequency pole at p, cnteibuts to the deterioration wrtnvicading edge ofthe output step, while the low-frequency pole a p, contributes BR Setay tthe output step to zero. This of courses an exposed result since ee cet ianamt ether the hiphsrequency components of the step re eemetabure to i Teading edps or tbe lowsrequency (de) componens which Ir roquied fora nonzsro steady-state val. : Fone makes the taraformerboadtand by desing k= 1 (or wih cae ae drs pl he sep respons takes the form shown in Fig, 21-9. Since Fa eee on of i" becomes negile whee compared wih inte step response takes the approximate fo Vine, -insnye) = Lm Troe MO RR [Note that this i the reponse ebtainable from the simpli circuit of Fig, 21-¢ Tinctine suucture of te leading ede of te step responses required, an expanded time scale about the origin must be employed. On such a scale e “Weal remains essen- {iy consume at unity sthos the leading ofthe step respons takes Ue aprox mate form oo ei 0 Vanke 0s ERE "adh, ary Fig. 21-9 Step respons ‘roadbed wancformer work 2 BROADBAND TRANSFORUE COUMNG — 23 - ruostal em)an Fig.21-10 Expansion of leading edge of Fig 21-9 which is illustrated in Fig. 21-10 and which is exactly the step response obtained fom the simplified circuit of Fig. 2.1-6(a} Consequently, for the ease of wiely separated poles, both the step response and the frequency respons: may be obtained from simplified single-pote circus. ‘As un application ofthe above analysis, let us specify the parancters of u tans- former which matches $(2(R,) to $001(R,) in the midband extending from 50 Hz 0 5000 He [pi] = 314 x 10" rad/see [pl = 3.14 x 10? radjsee). With these values the poles are widely separated; hence b= (= Hy b= PL, = 7 & pe Teer +R + lle the transformer isto have reasonable efficiency, we must have R, > r In addition, fora match, we need 1? Ry, 000 URL > M 0 e, 38m and WL, = 32) = 800M, sia from which we obtain k = 0.962, Ly = 832 mH and L, = KL? = 00-mH/100 = SmmHt All of these velues are reudly obtained in practice efore terminating our discussion of broadband transformer networks, let us consider the effc" of loading the transformer in a way ll feent fron that specified by the manufacturer. Clearly if both R,and R, are increased while their ratio remains constant, the ficiency increases and [pyo| and Ipaq inerease indirect proportion 10 R. or R, (if we assume ry « R, and Fy R,); hence the transformer passband is shifted up in frequency. 11.8, and R, are decreased, the opposite ellct results, To determine the effect om ipo] and [pag Of varying R, relative (0 R,, we plot on Sr + 20108. elite and T+ UR] 20'ogiaal = 2019 824 BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 21 Fig, 21-11 Plot of 20loglpse and 200g vs UR. va Ry fas shown in Fig, 21-11, were R/Lis xpress a ensonies quantity Foe anon ajtem of unis, Ae Ry = Ry ry is reed aie 18 = 1(R,, + F2). we observe that the high-frequency pole increases without bound while the low-frequency pole approaches a constant value. ‘Consequently, we shuld en rea lobnce Sie (Ry = 2) to produce no high-equeny beak pont ae ate alu of Ts fn observed in practic owes sine a8 es wrenk pent peodusee By the psa wining capac, whieh swe have melted i tres relative to Rj we oberve that te igh-teavency ple eee ave wile the iowetequeney pole approaches zero. tn the aaa er pou expect the rarer fo pass de ower, this eet # di ae ci pence bevaue othe nonzero resistance of he deving out ae ecas of Although the above analysis is performed fra tansormer a ns ln same reals areobtined for any broadnd coupling ne coupling ne vor ibe ongis and wo poeson the negative rel xs In partic. aaa eum show in Fig 21-12, consisting of coupling capacitor be 2 edad the nd th oae sry enpaity So pounds hs slr sep nd tequency response Tig, 21-2 Capacitive coupling network, 22 Z PARALLEL RLC CiRCUIT 25 Bilin esa? andlor moa Cerca woh) Fig, 22-1 Parallel REC circuit In the sestions which follow we shall shift our emphasis from the broadband ‘pplication of the transformer to its application in narrowband circuits, We shall begin by developing the properties of simple narrowband circuits: we shall then cexiend these concepts to narrowband transformer-coupled networks 22 PARALLEL ALC CIRCUIT Before beginning a discussion of narrowband transformer networks, we shall review some of the properties of simple narrowband resonant circuits, which are essential building blocks c* the more complicated transformer networks. We shall begin by considering the simple parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig, 22-1. f we drive the circuit with the exrrent if) and define vi) as the output voltage, the transfor Function {in this case, igpat impedance) takes the form 1 Zap) = 2. "E Pe. ” WP) ay P ( ~ pute — Pad ree where “The pols, ps and ps, may be rea oa complex conjugate pi. We conser thee two eve spurte For elon where (/2RC)! 2 1/LC (or equivalently R oy/2 = YoasC, where sas Me/ECk pr ued ps Keen the nope ral ans a shown ia Fig 23-2 ‘Ti aleseredugra wich analogous thon forthe brown watsormet Terobako Socton 2 nets that or les oF Rvhich asl omar wi ye, spade Fig, 22-2 Polezer diagram of Z,,(9) with Re ol26 BROADBAND AND NARROWRAND COUPLING NETWORKS 22 40 & Boao Pole: pa for finding Pup a4 se ‘ooLit, the parallel REC network functions as a broadband network wi.ose midband ‘Requency range extends from|p,{10 |p|. Physically the midband my be interpreted hat range of frequencies over which the impedance of both the inductance L and fapacitance C is large, and therefore negligible compared with R: hence Zam = &. ‘Ar iow and high frequencies the impedances of Land C respectively approach zero, ‘thus shunting it to ground. ‘For wide pole separation the approximate values ofp, and pp may be determined by inspection, In particular, fr py > Pe Ps is approximated by the sum ofthe xpots fof the denominator of Z,,(P} and py 8 approximated by the product of thé roots divided by the sum ofthe roots, that is, ie cule | Retr PRC ae Pa (22-2) Physically poo isthe radian frequency at which the impedance of Lis equal to R, din [pol the radian frequency at which the impedance of C is equal to R. Alterna tively pe anid pay are the poles of the simplified circuits shown in Fig. 22-3. Since the step and frequeney responses of the broadbsid paralle! RLC network in terms St ps and py are Kdentcal in form with the corresponding responses of the broad: band transformer, we de not present them ere. For the case where (1/280)? < A/LC of R > eg /2, the expression forthe poles takes the form Pua = ~a tifa oe = -a tJ8, O23 where Wy = Ui/EE, a= 1/2RC, and = 0s =a. The polezero disgram for Tre caetshown in Fig 22-4 Tels apparent thatthe distance ofthe poes from the Tiyin i given by a? +P? = of; hence as ais increased by increasing the loading fon the cteult (decreasing R), the poles move into the et hal Chur trajectory of rads op until they meet on the real exis For a = Wy ‘phyeally wy i that radian frequency st which the impaances ofthe inducto: and capacitor are equal in magnitude and opposite in phase, ae dhs produce 4 are ecpeait wen combined in parallel. This frequency, at which the parallel ALC epetir appears a ape resistor, i called the resonant frequency of the circuit 22 PARALLEL RLC CiRcUT 27 Bash then © biyittlee & breclae we det Paes ype plane Be wate wel Ntegyneamt vee eC lighter & laste pow oe B. eussenter nade be S tencge nape etinn ——\ | ena a Mice | pen eee fan ane ae cinnntew bo : | OT Babespe: fon Co v au fy 22:4 roe acm 2 88 er “To obtain the sinusoidal steady-state frequency response when K > wpL/2, we express Z,,(jolas Joye R 20 QoS a 24) 140 om where Op up/2e = wgRC = Ritwol. Equation (22-4) provides the means of Dbtaining an exact plot of |Z; sal and arg Z, (jo) 8.02. On the other hand, quick Sketch of (2 (ol and arg ZL Au) may be obtained from the value of 21/4) and the asymptotic values of Z,,(li) as @ approaches zero und infinity, “The ssymp- totic values vs co may be obtained by plotting the resistance X, the magnitude ofthe teupacitive reactance [Xia = 1/C, and the magnitude ofthe inductive reactance [Xyloif = ob on the same set of coordinates vs, eo as shown in Fig. 22-3. Clearly for = wy the reactances ofthe inductor and eapscitor cancel eachother and yield [Z2,,Un)] Rand, ofcourse, arg Z, (ja) = 0. ASwis decreased below 9, the small feaclance of the inductor rapidly dominates the parallel RLC network, causing 12), toapproach col andarg Z,,Jo)toapproach x/2. Similarly. aswisinereased “above oy, the snell reactance of the capacitor rapidly dominates the parallel RLC retwork, causing {2,10} to approach 1/ioC and arg Z; jo) to approach —n/2, a8 shown in Fig. 22-5, 1 addition, the two “halF-power” frequencies cy and oy at wich 2 (fi) = iY? and arg Z; (ju) = 4/4 and —a/4 respectively, may be found by equating the imaginary tern in the denominator of Eq. (22-4) t0 #1 and solving for o-ah f[- a=, 7 oreo ea BALL"28 BROADBAND AND NARKOWIAND COUPLING NETWORKS 22 |p are Zl a Fig. 22-5 Plot of 2 il and org 40) 16.0 Direct solution of Eq, (22-5) yields the following relationships between a and o>, f= 0, = 2x and — 04, = Oy. However, since the diflerence between 2, and w, is the ~30B bandwidth (BW) of the parallel RLC circuit, we have BW = 2a, or equivalently BW 2 ‘ig oy” OF tis interesting at this point to notte sgicance ofthe parameter Qr. which istered to thenctwork “gue FistofallesQy neeases the ~3 dB bandh Sie network deneaes roauive to its resonant frequency. Cleary, then, ithe See REG cuit rus o tanita modulate carrer whose petrum occupies Pl band of requenois about ty, Oy mst not be iaceased toa point where “oie ltion stoned. Second, nrcsing Qy ncredses the ao OF Roa. omens that Qe Bagh = RayC). Hence the pall RLC nework greatly ditchuates requendes inthe vin 9f 2a (bere [Z,(42} —~ Wi) relative iiequncisn the vst of (where Za) = R). Consequently, i the purpose Fhe 'hurael REC eeu io extract the fundamental component ofa periodic seem bs ax high as posible cesied, Thi, x Orinrenscs, the poles of pepyanproac the imaginary axis in the complex p-plane and ease any tases ‘rain he network to become more and more oxilaor. Tiare with, we may interpret Orin stil another ay. For the ase where i) Ieotont whish results a bf) = TReos og = ¥, cos, We hate ager? : Tajngiv in) ~ OC = Or wat vag Bose tar L Leics e268) 2 (peak energy stored) ‘Energy dissipated per cycle Aya Bove Ooi? 6 bite Cx te pegne See a} 22 PARALLEL RLE CIRCUIT 29 Expanded view of Fig. 22-6 Phaser digram for evaluating 2,00) aoe “This interpretation of Qy in terms of stored and dissipated energy is useful in deter» mining the Q of circuils with more than one source of dissipation. In cases where Or is high, or equivalently where the poles of Z, are close to the imaginary ais, a graphical approximation permits us to obtain giealy simplified expression for Z, Uv). Ifwe consider the phasor diggram shown in Fig, 22-6, we observe that for «> O the range of frequenties over which 2 ,(ju)] = (SFidP Pa is significantly diferent from zero is that range inthe vieinity of p; where», beeomes small. As a is decreased relative tooo, this fequency range decreases 16 the point where the phasors drawn from 2 and p= p} remain essentially constant over the nti range, with the magnitudes and angles given by 0,222, Py 20, Oy = HP B= Juha? = wy, ‘Consequently, for high values of Q,, 2) may be closely approximated by 2 «| In addition, for # « 9, 20) ® 02-8) a (5 CoP», PAS ase) ICP.30. BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 22 Recognizing that p,, €xPJ0, Bq, (22-8) inthe form : k Zui) =§ — a" or, we =) A similar fren maybe obtained for @ <0 1t is apparent that {Z, (jw)! given by Eq, (22-9) is symmetric about wp, with “halt-power frequencies and ey given by ora ote Ie is intzeating that for high values of Or approaches the arithmetic rather than The poomalic en of ws and wy, whi fie = 3.48 bandit remains unchanged mo; 0 = 22 For io = c, and for © =, py, hts increased from its minimum valve of «10 cax/>u thus causing Z, ja) to derease from its maximum value by a factor of Yh/2. “Although we have indicated that the simplified form of Z, (jw) given by Eq, (2255) is 2 good approximation fr Z, Jo) when Qr i igh, we have not yet deter- Stine what rangeet Gr may be considered high. To do this wemanipulat the exact expression far 2,40) even By Bq (22-4 int the orm R a4, eee ETT atta Bat fw ugh we may rewrite oro 2-9) Zyldo) 10) were © = (@ — eu). Here we se explicitly that as Qy + o Bg, (2-10) reduces 10 Eg, 22-3}. In addition, if we plot [Z,,(jaW/R and arg Z,,U0) vs. as shown in Figs 22-7 and 22-8, we observe exceptionally lose agreement between the curves obiained for Qy = 10 and Q; = co, particularly inthe vicinity of 2 = 0, or equiva- lently « = «Since the carves for Qr = 0 correspond to the simplified expression for Z, Ufa) sven by Eq, (22-9), we may clears use this approximation for 2y4(j0) with confidence for Qy > 10 and as a “ballpark” approximation for Qy as low us 5. "To obtain the response ofthe parallel resonant circuit driven by an impulse of current, we obtain the inverse Laplace transform of Z,(p) or directly evaluate the Impulse response by other methods. In either case, we obtain alt 2712s = Sher att enn (a= 2-12) = Stentor ethan G21 For the case where Op > 10, Eq, (22-11) ede fo he snp fom sul = te cores, aaa) since f= @yy/T IHG ~ w» and aff = UJAOE= 1 =O 22 PARALLEL RUC CIRCUIT 31 yo Popa ee eae eee Fig. 22-7 Plot of 2, Ual/R v2 23 PARALLEL LC CIRCUIT WITH SERIES LOSS In this sestion we shall consider the parallel resonant circuit with [oss in series with, the induetor or capacitor, We shall show that when the series los is small a is most often the case in communication systems, the eireut behaves in the same Fashion as the parallel RLC network, and thus theless may be modeled by an equivalent parallel resistor, Such a model permits the combination of circuit loss appesting at several points inthe parallel LC circuit into single parallel resistor for which the expressions ‘derived in Section 22 may be applied directly ‘We begin our analysis withthe circuit of Fig. 23-1, in which the loss inthe form ofr appears in series with the inductor. We shall then generalize o the ease where Joss appears in series with both the inductor and capacitor and also in paral with the combination. For the circuit of Fig. 23-1, the transfer function (or input im pedance) relating v,() and i() i given by (UONp + oh 10. 7 200) = Ti)“ B= 90 2 au where psa = (=r?) + JEP = WLC. We se that the poles of (9) may be ther Fal or complex, pending on the elationship ofthe parameters. Sine the fnalysis ofthe circuit with ea polesiequitesimilar tote rea poleanslsis performed in Section 22, we restrict our attention tothe ease where LC > (21) (or equiva Tently + < 2ayL = 2Jt0C, where ty = Ya/TC) For this case the poles may be \wrtton in the form pas nea «ih 23-2)32. BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 23 23 PARALLEL Lo CIRCUIT waTH SHINES Loss 3B 10 Han Zahid i ons ie ae 08 2404 sn 2,gart(-0 0 ) Fig.'23-2 Polezero diagram of 2110) for none Pe2a where and, and p= Ja “The comesponding pole-zr0 diagram o> 2,9) is shown in Fig. 23-2. Here again te note that esis inerensed by increasing, the poles move into the let bal plone slong sericea trajectory ora, wheres the equ at which the magnitudes one inpotaners of the inductor ans capacitor are eu vy Figure 23-5 shows sketch of 2, Jo) and arg Zs) abained graphically from the poe-ero plot of Fig 2-2. Even this rough sbeich indicates tha, unlike the parallel LLC cei, the cct with los in seis withthe indaior doesnot cxpertace either zero phase shit or maximum amplitude of, (Jo at the equeney 0 / de, For this eason two date resonant frequencies ae spied fr ths ceut Fig.22-8 Pot of rb 2,0) { Ore= (1) the amplitude resonant frequency at which the maximum value of (2, ys 2 = (w— coh. Bae ‘occurs and (2) the phase resonant frequercy at which Z,, (jus) appears purely resistive. Fortunately, as te poles p, a0 py approuch the imaginary axis, bot resonant frequencies Sonverge to oy. wbich i tomotines deine at sil a third resonant freeney Im alton, no convenient expression exis for citer the maxinum value of [2 lw) or the 34 bandwidth of the cet in the general case. However, for these where « ap oF Oct ishih, where Q, i defined Oak ‘ cm Sree 23-3) certain simplifying approximations in the expressions for Z,,(ju) may be made. 4 We sal reserve Q, for “gue” in paral RLC cites, 40 Fig, 23-1 Parallel LC eect with loss in sere wth he inductor34 BROADEAND AND NARROWMAND COUPLING NETWORKS 23 zen ig, 2.3-3.Skech of magnitude and phase of ZU) v8 Specifically, withthe aid of Fig. 23-4, we write Z, (jo) in the form, (Sipe and observe that, for frequencies in the vicinity ofp, (the only range for @ > O where 7, si) is Significantly different from zero), the fllowing approximations are valid Pee, — OR — Pp 20, Oy AI B= fap— 2 x to. Zusj0) = SE exp Hd, ~ Op ~ Op) 34) ‘Thus Eq (2.3-4) may be written in the form ZO) 58D =p, 1 > 23-58) art 2c ‘hich sential inform to Eq, 22-9) Min addition, we observe that TPs te cece Teen Bag 7 Mitol = Gir = Rae 23-6) then Eq, (2.3+5) may be rewritten in the Frm, w>0, o37) which is exactly the expression for the impedance of a high-Qy parallel RLC cireuit 23 PARALLEL Le CIRCUTT WITH sas Loss 38 age uur S28 oll sro iB U4 8 8-8 le be = Shoot i: xpured vew of 7, nal op i opal pees geet ee for evaluating 2, Ua) with Rs Rug = Q3r, Hence, for high values of, {speciially, Q,, > 10 ensures the accuracy of Fg (2.3-7) within few percent), the circuit of Fig, 23-1 may be modeled by the circuit shown in Fig, 23-8. With this equivalence in circuits, we note from the results of Section 22 that [2 Ua = Rs BW = 24 = r/L, BWior9 = V/Qd. In terms of the polezero diagram of Z,,(p) shown in Fig. 23-2, the effot of replacing the serie? cos by a parallel loss isthe movement of the ero a ~ 22 (0 the ‘origin, This movement has little elfect on Z.,(p) for small values of a, which exist LT] mht AL itl tt —14J ant 0 Fig. 23-5 Equivalence oftwo paral resonant circuits36 BROADRAND AND NARROWSAND COUPLING NEFWORKS 23 o—+— . | tl | 200) ¢ In practice, the quickest way to conver series Jos nto parallel Hoss is evaluate Ou ~ alin, determine whether Q, > 10, and then form Ry, = Or. Note that if G55 10 ana if there ave no other losses in the network, then Oy = Qy- Clearly Ob 2 ReJogt = Op, Hote lowes are present in the circuit, Ry rust be combined ‘wlth the te determine Oy: thus Q, # Qr- Example 23-1. Determine valves for ,L, and C forthe creit shown in Fig. 2.4.6 Such that 2, (js) peaks to,a value of 10000 at og = 107 radfsee (f = L6 MHz) with a bandwidth ofS» 10°radjses. Soluion. Since the bandwidth is aaizow compared with 2, we have a high@ iret for whieh Oe Oe BW In addition, 1000.1 = |2Ungh = Oirs hence r = 250. From the relationship Lat= BW fa wwe obtain 250 Le ssatdice = 5M and finally C= Wad = 2000 pF. {Ifthe loss in 8 parallel resonant circuit appears in series with the capacitor, as shown in Fig, 23-7, the input impedance is given by YO) HD+ Mr) eas Tip) ~ PP + pL) + LC ated 23 PARALLEL LC CIRCUIT WITH SiRUS LOSS 37 1 a> 10 and Qe > 10, Where wy = 1/EC, then the total loss may be represented as the puralel combina: tion of Ory, Ors, and any existing shunt resistance, We shall explore this wea further inthe following example. Example 23-2 For the circuit shown in Fig, 23-9, determine the resonant radian frequency 0p, the bandwidth, Or, and Z, (ion) Vi/LE = 10? rad/sec hence Solution, We observe fist that em Set Fig,23-8 Polozero diagram of 2.0) wi38 BROADBAND AND NARROWHAND COUPLING NETWORKS 24 ze . a=2k0 1S iage. aR nanesa C5 Towa pF 210) a 7 Figure23-9 Consequently rand r_ may be replaced by equivalent parallel resistances each equal to Ozr, = 4k02 ‘Te total shunt resistance is therefore the parallel combination of Pkfh # KO and 4 kO, which of course is Lk Ry Since for the equivalent paallet resonant cirevit, L and C combine to product an infinite impedance at io. Zialide) = Rp = TED Also Oy = RyfooL = 10 and BW = colQy » 10° radjsec. 24 PARALLEL RESONANT “IRANSFORMERLIKE” NETWORKS In this section we shall consider the parallel resonant circuit in which the los appears across only # portion of the inductor or capacitor. Again we shall show that when (is hil (or, equivalently, the complex poles of the citcuit are close to the imaginary ‘axis, the eiteuit input impedance has essentially the same form as that ofthe paralle! IRLC circuit. The loss may therefore be modzled as an equivalent parallel resistor for which the results of Section 22 are directly applicable. In addition, we shall show that the tapped and loaded inductor oF capacitor possesses many ofthe properties ‘fan idea! ransformer. Specifically, ifthe loading slight, the load across the tapped fenergy-storage element may be modeled by the identical load placed across the ‘secondary ofan ideal transformer whose primary is placed in parallel withthe total tnergy-storage element, Ths representation is valid not only for the evaluation of the input impedance but also for the evaluation of the transfer impedance, ‘We begin our analysis withthe eicuit of Fig 24-1, in which the loss in the form ‘of G appears across « portion ofthe capacitor. We shall then generalize to the case o- £9 Fig. 24-1 Paraleresonant eit with pata loaded capacitor 24 PARALLEL RISONANE “TRANSFORMERLIKE” NETWORKS 39 whore the loss appears aerass a portion of the inductor, and also in Section 2.5) 10 the ease where the loss appeare across the secondary of a physical transformer with capacitively tuned pri For the circuit of Fig. 24-1 the input impedance is given by rata} Zt) = : *, es eG: ere C= C,C,AC; + Cathe series combination of C tC, tbe leading fom C; is light, Z; ip) must have a pair ofc pole, and thus may be written in the form nplex poles in addition to 1 re 4) 7 a= eee = ye Fa Tie ee where pi = a+ Jf and pp = —a ~ jp are the comples con praise reaauis pole, Figure 24-2 atypical polezero dings of Z(0b From Bq (22-2) oF rom Fig, 24-2 ii apparent thatthe expresin fr 20) sues tote form of the input impedance ofan equivalent parallel ALC ict i pron svotcequvatenly, ify = G/C, + Cy, To determine under what crcmstanees Fig. 242 Typical pole exo Bagram of 2,040 BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS, 24 this pole-zero cancellation is achieved, and in addition the resultant values of «and f + ja terms of the cireuit parameters of Fig. 24-1, we fist write the denominator of Fa, (24-2) in the form + De +4 Ji +4 +58) = p+ Py + 2a) + pla? +P + Dan) + ha? + We then equate the corresponding powers of p in Eq, (24-3) and ie the denominator of Fq, (24-1) to obtain the set of equations p42 = iC, 244) +f + Day = WLC = 8, 4-40) He + PP) = G/LCrCe eee) 43) fin addition, we define 0 and rearranged inthe form 42ay, then Fas. (24-42, b, and e) may be combined 129 — una ale oe 2 + BF = oi! — 1), (24-$b) e fo eral) inte where n= CC; + C2) 1 now becomes clear from Eq. (24-Se) that if © > 100 then the real-axis pole ‘and z2r0 of Z,,lp) lie within 17, of etch other and, for all practical purposes, cancel fo yield Zya(p) in the form of a parallel RLC circuit with o? +f? = o} and 2a % (wGIC)(l — tn ‘With the aid of Eqs (24-Sa and o) we may also write 246 where Or: = cgC/n2G and Op = wylC, + CVG. For large values of @ Ea. (24-6) reduces 10 De OrOe + Hn ean Hence if Q;-Qe which may be diretly determined in terms of the circuit parameters) is greater than 100, we can be sare that © is suliciently large to effect the desired pole-ero cancelation. In addition, Q-Qp > 100 ensures the accuracy (within 1%) Df the approximation of Eq, (24-7), rom which we obtain a} 1 a aS) ot 24 PARALLEL RESONANT “TRANSFORMERLIKE” wETWORKS 7 er, 100, Orne 0, MACE Aen KC vege inet inpeancss aint ve % % ¢ 20)* aya ETF TCE 49} where cs 84 of | weit Ga = 61 ~ a 3.0% Wee 5 Oe Equation (24-9) represents the input impedance of the equivalent RLC arcuit shown in Fig. 24-3, I OpQe > 100 and, in addition, OpQp is large, then G., 1 simplified form 6, = 1G, 1074 > 1 e410) mn particula, if n0r-Oe 2 20, then Gi = 1G within $7, whereas if »Qr-Ox > 100, then G., 1G within 1% (Nole thut since n< 1, nQpQe > 100 ensures Que 100) ‘With this additional condition satisied, we my wonsform the Shuvalentcieuit shown in Fig. 24-3 into an alternative and more wsful form, Shown in Fig 24-4 Clearly iG fs reflected though the ideal transform to ob Fig. 24-4 Transformer model for resongit circuit with tapped and loaded vapacitor. 2a eles wap Fa kaya? owe lew evorseee42 BROADBAND AND NARROWRAND COUPLING NETWORKS 24 Gey = 126, then the mod of Fig. 24-3 results. However, the model of Fig. 24-4 ismore versatile than the model of Fig. 24-3, since it provides a valid approximation for not only the input impedance Zyy(p) but also the transfer impedance 24,17) ~ V,qp\/llp) or the case where Or > 10 and also nQy-Qx > 100. “To demonstrate thie property, we note that, in general, Yat) _ Val) Yl) rn eae ‘Tdp) Vase) Hp) Zid abies Ho) p eGR t AG +e) for the citcuit of Fig. 24-1. A pole-ero diagram for Z:(p) is shown in Fig. 24-5. From this diagram and from arguments similar to those given in Section 23, itis clear that iffy > I and, in addition, 2 > 1, then the zero atthe origin effectively tances the pole at —y wien one evaluates the frequency or time response of Z,2(0) Bales pay . Fig. 24-5 Polesoro patter of 2:0) x 24 PARALLEL RESONANT “TRANSPORMERLIE praphicalys hence Zuale) © eB) = Zs leh D&B eal) = nish which is exactly the transfer impedance ofthe model of Fig. 24-4. Clearly he condi- tion nQpQe > 100 (which is required for the input impedance of the model of Fig. 24-4) results in eg/a = Qz- and ag/? % Oy; hence the combined conditions /nQ-Qy = 100 and Qy > 10 permit the use of the model of Fig, 24-4 for obtaining both Zale) and Z,,ip) for the circuit of Fig. 24-1. Specifically. if Q, > 10 (and 2 QrQg'> 100), then [2a obtained from the model is accurate within 1% ofits actual peak value and the phase of Z; (jo) is accurate within 6° over the passband. the phase angle of Zio) is critical or if Op < 10 while Qy-Q, > 100, thea Zulia) should be obtained fom the model of Fig. 24-3 und 7, al) shoul be Sblained by multiplying Z;,iw) by HU), which is determines exactly Irom Ba. 24-10, At this point it is worthwhile to interpret physically the parameters n. C, Qy-. and Qe employed in the models of Figs. 24-3 and 24-4 Clearly m isthe vollage division ratio of the two series capacitors with the load across C; removed (G = 0}; that i, al fi ele. ‘The capacitor C is just the total capacitance shunting 1 i the eioutt of F obtained with G = 0, In-addition, Op. = ezpCjn?Gis the Q ofthe most ot F Whereas Qu = Oe(C, + CVG is the ratio of the output resistance (1/6) to the Feactance at 0 which shunts G, evaluated with the input voltage 1) ofthe circuit fof Fig 42-1 reduced to zero (Ge, with the input shorted), We shall now use the ‘Same physical interpretation to obtain th corresponding parameters for a parallel RLC ciceuit with « tapped and loaded inductor ‘Consider the pevallel REC circuit of Fig, 24-6. By a procedure similar t that employed with the circuit of Fig. 24-1, we ean show that the transformer model, ftso shown in Fig, 24-6, may be employed to obtain expressions for Z,,(p} and Zualp) provided that nQrQe> 100 and Qe> 10, where in this case Qr = WeCHG, r= obrba/Glby + Lik Ln by + Lysand n= Ly/(L, ++ L3) Here again we observe that nf, VT eulBlewe” that L is the inductance shunting C with G = 0, that Qy- is the Q of the model of Fig. 24-6, und that Qy is the ratio of 1/G to the reactance at wo shuntiny G, evaluated with ra(t) = 0. This se of conditions is valid for any of the transformerlike networks shown in Table 2.5-1 and thus provides a handy mnemonic rule. 1ffor the cireuit of Fig, 24-6 QrQp > 100 but Qe < 10, Z,,(p) may be evaluated from an equivalent44 BROADBAND AND NARROWRAND COUPLING NETWORKS 24 Poy edi) wot ‘ { ee = Dao . Bi i Jn So WS, ope ltl, gee pe Orn Es Om Bt wm bm kth te Fig, 24-6 Parallel RUC circuit with tapped and loaded inductor and is transformer mode perallel RLC circuit with a shunt resistance Reg = 1/Gyq, where again zgl1-——__| 2) 64-6 =] ai In addition, Z; (9) may be evaluated as Zip) = Z,lPHp)-where Hu =75 zt ety) Lepe@, + hve ‘Shunt Input Resistance 1 an additional shunt input resistance Ris placed across the parallel RLC circ with a tapped and loaded capacitor, as shown in Fig. 24-7, iti apparent that the input impedance Val Raz, Yel?) Zi) = Hall = Razlo) and Zila) = 7 = Zadeh where Z:,(9) and #,(p) are the input impedance and transfer voltage function ofthe Crouit of Fig. 24-1. Consequently, if nQrQz > 100, Z,(p) may be obtained from Fig, 2447 Parallel REC ceuit Wit lapped and loaded eapator nd am inpal resistance Zio) Zt0h 2a PARALLEL RESONANT “TRARSFORMERLIRE” NETWORKS 45 Pr) ws c. omg heGee 1% mr O17 100, Oe=10, mae Fig. 24-8 Model for ccevit of ig, 24-7 use to obtain (9nd 7,00. fan equivalent pavelle! REC circuit sith a shunt recistance of 4786. and in wen Zaalp)may be obtained from the equivalent parallel REC circuit with shunt resistance UletG + G,), shunt capacitance C, and shunt inductance £, Clearly, for this resultant parallel RLC circuit eC ao = = 4) Or EG, mt) where ois th el part of the paes of Zh TF both w/a’ = Or > 10 and wf) > 10, where 7 i the poke of Hal then agnin Zs) 2 Zis0)n. Ue ny > 100, the tur © Or thu if Ore > 100, Ga > {0.and 0 > 10, then the model shown in Fig, 24-8 may be used obcain both Zj,(p} and Z, 2(p) for the circuit of Fig, 24-7. The same arguments apply to the paral REC creat with a apped a loaded indir Example 24-1. For the crouit shown in Fig, 24-9, determing an expression for Dua an eas wel the eeu Dawid, Solution, f we assume nQrQq > 100 and Qy > 10, we may replace the original ‘iteuit by the made shown in Fig, 24-10, for which & 1 ferec petit 1? radfse,— Zyljdg) = R= P= 240, ee oe ni i108 10% foims Figure 24-9 c.= C2000 pt46 BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 24 a 110 Figure 24-10 and Zsi0g) = nZ5 (jg) = 1K In adi we note hat Raa Or = B20 Oe thes values jos the use othe mode Since te current dive is at the resonant frequency Ww. where the input impedance sppeacs purely resistive [2 iz) = Rag a) ay be writen directly in the form He al) = HR gc08 10 = 2V 0s 10% SO M)0(C, + C2) =20, and — nO rQy = 2005 and hence at) = my) = LV 608 10%. Finally, since the only loading in the cteit is across Ca, Or ~ Qr and BW = lp 5 * 10° raejeee Example 242 For the citeit shown in Fig. 24-11 determine values for Cs. Co. dnd Z.such thatthe civeuit resonates at fo = 16 MHz (vg = 1OFradjsec) with a bandwidth of 106 MHz [BW = (107/15) ad/sec] and achieves maximum signal transmission to Ry at resonance. ‘Solution. Ive again assume nQy-O, > 100, Qg > 10, and Qy > 10, we may replace the original cueuit by the model shown in Fig. 24-12. Since at resonance the induetor and capacitor combine to produce an open circuit, maximum signal (or ww Flgue 24-11 24 PARALLEL RESONANT “TRANSFORMERLIKE” NETWORKS 47 gue 24-12 wer) is transmité2? to Ry in the purely resistive network when 1 is ehosen to match” Ry 10 R,, Le, when n= SRR, = /TROBEG = 1 = CMC, + C3 With this value of», Ry i reflected through the ideal transformer as a 9 KO resistors thus the total input fesistanee at resonance is 4540 Recalling that BW = 1/AC for «parallel RLC ciruit, we obtain Ce 1 100, SSF eamew 3 Replacing Cy/{Cy ++ C2) by n =}, we ebtain ceSeumpe, 6= [L-a}er =r and fnally 30, [At this point the original assumption must be checked. Its apparent that dea tic 0 ant Ope Een # C9 hence n0s-0, Oy o wo/W 150. In addition, we note that for the circuit in this example 5 thus the use of the mode! is justified Example 24-3 For the cireuit shown in Fig. 24-13, determine Z (je) and Zulia) Solution. For ths circuit shown, y= 1//ZC = 10" radjsee and n= Lyi, + L2)= 1/100. Hence ra 19 Oe Taig amd Gry = Lh48 BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 25 van jb seo c 2 © 00t and Qy> 10, where then we may replace the circuit othe lef ofthe ideal transformer by its equivalent transformer model as shown in Fig 25-4 (Fig 24-8) ; iTweaow combine te two ideal rersformer in eascae to obtain a snl ideal transformer with a tansformation ration = n/a ka/Lafl, = Mi, the model of Fig, 2.5-4 reduces to the desired model for determining Z(p) and Z, 2(p), shown in Fig 255. Here again we observe forthe ces of Fie 25-1 and 252 that that Ly is the total inductance shunting C with G = 0, that Qp is the ratio of the resistance (1/G) t0 the total reactance at wp shunting G with v,,() = 0, and that Qy-i8 the Q ofthe mode! of Fig. 25-5. 4 nad ato L oes ‘model fr paral a tesonan cea Connection ests including wansformers. {ora ansormer vat) We use ii of cause mi being reserved for the overall transtcmer rato | | I 25 PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSFORMERS ST “Table2S—1_ Equivalent circuits and pertinent relationships for parallel resonant “wansfomer he networks 7 EE | cit seine Zi) | on [ow | or | oe man” fale c : ti. “C36 ‘o 2 GG | we $ cree 3 = 28 $$ a 2 - c cas i se wen 38 b=Lah, ww sens bs Be Thi | c 1, # De Weel me ea " Tee TEE) | fe woe ‘Table 25-1 summarizes these properties that we have discussed Since the turns ratio n of an auto transformer in a high-O parallel resonant circuit may be expressed in terms of an unloaded voltage ratio, the physial construc- tion of the auto transformer is quite straightforward. One selects (or winds) an inductor whose inductance ie the desired value of Ly, places a voltage souree V, coset across the entire inductor, and moves a probe along the length of the inductor. At the point where the voltage V;.cosngt measured between the probe ‘and the bottom ofthe inductor is equal to nV, a lead is soldered and the consiruetion52 BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 25 Fig. 215-6 Pale ce a eansformer with tuned secondary. the auto tansfomer is completa Clery this transformer resonates at y= Uff and poses rn tof eee n rie ee tension fpr onan afore cuts we sould ote tat ae tons onthe coatient of couling ofthe pigs anformer aa ened code the high model of Fig 25-5, However, ik approaches ae adn andthe model of Fig 25-5 teoomes an crt model sneer tseranttanlomer regards the yalse of GI wehad decd eae ter aeton to else coupled tasers, we could have obtained eel Sig aSeS recy by ening linthe mol of Fig. 2.53 and noting that ante folly = EM/Ly* : ‘Teanformer ith Tned Secondaries Ie mang aprcations the secondary, ether than the primary, of ansormer i ears Pov in Pig 25-6 Soch coupling ualy employed to mnie the ar ee. cshning i) (or stance, clear capac) onthe Fa race Spacey the tanaormet steps up neces by La ee distvecapctancs shunting C tines he expat a ein Toand th aren some apa pF nly 002 pF eft through ta tead Ee sndary x alo employed with ransitor TF emplifers to keep the eee eae storm, the clesor voltage sma THs lw impedance Seen ee isl epactne en athe ranestr inp, ut aso te eee ipl tuning’ nthe inp impedance Sach lation is reduce the eo ome uned Independent to Oban an overall IF cane fonction. uty iol Fig. 25-7 Hybrid controlled source model replacing transformer of Fie. 25-7 25 PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSIORMIRS 53 To obtain expressions for the input and transfer impedance of the circuit shown in Fig, 25-6, we first replace the tansformer by its hybrid controlled-souree model (derived in the appencis to this chapter, as shown in’Fig, 25-7. With the model (hich is not based oa a high-Q approximation) in pl apparent Velph/l(p) 8 the input impedance of parallel RLC circuit multi by MjLi specifica esp In addition, alo) = pl = Ly + 22,0) 7 esa) ==, + (M! Oo pe oy PrRC TLS We therefore observe thatthe efetve transformation ratio is M/L the fisior by which i(u i reduged when reflcted into the secondary and the factor squared by ‘whieh the parallel RLC circuit is reflected into the primary. We also observe that if Jig) isa periodie input current of period T = 2n/oy then o,() wil be u sinusoid With a requency 0 if Qr = aigRyC > 1, since the tuned circuit will exact only the Fandamental component of j(¢ On the other hand, because of the series inductance (1 = EL,, 2,0) will be rich in harmonic content. Example 25-1 For the circuit shown in Fig. 25-8 derive an expression for Z3a10) and Z,3(p) with the assumption that the circuit is a high-Q one. Solution. Using the hybrid controled-source model, we may first reflect it) through the transformer to obtain a source of (M/L,)idt) shunting R,. Hf we now assume NQrQr> 100, Oe>10, and Oy > 10, vl ‘aol 43 Figure 25-854 BROADRAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS, 26 where ‘then we may replace the tapped capacitor by an ideal transformer to obtain the ‘model showa in Fig. 25-9. Prom this circuit itis immediately apparent that 53) and [Networks of the form shown in Fig, 25-9 are usually employed when a single tuned response is required, as well asa low impedance across if} and an overall Voltage step-down ratio. In addition, such networks are employed to keep stray ‘apmeltance actoss both if) and G from aflecting the tuning of the parallel RLC cireuit al Figure 25-9 HLS, am Sig cree GG c 126 THREE-WINDING PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSFORMER In this section we shall develop @ model for the threewinding parallel resonant iansformer shown in Fig. 26-1, Since this circuit i a fundamental component not ‘aly in the antenna stage, but als in the oscillator and IF amplifier stages of super heterodyne receivers, a simplified model is required to facilitate its analysis and 26 ‘THREE-WINDING PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSIORIIE 55 Fig. 26-1. Three- ‘winding paral ‘ron wansformer, desig. In addition, the model isin the understanding ofthe phi! oes the ansormer network. We bey by presenting an equivalent srt fo he thrs-vinging We ten meorporae tis mode! into the ei of Fi 26-1 and. with INS powous Seton andthe sumption of M-Q rede the cst fo al Spi! mode "The most general model for the thre-wining rasorner quit complicated However ite place te rsrtion onthe transformer tat Mas. Maa Ty” May’ where My = Mis the mutual inductance between the ith andthe jth windings thon svsightorvatd snd tcl model maybe obuained. Equation 26-1) cu Be cost in the euivtent ora een Keeaksy = kes 26-2) by noting that ky = Mih/TiLy, where ky isthe coefficient of coupling between the ithand fh windings. AliBough,in general, Eq, (26-1) isnot aways exactly satis, itis approximately satisfied in a Targe number of practical cases. In particular, 1, and 1, are closely coupled (they are usually Wound on the same core) then Ikgg = 1 andy of course, ky, ~ ky; hence Eq, (26-1) is valid, In adlton, if the transformer is placed in a high-Q circuit it can be shown, by the tecniques developed in Section 24, that even if Eq, 26-1) is net satised, the impedances obtain on the sssumption that it sare accurate within afew percent. Tae proof ofthis statement {left to the interertoe reader, With the restriction of Fg, (26-1), the thnee-winding transformer bas the terminal equivalent mode! shown in Fig 26-2. This euivalenee is readily demonstrated by showing that both the transformer and its model have the identical set of defining equations Y= plat + PMaala + Malay Vy pM ial, + plas + Maal, 26-3) Y= PM ish + PMaala + Paty I the transformer is now replaced by its model inthe circuit of Fig. 26-1, the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 26-3 results. It is apparent that the righthand portion ofthe circuit in Fig. 26-5 is simply the parallel resonant auto transformer56 BROADBAND AND NARKOWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 26 Ae) Fig.26-2. Temminalequivalent isu for tree swnding transformers with Mail = MaMa Gonsidered in Section 25; hence we may apply the results of that section directly. Specialy, if WQrQe> IO (a= ksh Ge> 10 and Qy > 10, where e t Oot 22 =o + Or eG Nae va uP) ea Fil iq BEA isnot sats, Qos even by: Oe = ane 26 {TMREE-WINDING PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSFORMIR 37 and 0 OTF GOLF then the circuit of Fig 26-3 reduces to the final high-Q simplified form shown in Fig 26-4. With the aid ofthis model we may immediately write 1 7 Yeoly) Mir c 249) = “2? = Hn _o eo ti) Ts sg where Gyg = Gs + Gs(Mas/ta)?. In addition, we obtain vat) 2.40) ~ Ha azite) 26s and (26-6) Its interesting t0 note that Z, (9) and Z, (p) are inthe form ofthe impedance of a parallel REC circuit multiplied by a scale factor, whereas Z,,(p) contains an ‘additional term which may be modeled as a series inductor. Consequently. i (0) tnere @ periodic waveform (of petiod 2x/ag) containing several harmonics plus the ‘and Q; were 10 oF greater, v(t) and v,s(¢) would be sinusoidal in form, ‘whereas v(t) would be a periodic function with considerable harmonic content. ‘This effect is due to the series inductor of Z (2), which, unlike the parallel RLC ieuit, does not 1; pear ae a small impedance at the harmonics of Example 2.6-1 For the circuit shown in Fig. 26-S determine the value of Mss ‘hich maximizes v,s(). Also determine (wit the value of M, found) far 9,0) and v,3() and values for Qr and BW. 7 + wu O)¥euo Cita ae Se Fig.2.6-4 High-Q three winding tuned transformer meet58 BROADBAND AND NARROWSAND COUPLING NETWORKS 26 0 al Fique26-5 i) (1 mA) sin 10 Br =WOKA by = 100 gH Brie facia Ra2uh hy sus! Solution, If we assume W'Q;-Qz > 100, Qs > 10,and Qy > 10, we may employ the model of Fig 26-4 omitting L, and C (which resonate inthis caset ©, = 107 rad/s) fs shown in Fig. 26-6, Now og(¢) is maximized if is chosen to match the 100 resistor to the 400 kO resistor, Lif May [108 Men fesoes = 0005. ; “Therefore, Mzy = 100 uHt x 0.605 ~ 4 H,and,since kzy = 05, Ly = Mix/KEsLa 0.01 pH, Consequently and = 400, and thos 1'rQ¢ = kas Qr@e = 80.0008, ‘To oblain an expression for vy Wo reflect the input current source and the 40040 ‘resistor across the 100 output resistor. The retlected resistance is (400 kA? = 10 and the reflected eurrent source is 200 Figure 26-6 26 Puowuins 99 hence lt) = 20 mA)(5-2) sin 1071 = OV sin 1071 and sul) =f 10; use of the mode! is justified. Since nQ,Qs > 100, Q, > i PROBLEMS “21. For the transformer with the toss ters shown in Figure 2P-I,deseriine the vale of by Feguired to match an 8 lowd 2 32000 source inthe ndband Wt ve the upper and Tower 3B frequencies for this case? What is the opan-cieuitvoltge transformation ‘Rtoof is tanstormer? Whatistheelcieny ofthe wait when working under the orginally ‘Spsiled conditions? 22. Assue thatthe transformer (withthe same values of Ly and 1) of Problem 2.1 is wet Tween 32 load anda 12000 source. Find the 348 frequencies and the ficiency 123. Repeat Problem 27 forthe ease where he lad is 2002 und the sours i 80000. 24 Suppose the source output in Problem 21 is such that 1OmW of we power sashes the lon. Pot load power vs. led impadancé forthe case where the lad varies Between Evan 320 while the other parameters of he system are mainiined const 00a & aoa Tee Life igure 2P-160. BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS 26 100 pF ay Figue2F-2 125 Consider the “matching network" of Figure 2P-2, in which 1 ined to make ZU) fesonate at oy = 2 10 (Ly basa Qe 00a = 2% 10%rps. Find 2, Gog) and the input Qe. What isthe approximate phuse shit between (and (i) al = 2 x 10° Ifthe peak sinusoid current owing ince Zo) at resozance is 1A what isthe peak valve of 0? 26 Repeat Probe 25 forthe case where the 30 lod isincreased to 10002. 27 A capacitor witha Q of 29 is combined with a coil witha Q of 0 and a 204 resister to produce a parallel tuned cir rescnant at 60 x 10*rps, Letting C= 259, tnd the bandwidth ofthe eeslant circuit ‘28 Repeat Problem 21 forthe same col sad capacitor connected in srs with a 100 resistor ta form a series resonant cru atthe same fequeney. Ihe power inp to ths crit ft resonance is 10 W, how much power is dssipae in each series clement? 29 For the cuit of Figure 2P-3, determine ott sonance, I the eapacitors are lossless ‘nd the coi loss inluded inthe 10K reso, what i the circuit’ Q,? Assuming that the input cutent generator also prodaces a OSA peak sinusoidal component at both Daag and 3a, estimate the relative distortion (each harmoni separately) at vf (The pole-zero diagram of Fig. 24-2 provides an easy way to estimate distortion a harmonic frequencies) 2210 Assume that i) in the cieutof Fig, 2P-4 i a sinusoidal current with a peak vale of TSmA and a radian equency of ay =4 « 10°ape and C, chosen fo resonite at 1013 pF $ va i= maison Figure 2P-3 Prous — 61 20a BG a or ae a Figure 2P-4 uo L3eb Gm 5 Find the outpt voltige aeost Ry. Make reasonable assumptions. State heseasamptions lel, What i the ofthe euit? 211 For each of tie networks shown in Fig. 2.P-S, determine a. Qy. BN. Z, Ugh and Zaliu owt 2k 100 pF sa = aoe ™ 1000 pF 2 ynleat stash Lode Figure 28-5APPENDIX 70 CHAPTER 2 ‘TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS “The two-winding transformer shown in Fig. 2A-I may be described completely in terms ofits terminal equations VQ) = pLal,(0) + PMI) at Vote) = pMIY() + palate. ; he 1p) oy, 3 Kw van 7 a3 bn «6 Sy Fig. 2A-L Two-winding transformer, ‘Consequently, any network which has the same defining equations as the transformer Imay be substituted for the transformer in any cireuit in which the transformer is placed, and this Substitution will not affect tbe voltages or events in the overall Grout Several networks having the same defining equations as the transformer (and therefore refered to as terminal equivalents of the transformer) are shown in Fig 2.A-2. By reflecting one or more of the various induotors through the ideal transformers in the eiraits of Fig, 2.A-2, one can obtain s number of other terminal equivalent networks forthe transformer. "There are several procedures for verifying that the networks of Fig. 2.A-2 are indeed terminal equivalents for the transformer or for evaluating the equivalent inductances of the new networks. One approach is to observe that Eq. (2A-1) i txquivalent to a statement that the impedance at 2-a' with bb’ open is wl, tht the impedance at 6-0" with a-c open is plz, and that the ratio of the veliage at b-P to acurrent applied at aa’ with bb’ open is P24. We then choose the values of the proposed equivalent circuit so that these three conditions are met. The valuesshown, in Fig. 2.A-2 do meet these conditions. arvenvix 63 Fig. 2.A-2 Terminal equivalent networks for sransformers eA efit “Mil! Fig, 2A-3 Terminal ouivalen transformer. [A transformer may have a terminal equivalent network which is aso 4 trans former. ‘To illssirate this, Fig. 2.A~3 shows two of the many terminal equivalent networks for an auto transformer (M is the matual inductance between Land La) “Terminal equivelent networks for the transformer of Fig. 2.A~I may abo tke the form ofnetworks containing controlled sources. Three such networks ure shows, in Fig. 2-464 -TRANSTORWER EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS ‘Thedotsat the ends of the transformer windings in Figs. .A-1,2.A-2,and 2.A-3 show the relative directions of induced voltages. A current flowing into 2 dotted ‘winding causes a plus-to-minus drop seross this winding and induces a voltage in allother windings such that the dotted end is positive. Moving the dot to the opposite end of the transformer winding on the secondary of Fig, 2A~1 would reverse the signs of both of the pM-terms in Eq. (2A-I), Tt would also lead to a reversal ofthe secondary dot on the transformers of Fig. 2A? and to the reversal of the direction fof both of the generators in Figs. .A-4(a),(b), and (@). For the auto transformer, placing the dot at the bottom of Lz would reverse the sign of the mutual term in Fig. 2A-23(b)and reverse the dot on the secondary ofthe transformer of Fig. .A-N¢ hot ky hw HO) — putyon(~) (m)emnn Fig, 2.A-4 Terminal equivalent networks containing contoled sources CHAPTER 3 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS THROUGH NARROWBAND FILTERS ‘The purpose of this chapter is to examine 4 simplified method of determining the ‘output response of class of “narrowband” high-frequency networks when these networks are driven by any one of a variety of useful signals. Among these signals we include steps, impulses, and various amplitude-modulated signals centered within the passband of the filter. First we define th class of networks to be considered, then we define the low-pass cequivatent circuit for such networks, and finally we show that the response of the friginal network to a given signal is a function of the response of the low-pass equivalent circuit either tothe signal or in the case of amplitude-modulated signals, to the envelope of the modulated signal. Thus, where the method is plicable, the briginal complicated network response problem is replaced by a simplified and Feasonably accurate approsimate solution Tt has been suggested to us that such material i covered elsewhere and need not berepeated nere. Ourexperience has been that atleast brief review ofthese concepts, perhaps from viewpoint that the reader has not encountered before. is useful in Understanding tk" use in later chapters, 31 LOW-PASS EQUIVALENT NETWORKS FOR SYMMECTSICAL BANDPASS NETWORKS For a general narrowband network whose transfer function is Hip) and whode pass- band is centered about oy, the magnitude and phase of Ho) vs. take the form shown in Fig 3!-1. If HUio) is indeed narrowband, then the amplitude response, (jo), alls essentially to zero w short stance on either side of wy, 38 shown, In tn uel 7 in 00| i | fame ' est 0 | i i Fig. 3.11) Magnitude and 1 =i fag) Mat date | te Fa sos a f65 TRANSMISSION OF SIONALS THROUGH NAREGWHAND ILTERS 31 addition, if (ja) represents the transfer function of s physical network with a real {not imaginary oF complex) impulse response A), then H( jo) = H*(j):t which is equivalent to LH(—ja = LAG ory aw) = Ha), where (o) = arg H{jo}. Equation (3.1~1) is, of course, simply the statement tha the magnitude ofa physical network must be an even function of w and the phase must be an odd function of ‘We define the low-pass equivalent transfer function H,(ja) for Hl jo) as that function whose magnitude has the same dependence on w in the vicinity of o = Os [27 has inthe vicinity of = cog,and whose phase angle has the same dependence bbneoin tne vicinity of = 0. 6c) ~ On) hs i the vicinity fey, This definition ‘may also be expressed in the form Hija) = Hijo + jagle™ Muon + 0 e where uo + @) is the unit step fanction which, in Eq. (.1-2), has the effect of removing the lower portion {w < 0) of HU). The °°! jerm removes a constant phase angle (oy) froma the phase of H,(ja). plot of the magnitude and phase of, 1H, jo), which correspond to the magnitude and phase of H{jo) shown in Fig. 31-1 ‘appears in Fig. 3.1-2. Note thatthe phase of Hy (ja) is zero for w = 0. ae AX rdo=Tes= Ho arg Hl =O) Ola) Ol) and -2) Fig, 21-2 Magnitude and ae phase plt for Ht} ‘The transfer function HUja) is defined as being symmetric about wo if H,{- Jw) ~ Ht{jo), or equivalently Hy(—fo} = 1LCiok G13) and Hy(o} = ~8y(—a). {In this chapter we shall restrict our attention to symsstrie narrowband networks for two reasons. Fist and most important, most physical narrowband networks may Fy dani, Hla) = fe,he"™ de. tbe impulse response As el, hen * pn ae = UO, where Hj) the complex conjugate of Ho) wwe | ye 3a 7 ghd. SOW-PASS EQUIVALENT NETWORKS — 67 be closely appiosimated by syinmetric transfer fonctions. Second, the symmetry condition, expressed by Eq. G13}, ensures that the impulse response f(0) of the low-pass equivalent network is res}, which i essential if H,{fa) isto be plysically realizable, 1f Hj) is not symmetric about ey, the low-pass equivalent iransler function is still defined by Eq. G.1-2); however, it may not be associated with 1 physical network ivi ip addition, caleulations employ'g it may become somewhat ‘more involved In addition to relating H,(Jo) to Uo} for the symmetric narrowband Sher wwe may oblain the inverse relationship, Specifically, with the ald of Ey. (3.11) we rote that Hijo) = H(Jeo — jose" + Hal + jode Ms G14) this equation, of cours, represents (ja), withthe appropriate phase angle added, shied up ang down in frequency by an-emount “To solidify our ideas on the relationship between H/o) and 11jo) we shall develop low-pass equivalent networks for several physical narrowband networks We consider fist the parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig. 41-3. From Section 21 we recall that at resonance 2, Uwe) s purely resistive; hence Olu») = 0. In addition, all that with Q; = @oRC > 10, which is a necessary condition for a narrow th, Z, (Ja) is closely approximated by (ct Eq, 22-8) R pre baa whereas = Ya EEand # = 1/2RC. Consequently, with Oy) = 0, Eq. (3.1-2)yiekds + Zullo) w>d, ars R Zullo) = Bo Qe tke 1" Ta 3. Pallet REC ia its low-pass68 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS THROUGH NARKOWBAND FILTERS 3a ni x va Fig 414. Navoutand cit oN isiowr cau puta pe ia ‘which we recognize es the input impedance ofthe low-pass equivalent network also shown in Fig, 31-3. "As a second example we consider the cireit shown in Fig. 31-4, For this circuit the voltage transfer fonction Hp) i given by wu) Pees 08 7 td ae He) = FG" Peep vee Gro \PARC. A polezeto diagram of Hip) and a sketch of |) where = 1A/EE and ey je | — ia = 4 seo tee YO 4 i a ee 7 ! Don pn fans | Fig. 31-5 Pole 20 diagrat ofp) and plot of [HU ad angio} vo aa LOW-PASS EQUIVALENT NETWORKS 69 Jia) and arg H{jo), foe the case where /2a = agRC = Qr > 10, ste shown ia Fig. 34-5. When the complex poles ae close 10 the imaginary axis nosesary condition forthe network to have a narrow bandwidth, then Hj) i significantly fiteren from zero only in the vsiity of ap. Therefore, when graphically evaluating Ho} fore > 0 fom the pok-2ero diagram, we ean closely approximate the phasor p,,draum from p; tothe imaginary axis by Pn * 2nge® on ‘over the signiican:equency range in the vicinity of ey. In addition, the phasor ‘rom p, toa point «on the imaginary axis may be written Pn 2+ He ~ f) a+ Ho ~ We) ais) Consequently, for > 0 and Qr > 10, HLjo) may be closely approximated by s wie) 2) 109) = - any If we now note that 6.) = ~#/2 and employ Eg. (3.1-2), we obtain Qr HGw = SoS. 1-10) ie) = Tha ») ‘A non-unique low-pass equivalent network having this trans‘er function is shown alsoin Fig. 41-4. The ideal transformer is required to provide the voltage amplifica- tion of Qy at © = O, which i the amplification of the bandpass network at « = a ‘The bandwidth BW of (io) is 2a, which is exactly twice the bandwidth of Biv) ee fer Or sto 10 Fig. 34-6 Model for two-stage IF strip and its lowpass equivalent70. TRANSMISSION OF SIONALS THROUGH NARROWBAND FILTERS 32 two or more symmetric noninteracting narrowbund fiters, each of which has a ‘enter frequency of , are connected in eascade, then the low-pass equivalent of thecompositefiteris obtained by cascading the low-pass equivalents of ‘he ingividual filters. Figure 3.1-6 illustrates the low-pass equivalent network comprising two caseeded, noninteracting parallel RLC circuits. 32 IMPULSE AND STEP RESPONSE With the aid of the results of Section 3.1 we ean represent the impulse and step response for a symmetric natrowhand filter as a function of the impulse response a(t) of the equivalent low-pass filter. Such a representation permits one to analyze the much simpler low-pass equivalent fiver to obtain corresponding results for the bbondpass filter. I we designate Hi) as the impulse response of the nafrowband filter whose transfer function is given by Hw), thon Mis the inverse Fourier transform of Uo}, thats, mo = Ef suo don any ie With the aid of Eq, (1-4) we can express Ho) in terms of its low-pass equivalént Ue) to obtain y= [Hai ~ jageMe da 4 J Maliag + ode Moe dn 622) 1, in addition, we substitute ev = a ~ ey inthe frst integral and a’ = wp + oo in the second integral of Eq. (22-2), the expression for hi) simplifies to the desire form why wo { fest gfe swt J ee aes = Tf) eosfwot + Mo, 623) Which directly relates A() 10 lh the impulse response of the low-pass equivalent ‘As an application of this result, let us evaluate the impulse response Z(t) of the high-O parallel REC circuit shown in Fig. 31-2. For this cieuit Ufos) = 0. The impulse response ofthe low-pass equivalent eiruit zy, () also shown in Fig, 31-3) is known to be sald = et, ons 32 IMPULSE AND STEP RESPONSE TE ett Emetope hewn ig. 22-1 sketeh of 240) fora parallel RLC ci \ canter co a where —1/2RC, Conssquently, by employing Ea. (32-3) we abiain Le. Bull) = eM ct, 02-5) which is exactly the expression obtained for 20) in Eg. (22-12) with more conven- tional techniques. A sketch of 2, (0) is shoven in Fig. 32-1 “To obtain the step response ofa) for a narrowband filter in terms ofits low-pass ‘equivalent circuit, we fist evaluate the step response in terms of (jo), then express {HUc) in terms of Hi) finally find a) in terms of hf. “The step response of?) forthe narrowband fter ean be written in the fort at) = [woof rntofem 020 where (1/fo) + n5(a) isthe Fourier transform ofthe unit step. Since fr the ntworks ‘under consideration the response at de i always assumed to be zero, i follows that 1H(O) = Oand therefore the d(}term may be omitted from Fa, (32-6) We now express (jo) in terms of H(i) and restrict our attention to regions close enough to the complex poles so that near the upper complex pole ju’ may be Teplaced by joy and near the lower complex pole jor may be replaced by — ja ‘Alter some rearrangement, one obtains the step response in terms of the product of the impulse response ofthe low-pass equivalent cicuit and a sine wave a the enter frequency ofthe narrowband cievit; that i, ult) 2hL sin fry + 803) a2) oo int + He an ali) = Evaluating Bq, (.2-7) fora high-Q parallel RLC ciuit, we obtain Ln 0) = Gi ze Ain where a = UA/LE and x = 1/2RC.72 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS THROUGH NARROWBAND FILTERS 33 Physically what this means is that driving the tuned citcuit with « step function ‘causes it to “ring” at is resonant frequency. Since there is no continuing supply of fenorgy at this resonant frequency, the “ringing” decays with time. The higher the (of the circuit, the more cycles it takes for the decay to fall ro any given percentage ‘of the original evel, 33. NARROWBAND NETWORKS WITH MODULATED INPUTS In this section we shall apply an amplitude-modulated signal of the form 3{t) = ‘(0)¢08 pt, shown in Fig. 3-1, 0 the symmetric narrowband filter and demonstrate thatthe filter output is ofthe form sul = [2() * hele] e08 foot + Olool). where + denotes convolution, This result is quite significant, since it simplifies the problem of caleulating the response of a bandpass filter excited by an AM wave to the problem of ealeulating the response of the equivalent low-pass filter excited by the envelope waveform g(t) The resultant expression provides the modulation for the output carrier cos [wet + Ole) ‘To begin our development we define Gla) as the Fourier transform of g(] and essume that [Glo has some form similar to that shown in Fig. 33-2. With this definition of Gla) and withthe aid of the shilling theorem,” the Fourier transform of gee ei si =e ‘) sakes the form Glo + a9) , Gla ~ 0») = Hered, Ceres) ‘whieh is also shown in Fig. 33-2. We assume throughout this analysis that the wo {eems in the expression for Sa) do not overlap. This assumption requires that th highest-frequency component «, of gi) be lower than the carrier frequency a. so) Al mato cose Upper envelope Carr = 08 yt Fig. 33-1 Typisal plot of amplimde-modvlated waveform 33 NARKOWBAND NETWORKS WITH MODULATED HUIS TS | jo) Fig 23-2 Pot ef1GH snd [Shoo “This condition is aimost always satisfied in practice, since for most AM systems ce is required to be several orders of magnitude smaller than ot because othe physical limitations of the AM modulator and demedulator. Fr the condition ay > dq, We see thatthe spectrum of s(t) oscupie & narrow band of frequencies centered on the carrier frequency wy. This property permits frequency division multiplexing (DM), ie, the independent combination of many 'AM signals within # single chanel. This is accomplished by choosing » distinct ‘carrier frequency for each signal in Suck a feshion that none of the signal spectra ‘overlap in the requency domain, To extract a desired signal at the resciving end of the channel, ons “ed only pass the composite signal through a nrrowkand filters the filter passes the signal of interest and attenuates al others. The filter capable of passing the desired AM signal centered at ay would, of course have the form shown in Fig. 3.t-1. With s{2) applied to thin titer, whose transfer function is Ho}, the output signal 5) may be writen in the fo sit) = F-HUOISI)) sy were F indate the inverse Fourier transform operation. With the ail of rea whch relates Aj) to low-pass eurvaen, the expresion fr sf) maybe rewriten as Glo ten) Clo en) oer *forsteioaers+tidioorion mmf sou), Oto NT} oo o o Ph — joni ~ 0-4 Fi er + a Eaquation (33-2) makes use of the fact that the upper portion of the specirum of ia) does not overlap the lower portion of the spectrum of Fi) and vive Versa.74 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS THROUGH NARROWBAND FILTERS 33 108 a i) Wig. 3-3 Parallel RLC otalt wih AM input, If the inverse shifting theorem is now employed, Eq. (33-2) takes the desired forrs CS mS ico = [xl + hy() c08 foot + Ooo a3 Note carefully that ~*[H,Uo}O(e)} = g(9* hl) is simply a shorthand mathematical expression, which we refer 19 as the “eonvolution of hl) with a0.” ‘Although this convolution can be determined with the al of the convolution integra itis in general obtained in a more straightforward fashion as the output of the network whose impulse response ish) and whose input signal i (that i, 98 the ‘ulput ofthe low-pass equivalent network excited by leh A few examples should ‘larly this point Ths a het example lot us evaluate the voltage across a high-O> parall! RLC circuit in which a curent of the form 1/08 gt is applied att == 0. The narrowband ftetwork shown in Fig. 33-3 is bring excited by an AM wave with an envelope Hi) = Tue): therefore, Eq. G3-3) may be employed to determine ost). As was Botnted out above, g()* h(t) = 440) the output ofthe Fow-pass equivalent ofthe Parallel RLC cxeuit with « current Iu) apolid atthe ipo. The step resposse of the low-pass equivalent cireait is readily found to be alt) = TRUE = eH and since Of) = 0, Ea (33-3) (whet a = 1/2RC and coy = 1h /EC) yiebs 12f) = JRO — e°*)e0s 634) Asketch of», (and 0's given in Fig 33-4, We observe thatthe stedy-stae value of eis the product ofthe input current cos wot andthe resistance R of the parallel RLC cirolt. This i an expected result because at the resonant frequency FT, Ui) = R. In aidition, we observe that o,() rises toward its steady-state value with an envelope governed by a single time constant ¢ = 1/a; thus for ¢ = 41, eH) has attained an amplitude within 2% of ts steady-state value. 50) 33 NARROWRAND NFFWORKS WITH MODULATED INPUTS 75 an) avelopestRet em) Fig. 33-4 Outpar vaveforms forthe crews ofFig 33-3 {tis apparent that the closer the complex poles ofthe parallel RLC circuit te to the imaginary axis in the complex p-plane, the longer i takes the outpet waveform to reach steady state. Consequently, networks with very narrow bandwidths {a cing) are capable of transmitting without distortion only input AM waves with Slowly varying envelopes, or equivalently, AMC waves whose spectra are contained Ivithin the passband of the narrowband filter. An alternative interpretation is that tin AM wave is transmitted without distortion ifthe spectrum of g(t) les wishin the passband of Ho). ‘As a second example, et us spply & periodically gated carrier of frequency wp to‘ high-O parallel REC cieuit as shown in Fig. 33-5, The input current may be Fig. 23-5 Parle RLC cireit driven hy gated carte16 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS TRROUGH NARROWBAND FILTERS 33 represented as (0) = 180) 208 at where Si) is periodic ewitching function of period 7; thit as @ value of ether Tor, With this representation iis appareat that (isan AM wave and therefore that nt) =v, (DeosLoet + Moe) where 1) = 151) * hd) isthe output of the low-pass equivalent of the paral LC circuit driven by 4,(0)= #S(). Figure 33-8 also illustrates the low-pass ‘equivalent circuit for determining 2,0) Tf we asue that T,/2 > 4r = Sf (ce, shat the circuit reaches steady state ia ‘each interval f duration 7,2) then we can write (0) in the orm ey) = IRE ee, TY St < Ty, = Retr, Ti4se<3TA, REL = eT, TYAS < STU, 6. and in turn wt) ~ %,(0 608 aot. A sketch of z(t) and vt) appears in Fig. 33-5 10 the right ofthe correspondingeireuits. Note that an output existsfor the paralieY LLC circuit during the intervals of ime during which thereisno input. Thisphenomenon is clearly the result of the oscillatory decay of a high-Q circuit which has acquired energy from an input signal during some previous interval of time. "Asa third example, fetus apply @ sinusoidally modulated AM signal ofthe forts 34) = ALI + mc0S Wf] 608 wt toa general symmeitic narrowband network whose passband is centered about 0, Figure 33-6 illustrates the waveform of (0). The parameter mor this form of AM. pil i Fig,23-6 Plot of sinusoidally modulated AM wave, xtopenattvm essai) nwlipe= Alta ea) 33 NARROWBAND NETWORKS WITH MODULATED NUTS 77 wave is defined as the modulation index, and 4 is defined as the unmodulated earvier Amplitude, ‘The modulation index m may be celated to the waveform si) by the ‘elationship a6 where Cis the maximum peak-to-peak value of sf) and B is the minimum peaketo- peak value of s{f) If B =O, then m = | and s(0) is said to be 100", modulated, In general the percent modulation is given by 4 modulation = m x 100% aan With s(0) applied (o the symmetric narrowband network with Irunser function H( jas, the outpul of the network 5) is given by lt) = [All + meos gt) hy{e}e0s gt + deel ans) However, Aha) 1,0) and Am cos cig + y{t)= ArH jo C08 foyt + Val) where 1,0) i the low-pass equivalent transfer function of Hw) and Ow) arg, Uh Therefor, 3,0) takes the form of @ sinusoidally modulated! AM signal taiven by mt sin aa i costont + Oaah} costs + Oty 3-8 We note that she modulation index m(,) of 5) fobtained with the aid of Ea. (8.3.6 is given be IHiUor stg) = mG and thatthe output modulation is shifted in phase by 0j(0,) Example 3341 For the circuit shown in Fig, 33-7, determine an expression for 00) Solution, For the parallel RLC ércult, hsm 10" radjsee and Qy = RC = 10. Vie Since the circuit is symmetrie about ay we can obtain the envelope ¢,,(1of oft) by passing (SmA}(I 4 6085 x 10%!) through the low-pass equivalent” network, as shown in Fig, 33-8. The component of v,, due fo the 5 mA constant input i simply78 TRANSMMSMION OF SIGNALS THROUGH NARROWBAND FILTERS 34 [Way = Smid [1+ ene 5% 10'De08 101 Figure 33-7 Sma {1 + ess > 194 nae) Figue 338 esx ias SmA x 1k = 5V, whereas the component of», due to the (5 mA)cos 5 x 10% ‘Stinpos i {5 Vyf/3] cos 5% 10%r ~ a/4} The attenvation of 1//2 and the phase Shiftof n/a are both dve to the fact that the input cosimusoid lies exactly at the se NaB point of the low-pass filter, Combining the two components of v,(0) and multiplying by c0s ot, we finally obtain 240 oul t+ Fes [sx 0% = 5) Joo “This expression for ni) could also have been obtained by direst substitution sa10 eq, G35) OF Ae SMA HO) = TED, H,Cay) = C1 KOYAE + 3) = (ARH and Olay) = 0. ‘Analher example exploring the measurement of high-Q filers appears in the appendix atthe end ofthe chapter. 34 NARROWBAND NETWORKS WITH PERIODIC INPUTS (One of the most efficient methods of amplifying a high-level sinusoidal signa i t@ cGavert the signal ito a periodic train of narrow pulses in a nonlinear amplifier and hen to pase these pulses through a narrowband filter to rezonstruct the original Sinusoid. In addition, one of the most fundamental methoc's of generating at Emplitademodulated wave is 10 control the amplitude of a.veriodie waveforsn {usualy a square wave or a train of narfow pulses and then to pass the wave through warrowband file to obtain a sinusoidal carrier. Since both of th above techniques 34 NARROWBAND NETWORKS WITH FERIODIC INPUTS 79 ‘employ a narrowband filter witha periodic input, we shall determine the output 50) Df such a filer centered at eng when the input signal is of the form 5A) = 250, where sl) = sj +7) i& periodic with period T= 2n/up and glu) & the low. frequency signal which controls the envelope of st) For high-level ampli. g¢) reduces to 8 constant Since s,() 8 periodic, it may be expanded in a Fourier series ofthe form a) +E Coos tat + 8) oan where C= Ja FE and 6, = —tanMby/agh The ore takes the fore: put signal tothe filter there. sf) st) + F Coftyeostmoyt + 0 642) which is an infinite superposition of AM waves, each centered at a harmonic Ifthe maximum frequency component @, of g() is much ess than op (which is alonost tue in practice), then the spectrum of each AM wave occupies u narrow band Ofirequencies 2a, about its conter frequency as shown in Fig. 34-1. Ifs{u)is now passed through a narrowband file for which nol = Oforn = 0.2.3.4... thet the output a) ofthe filter can be closely approximated by the response ofthe filter to only the fundamental (1 = 1) component of fi) thats, 5) © (Cyel* cos (gt + 0,9) +H, 643) where hit) is the impulse response ofthe narrowband filter. Ifthe filter is symmetric about dy, then 8} with the aid of Eg, (33-3), can be weitten inthe equivalent form sft) = [Cal * hy) eos foot + 0, + Ooo) oes where by[t) isthe impulse response of the low-pess equivalent filter and Oo) is the phase angle ofthe narrowband filter. For the case where gis eonstant or where sel EE JEL eC EE sea Fig 3.4.1, Typical spectrum of s()80 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS THROUGH NARKOWBAND FILTERS 34 1H,{j0) ~ Ho) over the band of frequencies occupied by g(), (ie. where the low- pass equivalent filter passes g() undistorted), the filter outpot simplifies to aft) = CMO cos [net + 0, + Ole) = CiHUoglale) cos fot + 01 + 0) 4-5) which i in the expected form of an AM signal with envelope g(). The constant C, ih of course, the fundamental component of the original periodic waveform and tT¥Ga) ~ 1(0)is the transfer function of he iter in the vieiity ofthe fundamental Frequency. ee cpecie example ofthe above pracedut. let us evaluate the output of the high-Q paralel REC cenit shown in Fig 34-2, which is driven by periodic tain ‘feunrent impulses applied at # = O. The input current i) has the form uy=a Sou - kN, G46, where qs the impulse strength (in coulomb) and T = 2/éy is the spacing betweet Tmpolses. If we rewrite i) nthe equivalent form 4) = gus, oon where 50) = PP. &t — KT), it becomes apparent that the input current is an tnvelope-modulated’ periodic waveform. “Ta begin our analysis, we expand the periodic train of impulses sin « Fourier series o obtain sade ha S conn oun uy tot) +2) § coum. aan where Jo = a/is the average value of (fort > 0. If [Zlinog| 0 for n=O. uo arne ae wnyoe oom. 7-H sie so] 0 ig. 34-2 Parallel RLC circuit driven by impuls rin | | | | 34 NARROWRAND NETWORKS WITH PEMODIC INPUTS — 8 cor equivalently [yal ingh _ [ZU WxsGiook ~ then we need only retin the fundamental component of i) 0 oblaia an expression for vst Physically, the componenis of i() in the vicinity of mb = 2) would be effectively shorted to ground through the capacitor Cand thus would no contribute to nt) while the component of if?) in the vicinity of @ = 0 would be elestvely shorted to ground through the inductor Land thus would not contibuts to ft) With the assumption that only the fundamental component of it) eoniibutes 10 1(f) we may write 0f0) © (oul 08 yt} * 2,40) «1 for neh, = Daath *24,(0]€08 06! UR — e°Muioos wor (FGBI-A} G10) In practice, fone hus & very narrow pulse in the train (60 that all he harmonic terms have nearly equal amplitudes) and.2 broad filter (so that the response is not Gown too much at the harmonics), then the previous approach will be somewhat in ‘ctor This error can be estimated from the sizeof the network tansfet function at the various harmonics und the size ofthe input signal component st each harmonic. Fig. 24.3 Graphical eval on of 12, {From te me viewpoint the addition ofan impulse 103 network is boand 0 ius stepwise, Iihter than a sect, nement i the sored enecey and hens inthe waves apPeuing ‘eross the network82 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNAL "THROUGH NARROWBAND FILTERS 35 [As an example iti relatively simple to evaluate |Z, ,(Jna) for any narrowband network from a sketch of its pole-zero dingram. Figure 34-3 shows the case for a parallel RLC circuit; |Z, Jno is found as a scale factor (1/C in this case) times the ‘magnitude of the phasor from the zero to ne on the imaginary axis divided by the ‘product of the magnitudes ofthe phasors from the two complex poles to the same point, IPG > 10, or equivalently @ < ay, we observe that Pr (= Vide Pp (N+ No, — and — ps, = ps hence oa It follows that [Zilia RCW — 1) ~ Oe? —T Gan) ‘As we might expect, a8 Oy increases, the ratio of |Z, jt} 10 [2 (Jal decreases, Specialy for Op 2 10, <0067 forall nv. 7 Using these results one can estimate the minimum Q necessary to keep the rms contribution of the second- and third-harmonic terms of an ideal impulse train Applied to a parallel tuned circuit helow 1, of the fundamental contribution to the output. Since all components of an impulse pulse train are equal in magnitude, the desired value of @ isa solution of the equation 2 z g/t EE 5 rhe, n= JE 00 = 76, Sine all otter waveshapes have harmonic that falloff im magnitude asthe frequency increase, follow that any waveshape othe than an impale inte ain suit not require es high a value of Q to Keep the stortin from the second and third armonise down t0'1% The distortion problem is considered again in a more forma and detailed manner in Section 3. 38 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION {fa periodiesignal sf) of period T drives a narrowband fter entered at = 2x/T, the filer essentially extracts the fundamental component of 5) However, ifthe filter transfer Tunetion i not identically equal to 2ero at the harmonies of, ome 3s. TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION 83 harmonic components appear atthe filter output. Specifically, it st) = Co+ E Cycos(not +0) 654) and if Hj) isthe transfer fonction of the narrowband filter, then the filler out 540 fas the form ssh Coton $ coHimontros + 6+ He, 059) wore Ona) = arg H(nes In many applications, in particular that of obtaining Ar pure sinusoid at the ovspot ofan oscillator, the higher baemonies of sj) represent fan unvasted distortion signals), where sf) may be writen inthe form 24) =F CIHGnaplicos [ways + 0, + Ora) ass) [The CoH(0) term has been deliberately omitted from s,(), since it ean always be removed by an RF choke or a blocking capacitor.) “To obiain a quantitative measure ofthe electivencss of a narrowband filter in reducing si) relative tothe Fundamental ecniponent of 5, we define torul harmonic: distortion (TID) a the ratio ofthe rms va2v of 5) to the fundamental component rsd Tees G5 De (EE) Gna j, ate where / SE (CATA is the rms value ofs4(). The quantity THD given by the above @quation is exactly the meter reading that would appear on a distortion analyzer driven by a) It is apparent that for a given input signal s(), the smaller the value of THD the better the filter performs in producing a pure sinusoidal output ea zig Ormunke> 10 THD = ry ig. AEA High-Q poralel RLC cout driven bya pride tun of impulses84 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS THROUGH N/RROWBAND FILTERS 35 ‘To ilustrate the method of obtaining an expression for THD, let us examine the ‘utp f)of the high-Oy parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig, 35-1. For ths circuit the periodic input current may be expanded in a Fourier senes ofthe form oma F ae-1racas § coms where C, 2g/Ts ence CJC, = 1 for n= 23,0... In addition, for a +O paral! RLC circuit, Zasbineo 12 ,sUooll (of Ba, 34-12); thus TAD oss “The series 2 n/a? ~ 1) is known to converge to (1/16 + /12}\t which when substituted ito Eg, (35-5), yields 1 [LTH os A flee oe ap-6 ee QrVi6~ 12 Or 8} “We now observe that for THD less than 1%, Qy must be greater than 94, (A value 23176 was obtained in the previous seotion by considering only the second- and third harmonic distortion terms) 7 fin lieu of a period train of impulses, (inthe circuit of Fig 3-5-1 is # square wave with a peak-to-peak amplitude /,a period T then fers, and 2er0 average valUs, i) =F Cae cos @n— 1hwot. os = (= tan = 1. For this ease (Cay fC)? = (28 = UF Sat Te 7 1 tee er 2, Qn 1 = 1. A/F] I. B54) ON 3 [Or DF = | a oer 2 LB 7 Aiough tein (45-hasbeen sine incse formar ise schaepeelt hous th PSG nate it men proc! caste sees of £9 OS) aoe at etsy ha he Rt fo oe fot Proves 8 vests ed Sppranmation oth ness The series 38 Prous 88 isknown o converge 1 (a2/48 ~ 3/16}: Bence Eq (5-8) simplifies to L fo, ans aie i6*"O, 65-9) “To yield less tha: “ "4 THD, with a square-wave drive toa parallel RUC circuit, Oy rust only exceed! 13.5, which is a factor of 7 lower than the value of Qy required te yield less than 1% THD with an impose tran drive. This reduction i the required value of Qy results both from the fact thatthe even harmonic components of square wave are zero and from the fact that the higher harmonies of a square wave have Amplitudes that are small compared with the fundamental amplitude, (The amplitudes of the harmonics vary inversely with frequeney.) Since a periodic tain ‘of imputses isthe only waveform whose harmonic amplitudes do not clecteuse with increasing harmonic number, we expect the THD obtained with an impulse ain Grive to @ particular narrowband filer to provide an upper bound on the THD ‘obtained with any other periodic input drive; hence Q; = 94 ensures less than 1% THD for a parallel RLC circuit regardless of the form of the periodic input ‘current drive PROBLEMS + ‘31 Find the lowpass equivalent ciroul, fram the ¥;,(9) viewpoint, for 3 high (rz 10) sles RUC oat 4 san) It Figure PA 42 Determine i) in Fig. BP=L, assuming that coy = 10" rays, r= 500. Qy = 20. and wf) is 3 peak coving signal atau = 10" adisec that is 100% amplitle modulated by & radian frequency 0f25 > 10" rade. 23 Determine te output voltages of¢)when ala mpale,aunit step, anda unistepmolted sine wave ofJ, = LOMz are applied rosesivey asf) i he crit of Fig P 14 Find the fow-pas rivet siouit of he high Q cruit shown in Fig PA86 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS THROUGH NARROWRAND FILTERS 90 pF 40 1000 pF jo1pH S1a WO Figure 3.P-S Promuens 87 4.5. Find the response ofthe twostge IF trip shown in Fig, .P-4 to un amplite-modlated tine wave atthe resonant Ireqeacy af the tuned seus. Assume an inpat modulation of 100%and that thecarcor scemered inthe pssband ofthe fle. Find thecutp percentage modulation for eagian modlation frequenees of 1/4RC, PRC, and 1/RC. (Use the fo past equivalent approach) 26 Atmain rectangular narrow ples 0.1 je wide, YOmA in amplitude and spaced 628 nee parti appled es 0) to the cicst of Fig, LP-S, Estimate accurately the component of ane] a¢2 = 10 rade. (Hin: The eve oe I,J ora toctangula ple inte Append. {0 Chapter 9 may prove hep ithe poke wala probbm is unfair) 17 Determine no the sitet of Fig 1P6 when i) = (1 mA)C05 28% 10" vs 0%. ay ous AR tnprZ 2k 9 Figure 30-6APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 3 HIGH-Q FILTER MEASUREMENTS “The results of Section 3.3 find practical application in the sieasurement of the magnitude and phase angle, a8 & function of, ofthe transfer function of extremely narrowband filers, ie, filters having @ as high as 10%, The freyuency of a normal ‘seilator often cannot be adjusted with the required precision to ma¥e such measure- ‘ments:and even ifitepuld beso adjusted, it would be unlikely to possess the required frequency stability to allow the measurement to be made conveniently. ‘On the other hand, a crystal oscillator with the same center frequency as the ‘ter of interest ean possess the required frequency stability. IF this oscillator is amplitude modulated with the outpsi of a low-frequency constant-amplitude Varlable-fequency oscillator the resultant signal of the form 7 50) = ACL 608 ag) 605 docs provide the test signal with which to evaluate the high-Q files. With s(@) Applied tothe filter, the output signal takes the form (Eg, 33-9) HEC, , ae 2 saps anofs + Miho + ane 8a) 9 Ii m'(cog) = 1H ,Liai/H (0) and 0,(c,) are measured as a function of, and if 1,00) were at determin ten uel aac topo tenga ad pe af) Spear > 0, [10 = [Lio — oh. where /HLJor = mW) and O{0) = 0,00 ~ 0.) + Ooo) ‘Experimentally H(0) and Oz) can be readily determined by any number of standard methods with the modulation on the crystal oscillator absent. In addition (ey) and O,(o,)can be determined by forminga Lissajous pattern on an oscilloscope face with 50) applied to the vertical channel and cos aq? applied to the horizontal channel. A typical Lissajous pattern is shown in Fig 3.A-L. Since the upper ané Tower envelopes of sf) form standard elliptical Lissajous partems, 0,(,) may be found from 0,40) = sin ead ry Aevesors 89) rt) Dies eps silostvoreas200081 poun-wag Fig. 4-1 Lissajous pattern of 5 cost. where E and F are indicated in Fig. 3-1. In addition, ai(o,} can be obtained as c-8 ila) = 3 tg) = oa) by employing Eq. (23-8). (The reader should convince himself of the validity of Bq. (.A-2)] Consequently, by selecting a suficient number of diferent values for 2,0 can pot he magnitude and phase angle of 42) 12 any dee of wsuasyCHAPTER 4 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES “The normal inade of operation of the active devices discussed in this book is non Tinear, Thus the usual small-signal incremental model for 2 device is not likely to tbe of much use ether in designing or in analyzing a circuit. The purpose of this Chapter isto remedy this situation by providing adequate largesignal models fo ft number of useful devices. We shall accomplish this aim by exploring general athous of dealing with the nonlinearities that occur in a number of “reali uve devices or etcuits, In order to concentrate on asic concepts, we assume the ae or device reactance; og, no charge storage is allowed in transistors. We ako assume that only a single type of nonlinearity occurs in any given case. In the iy sectional sources are assumed to be idea in that series oF parallel loses sare sruded. Tn later sections we examine the modifications that occur through the inherent or deliberate addition of resistive terms. ‘Chapter 5 will consider the combination: of nonlinear and ceactve effects while al te following chapters will be concerned with complete circuits or systems. 41. GENERAL COMMENTS ‘One ean break down the types of nonlinearities into two broad clases. In one class, the input-output relationship is ofthe pieeewise-linear or switehed-tincar segment Teamtin the othe, the relationship varies gradually and lacks abrupt changes of ‘ove, Piseowise linear types are always easly expressible in analytic form, 46 ae sePSin ofthe gradual tclationships. In some cases one ean view & particular piece- ‘wise configuration as an asymptotic limit for a gradual expression. ‘Hor some device characteristic, simple analytic means of characterizing thelr selationships do not seem to exist, However, in these cases one cun always, atleast ‘theory, Bt a polynomial to any desired degree over any desirvu range. Although omputer programs to aid in such curve fiting are widely aveilable, they should have to be resorted to only on rare occasions. Tn general, one eannot resort to superposition in dealing ‘sith noslinenr cic: cuits This means thatthe de (average-value) and ac (lime-variable) components of fhe output signal are interrelated, Lrtially wr dea with this problem by assuming Heal wotage or current sources as bias supplies, 50 that average values may be Bixee Jadependendy ofthe tme- variable terms The creut of Fig, 1-1 providesan example of such a bis circuit. * 42 PIECEWISE-LINEAR SOURCE, SINGLE DISCONTINUITY OT In addition to the ee-de interrelationships of nonlinear sources, there are input drive waveshape-output waveshape telationships that normally defy generaliza tion, This problen: is circumvented in practice by assuming one of several common. driving wavesbapes and determining the outputs for them. Fortunately, it warns out that de plas a sine-wave drive or de plus a square-wave drive sulies 1o provide & first-order approximation for the operation of almost all real eicuits 42 PIECEWISE-LINEAR SOURCE, SINGLE DISCONTINUITY Consider the i= O: henoe, if sit of Fig, 42-1. When vy > Yoo ig = Glos ~ Wo); when #y 5 Vor yeh) and Ona > Hor : then the operation occurs completely along the sloping portion ofthe characteristic, ‘and is incrementally linear ia the conventional sense. In this ease, superposition applies to the ae signal compovents; that is if fg = Jy + A, then de) = Gxc} L-stepe 6 4 =F) %e a Hy ) ig. 4.2-1. Piesewivlncar voltge-conrlld current source [As another special case, consider the previous czeuit biased exuctly at the break point so that Y= Vp. Under this circumstance, the circuit performs as an ideal Falfswave rectifier. In this ease, ifs) = Y, cost then the output current consists of halfeyele sine-wave pulses of peak amplitude /, = GW, while a syuare-wave input for ut) of peak-to-peak amplitude 2¥; and petiod T'= 2nfo yields a square ‘wave output alse of peak value f, = GV. Note that in the sine-wave ease the output ‘waveshape is dras-ally diferent from the input waveshape over one hal-eyele, Tohereas it has the identical shape over the otber half-eycie. On the other hand, a square-wave input yields a square-wave output ‘In many practical cicuits the drive is periodic and the nonlinear device is followed by a narrow band filter of the type discussed in Chapters 2 anu 3, In these ceses itis convenient to express the device output in a Fourierserics form tht Clearly displays the various frequency components and their phase relationships“ 92 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 42 ‘This is very easy to do when ¥ = Yo and xf) = ¥, cos ar, since the Fourier- series expansion of a series of halfsine-wave pulses is given by Ld 2, itt) = 18 + Pecos + ZBe0s Zan — Ft 00s do > ile) = B+ Peosar + FE Feb oosdox + zy where I, = GY; is the peak value of 2, With x(t) in the form of # square wave, awe Heossn + Beeson, 2 where again Jy = GY and the pulse, Tt is worth noting at this point that ithe current generator of Fig. 42-1 drives 1 paralel resonant circuit that is tuned to « and that has a parallel resistance Rr find @ high value of Qy, then only the fundamental term producs any significant voltage v, across the tuned ciruit, Consequently, with Ve = Va, c=t)s given by me origin is taken at the middle of the positive seraeine: x [ESEoeoy 2) cemmediie: ef remn —e ‘With both the square-wave and sineswave drive we have obtained a sinusoidal ‘output voltage that is linearly related in amplitude to the input driving voltage amplitude V,. Thus @ highly nonlinear device operation has been combined with ft narrowband filter to produce an ove*ll linear amplifier. Such devices find wide “pplication in the effiient amplification of AM waves. The “gain” of this amplifier is 2 function of the driving waveshape. ‘As we shall see in Chapter 9, amplifiers in which the output current flows for cexacly half of each input eyele are known as Class Bamplifiers. From the equations ‘Shove. we see that a Class B RF amplifier that asa linear characteristic over its con- Gucting haleeyele has an overall linear output-input characteristic im spite ofits highly nonlinear internal behavior. Thisisbut the frst of many examples in whieh we discover overall “linearity” in spite of internal nor‘inearties. ‘We now consider the general case of sine- or square-wave drives added to an arbitrary de bias Y, The square-vave ease is trivial, since it always results ia a fquare-wave output and hence Eg, (42-2)is always valid. Allthat changes from case fe case is the peak amplitude of the ourput square wave. For example, if Vy # Vos then 1, = (H+ Hi — Vhs in the sine-wave ease the waveshape isa function ofthe bias ¥,and the amplitude v4; hence Eq, (42-1) is not valid for any case except the half-wave rectifier. The intercelationship off, Vy, Yo, and Y; is shown in Fig 42-2. Here we see that (isi the form of a periodic train of sine-wave tips of peak amplitude I, = (Vy ~ VIG, where Vy = Yo. Yu In addition, if, is plotted v8. of rather than r, then an entre i 42 PIRCEWISE-LINEAR SOURCE, SINGLE DISCONTINUITY — 93 L-Sore 6 ity Contain ace boa othe I= geo woRy Fig.42-2 Output waveshape forthe cout of Fig 42-1, cycle occupies a duration of 2x and the sine-wave tip occupies a duration of 2p, ‘which we define as the conduction angle, where Me bcos, We observe that for Yh 2 Vo + Vi, or equivalently ¥, < ~ ¥, the conduction angle ‘occupies un entire cycle and incrementally linear operation oovurs If we wtte & general expression for the Fourier series expunsion of a tain of sine-wave tips in the Ferm ig = too na, then this expansion may be used to determine the de, fundamental, or harmonic content in the output of a piecewise-inear circuit driven by de plus sine wave The algebraic expression forthe coefficients of such an expansion and their asymptotic values are presented in theappendix thischapter, Figure 4.2~3 presents normalized values for these coellicients in terms of the conduction angle 2) and the peak pulse amplitude J,, The plus oF minus sign alle the coeficient number ine dicates whether the coefiiea is positive or negative. [As a practical matter, it is often more convenient to have the Fouricr series cooffcients expressed in terms of V,/¥, than in terms of @, since in most prob- toms # is not known explicitly. This transposition of coordinate aves is readily {Wes all hat cosinusoid apis to nonlinear nonmesmory device produces petiodic Setput wich aye exuded ina Fourier casing series with Ho Sine fra,94 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 43 Lina sinewave das ie Ear aan 0 FO 160180 G0U 220240 240 Pa5 BO 320-940 360 ‘Conduction angle 2, dress 00 ois & Bes lormatze Four costcients Nonatied Fou ctents & BES ig 42-8. Normalize Fourier counts fa line sine-wave ips anv. the conduction angle ‘accomplished by employing the relationship cos 6 = V/V. In particular, 2/1, for me .i.2is plowed vs. H/7, in Fig, 42-4 Negative values of Wa/% im this figure Correspond io theease where Fy > Yo(notethat V; = Vo ~ Vand hasa conduction angle proster than 180" ssertn exarnple of the usefulness of these curves, consider a case in which ¥,= 1SV, 6 = 1000 mo, and Vi, = 45. From the data of Fig, 42-4 and by uulipiying by J, = Gl; ~ ¥,)=3mA, we obtain fo = O7EmA, 1, = 132mA, dnd 2-081 mA. If tis current were passed through a tuned circuit or its equi atone, thea the various output voltages could be found by performing one more imple multiplication for each cérrent component. 43: MULTIPLESEGMENT PIECEWISE-LINEAR SOURCES With large enough input drives all practical devices eventually “aturate.” In many casos the saturation is sufficiently abrupt thatthe input-output trvxsfet characteristic, save in, ean be modeled by & multiple-segment piecewiselinear cheracteristic of the type shown in Fig. 43-1 43 MULTIPLE-SEGMENT PIECEWIE-LINHAR SOURCES 95 Linear sinewave tps Sets ll, Normalized Fourier ce Normand og oft -f- Fig, 42-4 Plot of hl, 8 WIM, for Results for the case shown in Fig. 43-I(a) can be found es the superposition ‘of the Fourier series for the positive and the negative sine-wave tip pulse trains For the positive pule train fay of peak amplitude Ip, = Gy(¥ ~ ¥,). we obtaia the Fourier coefficients from Fig. 42-4 by employing 1. and ¥/¥. The Fourier coefficients for the negative pulse tain igy, of peak amplitude 1,, = Gili + Yoo fre obtained by employing J,,and — V/V; (inliew of ¥J14)in the curves of Fig, 42-4 ‘henge psn aie 10 in phase fore it Fourier series has the lay = lle + feos (wt + 9) feos Qt + 25) + m= Hly + Jeon ot ~ 15 608204 + I, 908 Sat ~ wy Consequently, when iy i¢ combined with fap, the Fourier coefiients of the odd harmonics of both pulse trains add algebraically, whereas the Fourier coeficients cof the even harmonics und the average value of the negative pulse train must be Subtricted fom *e corresponding coefficients ofthe positive pulse tran to obtain the composite Fuarier coeficients96 NONLINRAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 43 yeaa Ky 1 Qeauneny V cos | | Eee Peotreay = Do fet Fig. 43-4 Various muliple-sgment piccewiz-tnear noni 43 MULTIPLE-SeOMENT PIECEWISE-LINEAR SuURCHS 97 We should note that if G, = G3 and ¥, = ~ ¥, no average valus of even her- mons exist in the waveform of, since the magnitude ofthe corresponding Fourier Coelccnts of both the postive and negative pulse trains are es Rests for the saturation model shown in Fig, 4.3-1(0) can be found by direct subtraction ofthe Fourier series for a sie-weve tip pulse train of pak amplitude Te Gay, ~ ¥) an conection angle ala = cos” (H/¥)} from the Fourier {Stes fora sinc-vave tip pulse trun of peak amplitude J, Gx — Y) and the fonduction angle 244[0 ~ e08"*(/¥)). Subiraction of the Iwo Fourier series fesuls in Fourier series whose coefficients are found from the sbiraction of the Corresponding eoefcients ofthe orginal two series The cocfcint ofeach series fe, ofcourse. found directly fom Fig 42-3 or Fig. 42-4. In the limit ws P, becomes very large the current waveshape approaches @ square wave; hence Eq. (2-2) ‘again yes limiting values Sppow, for example tat V, = ~Y; = 1.8Y% thatthe sine wave is varying around sero with an amplitude Y= 3; and that Gy = 500 ko. Them w_=% = 05, aa 500 x 10° x 45] mA = 225mA, and 1y, = (500 x 1076 x 15) mA = O75 mA. With the aid of Fig. 42-4 we obtain 1g = (225mA) x O41 ~ (07S mA) x 022 [which, ofcourse, could be found by inspection from Fig, 43-1061, 075 mA Jy = 2.25mA) x 0535 ~ (0.75 mA) = 040 = OSH mA. and Jy = (225mA) x 0093 — (0.75mA) x 0.28 = LOOmA (again as expected because ofthe symmetry} In general, the output of any multiple-segment piccewise-linear characteristic driven by de plus a sine wave may be expressed asthe superposition of several sine ‘yave tip pulse trains. A little ingenuity is sometimes required to accomplish this, ‘Once this representation is achieved, however, the coeficients ofthe output Fourier ‘Series may be obtained with the aid of the curves of Fig. 42-3 or Fig. 42.4. ‘Characteristics similar to Fig, 43-1(a) occur in Class B and Class C ampiiions, whereas center-biased characteristics similar to Fig 43-I(b) are used as limiters Ia characteristic lke that of Fig, 4.3-1() is really biased in the mile, then there are-no even harmonics at the output. In addition, the normalized fundamental ‘Current output J,/G3V, varies only from 1.0 t0 4/x = 1.273 (the fundamental of a98 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 4a square wave of peak amplitude = 1) as the input amplitude varies from the break point value, Vy = —V%, 10 infinity. For ¥, = 2K, 1736p I= Gal BeOS, and thus Gy¥ifly= 1218. Similarly, if ¥; = 386¥,, then the normalized current is 1.258. A plot of 1/3, ts. V/V is shown in Fig. 43-2. It is apparent that ifan amplitude-modulstes signa Fig. 43-2 Plot of /Ga¥, Hil, is applied to such a characteristic so thatthe carrier amplitude i 10 times the break point while the percentage amplitude modulation is 807, or less, then the fundamental Noltage across a tuned cireait in the output has les than a 4.5% pesk-to-peak 122 134 Hence on the normal peak basis the outpat modulation is less than 2.52% or equiv~ flenly, we have reduced the AM by more than 304B, Such circitry willbe dis ‘eassed in more detail in Chapter 12, 28 5 100 ~ 44 44 SQUARE-LAW CHARACTERISTICS ‘Asquare-law voltage in-voltage out characteristic can be approximated by anetwork of diodes, resistors, and batteries, A squars-law voltage in-current out characteristic { approximated quite closely by many field effect transistors (FET) of both the 44 SQUARELAW CHARACTIRISNCS — 99 eeePecreetiet eee CHES ~ ” eon fashallHplone ~o neh Fig. 44-1 Squaretow source. junction and the MOS types operating in their “constant current” resion. Figure 44-1 shows a typical squurelaw network for which palisli-e) net i « ashe TUL RE Ree HUN ates ES type field effect transistors. Clearly, as v; approaches Vp (which is sometimes referred teas the pinch-off voltage), ly is reduced to zero. For vy = 0, [a = fuss. In this fection V, is assumed to be negative. Positive values of V, merely shift the ia characteristic 10 the right Before proceeding further, we should note that when we reer to 2 squaredaw characteristic itis not a““true" square-law characteristic, but rather a “half” square law characteristi. A true square law would be a parabola and therefore a double- valued function of i. Since such characteristics do not often exist in nature, we Festriet our attention to those formed by one branch of the parabols, as yiven by Eq. 4d-l. However, one must be sure that operation is entirely in the squarelaw region before substituting into the expression i= boalt 2 ‘Again, with the square-law characteristic, we find that a square-wave input leads to square-wave output; hence Eq, (42-2) is directly applicable to obiaining the Fourier series off, once the peak value off is determined. If, on the other hand, 0, = K+ ¥;cos wr and operation is within the square law region, then ne est = 2V,¥, cos wt + V4 cos? cot) 442)100 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 44 where V; = ¥;~ Vu In this case a Fourier series expansion for iz has only three terms; that is, LQ) = fy + Lyeoseat + 1, 00820n where (44-3) eo a5) “Thus we find that if Vi supplied by an idea! voltage source so that ¥ fs not a fune~ tion off, then fis linear fanetion of Vand we can define a hange-signal average transductance G,., Joss 2B Y,. eo that is independent of the drive voltage. We can define such « large-signal trans ‘Conductance for any type of characteristic: however, in general, it isnot a constant Ten function of Y,, When G, is independent of ¥ and is drives a high-Qy patallet patmnant cicuit tuned to the fundamental frequency, then variations in the anmpli= {ade of the output voltage ae linearly elated 10 variations in ¥;henee, here aa, theoveral transfer characteristic is inear and the devie performs asa linear ampliiee for AM signals. “The square-law characteristic has the interesting property thatthe small-signal transconductance gq at any particular Q-point is equal to the large-signal averse trameonductance G, at that same Q-point, To demonstrate this property, We evaluate gin the form ay =Yossy = as t BEL Pe aan whichis identical to Gy given by Eq. (44-6). A plot of g_ = Gq vs bins volte % whown in Fig, 44-2" lt should be made clear that gis an sneremental slope at point on the currents wotage curve, while Gy = 1/¥% is ratio of fundamental Sutpat current to fundamental input voltage ata particular operating point ’as an example, suppose that 1, = V2, or equivalently Y= ¥y/2s then he ase V3 nT ae eel When ¥; is very small with respect to [Yq then J2 vanishes and low-distortior wideband amplification occurs, AS V; increases, J, increases and distortionless 44 SQUARELAW CHARACTERENICS — 10] e Fig. 44-2 Linear transconductance for sguar-law curent chara Pn widehandampifstion is imposible; howe, if. : lcs howere ifs narod filter employed, he linear ampiiation i pssble frm Vi'= 0 to Y= /¥d2 a wh pout operation exceeds the aguarelaw region of the character and, nonlinear function of ¥, 7 eee Inthe general eatehe second-harmonic distortion in function of drive voltage is given by E Ghee ere h MV Su Poa he (8) ¥,= =2V, then to keep the distortion below 1% ¥; must be fess than 8D mV. \ ‘ | be yt zene tnt ae 7 aa mow mK | Fig, 44-3. Squaretaw device drives beyond eu102 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 44 does decrease the distortion, but not enough to make this type of characteristic yell suited to producing wideband amplifiers with large-signal handling capabilitis, In practical devices, the characteristic is likely to depart somewhat from square law at its extreme values; hence, if the above rcsulls are to apply, drive voltages tus be small enough to stay out ofthese regions, Even if Eg. (@.4-1) does accurately Ueseribe the device, if », = K, + Ys cos er exceeds ¥, for some portion of x cycle the above results are net vali, In particular, the device is off for part of the eyele fand square law for the remainder of the cycle, as illustrated in Fig, 44-3. Thus sho-ser that the current i periodic train of square-law sine-wave tips of peak ampli rude a GE = Wh Suara sino weve tins i oa os ast o4 3 3 ‘ g 3 aay i oa 16S GOH BHO BRO S30) ‘Conduction angle 2, dares Figdd-d Nonmazed Fourier coeficients of @squarelaw sinewave tip pulse tein the sondtuction angle 44 SQUARE-LAW CHARACTRSSIICS 103 In addition, the conduction angle 26 (ie, the angular portion of the eyele during, which is diflerent from zero) is given by ¥, ¥ Under this mode of operation the Fourier series for iy no longer consists of three terms but rather an infinite number of terms, The coelicients ofthese terms of the Fourier series as functions of J, and @ are presented in the appendix 10 this chapter. Figure 44-4 presents the normalized values forthe first three voellicients in terms of conduction angle 24. Tn adkltion, Fig, 44-5 presents the normalized Fourier coctlciets /,/1, plotted ve VY, = coed for n= Olean 2 Negative values of ¥./¥, are obilined when 29 = Deos™| are aw sin ave ine Normalies Fourie coeticents 4 ie cen $8 7 $3 Boone rel huss, Y Ba ie ae —ae—04 02 0 02 G4 06 OF 10 Normalised voltage aft 1! Fig. 44-5 Plot Jy vs. WY form = 0, 1,2.104 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 45 the bies voltage ¥, lies within the squarelaw rogion, or equivalently, when the con- duction angle is greater than 180". The point J, = —1 corresponds to complete ‘operation within the square-law region and a conduction angle of 360°; conse quently, for values of JY, <=, the operation is well within the square-taw Tegion and the Fourier coefficients (only three) must be found from Eqs. (44-3), (44-4), and (44-5), which may be manipulated into the equivalent forms da WM fob ae tw te an) hah aay Which are valid for W/V; < ~1 and for which, 6f course, = It is of imerest to note that for V/V, = —1 substituted into Eqs. (44-9), 4-10), and (44-11), loll, = 9 Tully = 4, and Inll, =, These are exactly the values shown in Fig 44-5 for VJ¥, = 1; hence the Fourier cosficients 1, vary continuously 1s Ve; decreases beyond — ‘Phese squere-law sine-wave tip characteristics will be quite useful in designing slimiting field effect transistor oscillators, as well as in explaining the action ir large-signal FET RF amplifiers 4S ‘THE EXPONENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC ‘A very good approximation to the current emitted across a forward-biased P-N junction in a junction diode or transistor is ake, as here kT is approximately 26 mY for T= 300°K. If we assume that the transistor flpha is independent of current and ignore for the present all internal resistive ‘ltage drops, then by choosing /, appropriately we can use Ea. (45-1) to represent fmitter, collector, or base currents. (The equation is not “exact” i the reverse direction; however, for our purposes this “nonexaciness” isa third-order effect.) ‘A typical voltage in-current out exponential characteristic is obtained from the circuit of Fig. 45-1. Ifo, = Vy +) applied to the device, (has the form Jha + Hf, where Ig, and i) are functions of both ¥, and x). fn our previous examples ‘weassumed that ¥, and uf) were supplied from independent sources and derived our results in terms of these quantiles. In this case, however, we assume that Ta, 1) ave supplied from independent sources and present the results in terms ofthese 45 rie EXPONENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC. 105 Fig. 45-1 Exponentially controlled current source ‘quantities. The reason for this choice is apparent when we realize that in a well ‘designed transistor circuit We control the bias (or average} current and the ae junc tion voltuge: hence these are the quantities We Know. With 0) = V+ of) applied (2 the circuit of Fig, 45-1, ig) is given by in = ert en, For small-signal operation, ic, valves of v(t) for which got/i7 <1, 1,0) reduces totheform enero 2M HO, 452) were fy, = fet”, and it) = gle Q/RT Cleary i) and 1) are linearly related by a amallsignal eransconductance 0) alae te ay EE which isa linear function of bias current. We note that small-signal linear “gain” Control can be achieved by controlling the bias current Ig. This linear gain contral will be seen fo have many useful applications. ‘Square-Wave Input It aft is a Symmetrical square wave of peak amplitude V, itis apparent that i i also a square wave with an upper level y= Leet PT and a lower level Iw Hye abe W107106 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 4s “Thus the average valve of ven by bute lee = Tye"? cosh x 653) ‘and the peak-to-peak value of i i piven by Typ = a ~ og = 2g sin x, as where xe q¥ifkT normalizes the input square-wave ampitude to 26mV (a ‘T= 300’ K}. By combining Eqs. (45-3) and (45-4), we obtain yy = Blyton = ass ‘Tho quantity {,,/21, is plotied in Fig. 4.5-2 vs. x Fig 45-2 Pot of pa vi For x « I, tanh x % x and Bq. (45-5) reduces to 4, dle 5 ber a tax = UE eas 6 Em tax = SEY = Bal as) which, of course, is just the small-signal relationship between the peak amplitude OF the output and input square waves. For large values of x > 25) tanh x is within 19% of unity and as “This relationship makes sense. For large values of Y the negative portion ofthe apna square wave effeively ens off; hence i, varies from 2er0 10 Zp and thes thas an average vale of Jg/2 iris apparent that fof large values of x the output square-wave amplitude i independent of the input square-wave amplitude and therefore the cireitfanetions we himiter, Conversely, for x « 1 the circuit performs as tineas amplifier Remedies of the veuc of, however, the peak ampiitue ofthe output squate wave linearly related to Jy: consequently, by controling 24, we can Tinesly wariide-moddlate the outpat square wave. I in addition, we pass i) through sgt toned crit, we oblain an outpu voltage whichis en ampitude-modulated 45 ‘Tie EXPONENTIAL cHaRActusTIC 107 sine wave, In particular, if (2) drives a high-Q parallel RLC circuit which has resistance Ry and is tuned to the fundamental of i, thea the eatput voltage oy) is given by (€l Eq, 42-2) x)= “ee tank 08 0 as) Itis assumed here that if, & fonetion of time, the bandwidth of the tuned circuit is suficient to pass the AM sideband information. ‘Sine-Wave Yaput Ho) = + ¥, cos eat then il = beret ent mee toe, where again x= @Vy/AT. For wt = 0, 2x, 4m,...,/() attains its peak value of 1, = ete To observe the form 2! ,() for other values of ¢ we normalize Ef) t0 I, and plot ys. o# with x as a parameter, as chown in Fig 45-3, Note that for small values of x the eutpult current Is almost eesinusoidal, as would be expected: however, a8 x it~ freases the outpot current becomes pulselike in form. ecause of the exponential nature off, it is not possible to define « conduction angle for these pulses in « conventional sease: however, we may define a fictitious Conduction angle as the angular portion of the cycle for which i(/t, 2 0.05, This 15 TOTTI OBE OB ITI TST Fig 45-3 Plot o i, vst with x= QVy/kT = Vy26 mV) a8. parameter108 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 45 conduction angle may be defined as 2p, where is the solution ofthe equation £* < 008, aso goon [i882 eort[\-3 ae ‘A plot ofthis conduetion angle vs. i given in Fig. 45-4 caf — OT Te es Fig. 4S-4 Plot of condvcuan angle 26 v6. -The pulse shape is a funetion only of the no-malized ae input voltage (x), and rot of the bits level. This, of course, isa basic property of an exponential charac- teristic. “The current it) = J,e***tfet may be expanded in 2 Fourier series ofthe form 10 = J C.cosnon, where 1 fora =i an [i ct easnt} = Br, (45-12) and J,(s) is a modified Bessel function of order n and argument x. The modified Besse! functions should not frighten the reader, since they represent merely the tabulated resulis of the numerical intogrations ofthe integrals of Eqs 4.511) and (43-12) with x as a parameter. Various useful properties of the modified Bessel fonctions, including thelr tabulation, are presented in the Appendix at the back of the book. 45 [THE EXPONENTIAL, CHARACTERISTIC 103 By noting that 4, Co = tts) = 5-1) we can write i) 282 function of Fy inthe form & 2h i cos nat |. “ 14 308) sg) “Table 45-1 Tabulation of modied Boise anstion ratios vs. = ~ | 2k) zum [aa [tte 7 709 | Tay | Ti ‘0 00 00 a0 ar | aoe | ooo ams ‘os | asso | 000 | aoa | oir to | oss | oa | gas | 020 20 | 13985 ores | 03 26 | 16200 ows | asc So | 178 0765 | oni 2g} 1ssiE oro | 079s mt | ian Lao | ose wo | umm | Hanae | 09s sao | 19493 ism | 0926 ‘Table 45-1 presents data for 2(x\folx) 21s(0/llad, 2s(ahfolsh and fatshtx) all vs, Figure 45-5 presents a plot of these same data. (These dat have been taleulated from the values of (x) given in the Appendix at the back of the book] ‘Asshovn in the Append, or small values of x, dols) = 1, 1x) > x72 ad Ls) ~ 0 Bese fusion toe Fig. 45-5 Modified Reset funtion ratios vs. x = gh/AT110 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 45 {actually some power of x greater thai unity); hence, when x approaches zero, 10) = Lad + x05 04) hich is the expected small-signal response For large values of, the plse with oz Becomes narrow and the fundamental component is seen to approach twice the de value, as expected; thus again the exponential characteristic i wseful as a limiter so long as the minimum amplitude foes not eatse x to drop below say 5. For example, with a normalized carier Samplitude of x = 10, 30% amplitude modulation in the input (n = 05) cases Tess than 4, output amplitude modalation im, = 004) ‘When xs lange gn) approaches e1//Brx his equality is within 6% for x = 3 «i within 3% for x = 5). Hence from Ea, (4.5-I1a) the relation berween the de component and the peak current for x = 3 is given by 1, % eB ‘Thusina circuitia which J,isheld constantat mA (and in which resistive drops ‘are negligible), a peak sinusoidal base-emitr voltage drive of 260 m¥ will cause & ‘current peak of 795 mA, while the fundamental component will have a peak value ofonly 1.90mA. kd Figure 4.5-5 conveys all sorts of additional interesting information about the exponential characteristic. If J, is presumed constant, so thet itis not function fof V. then the 2[1,(xV//<(x)] curve indicates that a narrowband “linear” amplifier for the 1, component is feasible only for values of x less than unity. From the Ty (eh) curve one sees that, for wideband linear arplifers x must be less than D4 just to keep the second-harmonic distortion below 25% [Note #8 x ~ 0, Tybeiy(2)-» 45 hence x = OL implies Iy(xV/f4(x) = 0.025] Therefore, such» characteristic is useful only in an absolutely linear fashion when input voltages are below 25mY. (The schemes that one employs to design amplifiers capable of handling large-signal inputs without distortion will be discussed in subsequent sections) ‘When the exponential characteristic i followed by & tuned c'rovit which extracts the fundamental component of /,@), itis again convenient to define a large-signal average fundamental transconductance G(s) a8 fog 2a) _ lee 2109 Lae Ba £05 08, (asia) &) 4s a ig) oF ay (45-15) With this definition the output voltage o3() ean be written as 2x) = Cyl Rr 608 0%, G51) where Ry isthe resistance of the tuned circuit at resonance. If J of Yi, then is independent a nso and 45 “ME EXPONENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC IIL ‘Thus Gg(s) us given by Eg. (45-15) reduces to 5 218) Gufs) = 242%. nb) = ay “Table 4.5-2 presents values for Gy(tV/tq = 2Uy(x¥ely(e) v8. x In addition, these data are plotted in Fig 45-6. san ‘Table 45.2 Tabulation of, (ys v8 uw 10 os] oa of \ 06 os oa 02 on , a Fig, 45-6 Plot of 2 (als) x112 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED soURCES 45 By the time x = 1, Gy(xV/tw is already down by 1 dB; hence we again observe that “lineas” narrowband AM amplifiers require [on < 26m. However, the ‘drop in G(s) with inereasing drive is useful in some circuits. For example, it allows the output amplitude of a sine-wave oscillator to stabilize. As the oscillations begin to grow, the loop gain decreases to the point where a further inerease in the oscillation amplitude is not possible. We should note finally that i) given by Eq, {45-13}, is directly proportional 10 [agi hence, here again, by controlling 2g, we ean achieve multiplication or ampli« tude modulation independent ofthe value of (or 2). In Chapter 8 we shall consider in detail how this contro! is accomplished. =v 4 Vheos 10 Figure 45-7 Example 45-1 For the narrowband amplifier shown in Fig. 45-7, determine an expression for vt Also determine the peak emitter current and its conduction ange, Solution. The base-emitter voltage consists of the input cosine plus whatever de voltage Fae builds up across the eapacitor Cy; hence Veg * Vag + 4008 1071 45 “THE EXPONENTIAL CHARACTERNTIC. 113 and o Iyet? seh 9 Son eet 4, 209.5507 fets99[ 1+ FO conta + +] ‘The 26-mA current source must equal the average value off; therefore, LO «4, = 20a ‘and the fundamental component fy is equal 10 21419.) Jey = 06 may = 2.6)(188)mA = 488mA. Since the output-tuned circuit resonates at om = 1/VTC = 107 rade and has Qy = weRC = 20, only the fundamental component of Jy contributes 10 the output: therefore, jfa © I, 4 = (IOV) + 2KO}(e)(488 mA) 05 107r = (—10V) + 8 V) cos 10", Imaddition, since J, = Jue?*/1(96) then by interpolating from Tuble A-2, oF using the relationship J, © Also, from Eq, (4.5-10) and by noting that x = 96, we obtain a cond 0 96, ‘Asan akemativeapproach to obtainingv,, we observe thatthe small-signal ans cconduetance gi ion angle las ten ay = He ns Consequently, the lasge-signal average transconductance (cl Fig, 45-6) is given by Gy = (DITTO = 001978. ‘Therefore, the output voltage has the value PA) Veo + Gy(2 KAYLEE V) 00s 10°F] = (~10V) + (8 V)e0s 10%, which, of course, agrees with the previous evaluation,114 NowLINEAR CONTROLLED soURCES 46 46 THE DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC If vo transistors with characteristics of the type outlined by Eq. (45-1) are con- nected in a differential configuration so that their total emitter current. J, 8 supplied by a constant current source (normally anotFer transistoy), then a very useful and easily integrable circuit resulls, The dilerentally connected circuit is shown in Fig, 46-1, Tis ciuit hes « distinct nonlinear characteristic that should be added to our collection of useful nonlinearities Fig. 46-1 Different configuration ‘To obtain an expression for the nonlinear characteristic of the differentially connected circuit, we note that fa lget, ig Ineo, 45) and “Thersfrg if fy) ~ les (which should be true if both transistors ate integrated on the same “chip and are identical in size and construction, then fo goon, Ba domme, 46-2) AF we now set i, + is =f, we obtain rn ah nape me het 463) where 2 (v; ~v.\IkT_ The normalized ‘nonlinear characteristies iff, and {ijl va 2are tabulated in Table 46-1 and plotied in Fig. 46-2. 46 ‘Wie DIFFERENTIAL cHaRAcTeRisnc 115 ain | tsrmv 02s | 42k6my oa | H1usmv 030 a0 so | =1n4dmy avs Kom as | —7mv It is of inlerest ro note that both i, and, possess odd symmetry about their average value Iy2. Specially, ae Irom which we observe nt 6) = is). With tea of Ey (6-4) wo an write ‘Ein the ternative form 065) and ina sla fasion, we write afi + am) 46-6) If ths circuit is operated about its point of symmetry (z = 0} sit normally is, then the de component in either current remains at {,/2 forall symmetcical driving, signals (0, — #3). yin addition, the driving signals are periodic, no even harmonics fre generated, —In partculae, if — r, i a square wave of zero average value and peak amplitade M, then j i a square wave in phase with the input and ig square ml oT Fig, 46-2 Diflerenial characterises ploted vez» (6, ~ ephu¥T116 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 46 ‘yave 180° out of phase with the input, Both f, anf, are symmetric about 1/2 and Fave peak values which can be determined direstly from Table 461 or Fig, 46-2 Tor ceample, it Y; = STmV (T= 300° K), then the peak-to-peak value of both i and i, is equal 10 08/. or small values of (2 «< Lor equivalently ~ v3| « 26mV},wemay approxi: sate tanh 2/2) by 2/2 to obtain | fk Bins, — v, Bagi Ee (0, — 09) 2 wt “en sebfeed) Bettina is piven by 46-3) vwhete «isthe ratio of collector to emitter current, Tfnow 0, — vy = V, cosa and we again define x = q¥,/AT, then 1 1 qatei me azo ke (46-5) wage 6 3 ‘ where fn [A sketch of ive. shown in Fig 46-3, indicates how the waveform varies wit x iis quite apparent that the Fourier series of {contains no even harmonies hence # may be expanded in the form im 1yoost + 15608301 + 1, 008 Sor + 21, Stay sbeost0n ~ Det 6-10 46 ‘he pIRPERENTIAL CHARACTIRISHC 117 Fig. 46-3 Shetck of 18 ox for several vals of where as9=4 [bum fone} onsoar— “The coefficients a,./1 do not appear to be expandable in terms of tabulated fun however, itis a straightforward numerical matter to determine the Fourier co- clficients a for the Fundamental and the fist several harmonies. Tuble4(-2 presonts 0) = bly for n= th oes [le Veale a eee eer eee Figure 46-4 plots ay(x)-ag(s) and ax) vs x and compares the fundamental ‘components from the diflerential characteristic with those of a truncated linear characteristic (Fig, 43-1b) that has the same slope at the point of symmetry and the same aeympfotic values. The values for x = op are oblained from Eq. (42-2), ‘by noting that, for very large drive voltages, the currents J, and i must have the118 NONLINEAR CONTROLIED SOURCES 46 ‘hanctewte with Stim slope atthe g lf Sint. Gos i : Baal i do i : | ° z 7 6 * w ig. 46-4 Harmonie content from sinusoidally excited diferent characteris farm fas leatce enous a sum see] = {Bena aif[z =3U\2 ‘Thus, for small x, ay(x) © Hx — x°/16) and a,(x) = x7/192. Clearly, then, a(x) aa en out civ te oo ee TE e ee SHON seamen to ve rm 5 eae tte mans ere com La onic emia) Hen oonid a a asngpmicerlsethy © 8m 46 {VE DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERS 119 amplifier is due primarily co the symmetry of the differential characteristic and the resultant absence of even (principally second) harmonies from the output, In- tuitively what we are doing is compensating for the nonlinear input characteristic ofa single transistor by using a second transistor 2s @ nonlinear emiter impedance. ‘When a tuned circuit which extracts the fundamental component of current is placed in the collector of either transistor, itis convenient to again define a large- Signal average fundamental transconductance as 10) Where ga is the small-signal transconductance defined by Ea. (2.6 8) With this definition of Gy(xh if @ high Qy tuned circuit with a resistance Ry, at resonance i placed in the collector of transistor 2, the tuned-cireut voltage oy is ziven by onl G4) YR, 606 wt (o-1) ‘A negative sign would be required if the tuned cireuit were placed in the collector oftransistor 1. A plot of 4a, (x/x = Gals is given in Fig. 4 should be noted that the differential characteristic has many of the same properties as the exponential characteristic. For small input signals the diferentially connected cireut operates asa linear amplifier, for large input signals, OTE OT eo IT Fig, 46-5 Plot of Gtrite = Aaya x ff, approaches @ constant and the circuit functions as a fimiter. In addition, {; and fy are directly proportional to /; therefore linear gain controb or amplitude modulation ean be achieved by controling Jy. In practice, as we shall see in Chapter 5, ittuens out to be more effective to control J for the diflerential pair than 1, or the single transistor.120 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 4a 47 OTHER GRADUAL NONLINEARITIES--PENTODES “Many practical devices have current-source-like outputs in which the input voliage- ‘output current relationship is neither exponential nor square law. In many cases, this relationship takes the form la 2 In this equation Ig is the current Rowing when », = 0, while V, is 2 eatoff voltage (hat i, fy = O when vy = Val in a pentode, for exarnpie, for which the plate-to-cathode voltage vis kept above the Knee of the vyrig characteristic, and for which the screen-to-cathode voltag= ty and supressort0-cathode voliage pgp are held constant the plate current fy may be related to the control rid-to-cathode voltage vg by the teationship ol 2" characteristics for @ pentode with the'serees ogy characteristic. Tt should Figure 47-1 shows atypical set of voltage as a parameter, along with the correspond FigeA.7-4 Plate current characterises for pentogs ‘be noted that both Igp and ¥,, vary with the screen grid voltage. In particular, for the pontode shown, with Py = 1S0Y, Tay =16 mA and Ve, = —46V5 with vs = TOO, fog = 10mA and Vg = —32V; and with oy = SOV, Igy = 4mA and Yo, = =21V. ‘An equation such as Bq. (47-1) may be derived from theoretical considerations ‘about a device, or it may be matched with the apropriate choice of, fas. nd Vas toa set of experimentally measured characteristics, It turns out in practice that Inany field effet transistors have experimentally evatuated characteristics that are a7 ‘OTHER GRADUAL NONLINEARITIES —PewroDES 121 best matched by E71 wh ales of wangng fom 135025. The lace acer etacaemamaceen nese parent Treo tpl avolage a ths orm oi) Bet 0, re (0) > on 128 vi eta a cath ms «emi of ato any dese whose lp Sr camootly sarin nein st inpa og hn xia» at ea cr ine ane bs of ney, wells the ee of he oir, 89 cae es gir ser abo te Open Specialy, fa) el og, 2 8+ 3 atl * 35 ool . 4673) where ‘To describe iy accurately we must keep all the terms in the Taylor series; however, in practice, if the vy-f, characteristic is smoothly varying, we may require only the first three or four terms to describe the characteristic within a few pereznt avvuracy. ‘Any atlempt at further resolution is usually unwarranted because of the lack of pre- sion of the characteristic itself, (As an alternative to evaluating derivatives at the (Q-point we could praluate w, and ay so thatthe series gave exact results a wo other paints spaced about the Q-point. With slowly varying curves the differences between the two methods is small. Since this second approach involves taking the ference between two almost equal numbers, it must be carried out very carefully oF the results ‘may be misleading.) For the device described by Eg. (47-1) ifwe define Vy = WV.,,where 1 2 N20, then a= led = NP, ss, 1 a, = mt — NI HOD Tas yyed ood Fa — Nv (97-4) hott ~ P= B= aos) Hence we observe that the small-signal transconductance is given by Jes _ yy a =nig— Nv aro Since Vs «negative quantity, we note the! gis actully postive bo122 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED soURcES 47 If i) = Kies sven by or such that y= K+ Vi, cosat, then iy (rom Bq, 47-3) is 1, = a) + 04M cost + a:V7 cost at + ayV} cos? ox ary XE ye asume the higher-order terms fo be negligible, By using the igonometic 1, 50820 costo = 1 attra ne) 1 and cos! @ = 30s Leos 34, \wo can simplify the expression for i into the Fourier series forrs wor a nfo eae Bh antn+ 7-3) From Eq, (47-8) t snow apparent thatthe relative second-harmonic distortion is simply which fo sl values of 7, eves to ey/2a. With te ad of Eq (7-4) this on becnpanded to Yan Ve Ann 2a" Wea In = jand N = 3, then for less than 1 % second-harmonic distortion |,/V.J = 0.04. With Vg = 4, ¥, < 160 mV. Mee ‘The lnrge-sighal average fundamental transconductance G,, for such a device is given by a(t 2 aia) Vi w= De 2 as fs yore age or [a ae ‘The ayterm has made Gy a function of a signal level. This leads to distortion in paronbwod apie To heep Ge conan win 1% ¥, mus be reseed 0 Yate — 11-2) “ww <0 43, EFFECT oF SERIES RISISTANCH 123 Using the same values specified above, we see that |¥/¥od must be Tess than 0283, and /; must be less than 1.13 V. Here again a mack larger signal may be applied for linear narrowband operation than for linear broudband operation. Cae ee te iva Ey 7-3) and ee i i a tone coat oft os arto) ‘Clearly, if tre Veterm were modulated, then a distorted version ofthis modu lation would appeas on the signal output of our narrowband filter centered at © ‘This eflot ofthe transference of modulation from one exfrier to another is known 98 Grose modulation, One of the advantages of a square-aw (or linear) device as a parrowband amplifier isthe absence of the cross-modulationellec. (In 3 true square- Taw device, dy = 0.) The first amplifier stage of any receiver should always have & low susceptibility to cross modulation, since itis virtually impossible to havendequate selectivity in front of it to prevent the appearance of some unwanted signals at its input terminals, 43 EFFECT OF SERIES RESISTANCE ON THE EXPONS¥FIAL CHARACTERISTIC ‘in many practical eases we find that the nonlinearities discussed previously are modi fied by the inclusion ofa resistor in series with the noolinear element. The general tefect of such a fesisior is to decrease the transconductance of the composite device {a larger inpot voltage is required to produce the same level of current that would ‘exist without the resistor} and to “piecewise-lincarize™ the composite nonlinear Characteristic. This linearization provides the means of extending the operating range ofa linear amplifier at the expense of its amplification factor. On the other hhand, when the composite device is driven with large signals, the prinipal effect of the serics resisor is the ineteased drive Vollage required to produce the required value of input current, eine Fig, 48-1 A PNP transistor with resistance in ies withthe emits,124 NontaneaR CONTROLLED soURCES 4s Figure 48-1 shows a transistor with a resistor R in series with the emitter. [Although such a resistor is sometimes added deliberately, in other instances it is inherent in the transistor; for example, it may be the bulk emitter resistance or the imrinsic base resistance, which becomes a significant factor when the transistor carries a high current, Thus in most power amplifiers the transistor must be modeled asin Fig, 48-1 If we assurae that the emitter-base junction ofthe transistor is described by the ‘exponential characteristic ie tase, 4s) then we may relate v tof forthe circuit of Fig; 48-1 by the expression (48-3) For small-signal operation the incremental input resistance for the circuit takes the form 48-3) where tig = Wein = ATiglye and Jy ithe de value of j,. Consequently, on a small signal basis we see that the transconductance g given by oe thi BT TS ak 7 ass) decreases by a factor of 1 + g,4R with increasing R. Specifically, if af, ~ 0040, fs it would for [gg — LMA, then a series resistor of only 10.2 cecteases fy t0 72% ‘fits R = O value, while a series resistor of 100.0 decreases gy to 207, of ts R = 0 value. In the limites g,.R becomes large compared with unit, gj becomes equal 10 JR and is independent of the change in bias current of the transistor. To observe the “piecewiselinearization” effect of the series resistor on the 1b, — i characteristic, we frst rearrange Eq. (48-2) in the form ane @ ass) where J. is the quiescent value off, and w= is the quiescent value of, when fy = Ja.. We then normalize 0; ~ Voto Ko= falta? B= ZO + 248) 48 INFECT OF SHRUES RESISTANCE 128 oe [ea ‘The voltage Vg may be interpreted as the decrease in v, fom ¥p which would be required to reduce jy to 260 (ie, to eu off the transistor) i the slope of the % ~ fy, characteristic remained constant at its small-signal value of I/rg + 8 and I, 10 Hato obiain 4 Billa) Teg 14 Rk (48-6) Veg Kaas 8) soo aaik Fig. Se Plot ag tn, ~ Voll th 5.28 a parame Finally we plot dif v6 (oy — ValYes With gR a8 & parameter, as shown in Fig. 48-2. We note from the figure that as gg is increased from zero to infinity, the characteristic varies uniformly from the exponential (g4R = 0) characicrsti 0 the two-segment piecewise-linear characteristic (g4R = 20) In addition, the gu = 1 characteristic corresponds essentially to the half-way point between the wvo.xiremes ‘Thus for gaR «1 the circuit of Fig. 48-1 can be modeled by the transistor126 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES. 48. characteristic lone, while for guR % 1 the circuit “in be modeled by the k= 90 characteristic, or equivalently, >, as <0. I is apparent that Eq. (48-7) describes the cireuit of Fig. 48-3. This circuit thus provides the model for the eireuit of Fig. 48-1 when gi > 1. R eal T Yo AT tw te Fig. 48-3 Model forthe circuit of Fig 48-1 with 4 > 2. We also obscrve from Fig. 48-2 that, a8 gis inereased from zero Targer linear excursions in /, about J, are possible without gross distortion. In particular, for ‘gu co, the linear range extends all the way to cutof i/Tac = Ob i the izcuit of Fig. 48-1 isto be used asa large-signal narrowband amplifier, the analysis becomes quite dificult for an arbitary value of 4. Fortunately, an, ‘analysis 1s possible for gg ~ 0 (Which was accomplished ir Section 4.5) and for EAR = oo. In addition, the results ofthe two analyses are sufficiently close to each ‘ther that solutions for any value of g,,R may be closely approximates. For the case where g,,R = 00, we model the transistorseries resistor combina tion as shown in Fig 48-4. ‘The curtent source Jy, fixes the average value of the como x +h a8 yet Yo Fig, 48-4 Mode! for large signal narrowband transistor amplifier with BR — | | | | 48 FECT OF seRIES ResisraNce 127 emitter current, while the infinite coupling capacitor ensures that the entire ae voltage reaches the input terminals. (The current source could be placed on the other side of the resistor without allcting the results) Consequently. for this etcuit we observe tha, for Ys [ye = Voy, % hele coset = Ly, + Iycos at R 1+ Heeosax}, 439 where 1, = VUR, oF equivalently, Iu/feg = VlVow For vs > Vox te emitter current takes the form of a periodic train of sine-wave tip pulses, and thus may be wetten as ig I+ Iycoscat + 1 60820 + h hs = tuft + Heoson + fos20n + a9) where (om the appendix to this chapter) eos end Y= W9 = cosdsing aR ee 1 AU = We) cosdsinnd — nsindoosnd aR nat = Td eos)” i deco Ga Ven Noo and Yes the developed de capacitor voltage. By noting that Y= Wea WM —00s9) and Ty= he we can relate HV, ircly to by the equation ¥, 2 48-10 hae (810) In addition, fl ea be related to in the form ing cos, ae ne2 (8412)128 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 48 Consequently, for any value of fa value of Vi/Veg and Iy/lag may be determined from which & unigue relationship between V/V, and Jy/Ta, can be established, Table 48-4 contains values of Jy/fp = Ty/fag V8 Vi/Yoo Which are ploted in Fig, 4AB-5 with the designation gigR = 20. On the same Set of coordinates is ploted the Zak = Ocurve, which, of course is just the top curve of Fig 45S, since with R = 0, ae es ee yee Fie Pltol lla vs MM Iyflo = 2, (ela) and Vif¥. = x. We observe that the two limiting eurves are dings identicals hence the ratio of (ly for any value of gR can be closely estimated from Fig 48-5 For example, i'g,.R 1 and V/V, = 10, it s reasonable to pprosimate f/lp as 195, which is half-way betwees the 4X = Oand the Ea = oO cartee. I in addition, Zye = 2mA, then f, = 3.7mA, from which the output voltage nay bewritten as ~ Voc + 1yR, €08 a forthe case where Z; isa high-Q tuned circust ‘whieh is resonant at o with a shunt resistance of Ra ‘For the case where the circuit of Fig 4.8-1 is driven by a sinusoidal voltage of amplitude ¥, and followed by a tuned cizuit resonant atthe frequency ofthe input intent unvvatonable forthe //la¥s Vi/¥.neurves to forma tht st with gf a parameter, arse ithe cures have the same atympote for both small and lege vars of FV. Clty. Hevtice L Iola = Ville, Therefore, regardless of the val of eu the curves approach sees anidentcal fashion, Inaddition, forage values Y/¥,ftheaveragecrrent 10 ae ae at the tassor must remain et eff for most of the eye, Consequently, Fen cesan earow pulses and fla Agaie all the exes approach ininy inthe same fashion. 4s oFecr OF ssaus wistsrance 129 Table 48-1 lla Flac 188 1.80 Les 19 2 uw tos sinusoid ii again convenient to define a large-signal average fundamental tans- Giga Ot = Hallas Mae Hae Wow Veo Viloa 49419) were the salsgnalramsonduetanceeauned athe sit. Clay, Ge Illeg de z (48-14) vs. Vi/V.g may be determined directly from Fig. 48-5. Pes 7 ee oe Wile Fig. 48-6 Plot of Glee ¥© Yo130 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 48 A plot of Ga/tiy V8. VlYou for BR = O-and gh = 0 is showr in Fig. 48-6. Here again we ce that the curves are Sulficiently close to permit an arcurate estimate of Galas, for any value of g.,R. It is now quize apparent that the ratio of f,/fo is ‘determined primarily by the ratio of Vi/Vq, and is almost independent of gh. However, the value of Lara +) Za + au) increases with z.4R. Consequently, as gif is increased, the drive voltage must be increased by @ factor of | + guR 10 miatain the same fundamental output current. Example 48-1 For the clreuit shown in Fig 48-7 determine an expression for or) —10v 10 aH 7 90 mv) cos 10% Figwe 48-7 Solution, Since the tuned circuit in the collector has Oy = 10" rad/ses, we note that oft) = ~}OV + aKOY, 605 10%, ‘where f, is the fondamental component of the emitter current, We obtain 1, b) Tre noting that, with an average emir carrert f26mA, ig = 1000) an there fore f= 1. In addition, Vg = (@7/g)2) = 52 mV and thus Vila = 25. Conse quent, fom Fig. 48-5 we satiate /]Jgg 1.5; thus J, = 39 mA and sult) = (10 ¥) + (78 V)08 10" 20 and is tuned to 49 CCuAMP-BIASED SQUARELAW DEVICE 13 49 CLAMP.BIASED SQUARE-LAW DEVICE In many large-size! junction FET circuits the bias is established by clamping the positive peaks ofthe gate to source voltage 10 zef0 (or the turP-on voltage of the gate to source diode}, In pacticular, most FETs employed in se-Himiting oscillators are biased in tis fashion hence we shall analyze the large-signal chaructristies or this type of eiouit in th's section. . ‘We begin our analysis with the clamg-biased squareclaw amplifier model shown, in Fig. 49-1, whic’ is a close first-order approximation to the actual junction FET. Amplifiers shown i Fig. 49-2. Clearly, in this model, if the RCe time constant is a ta = A yo en E ig. 49-1 Large-signal lamp biased square law tuned amples Fig. 49-2 Clampbiasd janction FET drei:132 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 49 much greater than T= 2r/a, the capacitor voltage charges to the peak value of et) through the diode and remains constant at that value; henoe Ve Ve 94) and 95 = Vle0s wot — Db 49-2) “fhus we observe that the input voltage ts has its peaks clamped 10 zero, Conse~ quently if) has the form shown in Fig, 4-3, with I, = Togs, Yo = Vi + Yop and Ti, wt + VJ. Therelore, with the aid of Eq. (44-10) (lor VA/¥; = “1 or Vi < Wyo) and Fig. 44-5 (for —1 < VslFs <1 or Y, > Yi2) we can plot lolly Tipit Io, vs. ¥s/¥, as shown in Fig, 49-3, where To, and J, are the average, the fundamental, and the Second-harmonic components of in respectively. 10) — os as A y 07 Complete operation in a] ‘Square enon 0s} os ortied Posie coefficients a a 10 15 en 75 3 Fie.A9-3 Plotofy/, vs V/V, forapeak-camped sinewave rivetoalrstsquirelaw amplifier 02) 1f.Z;is a high-Qr parallel RLC circuit tuned to the fundamental of ff) with a resistance R,, the output voltage v4()is giver by += Yon Ru cot, aos 49 CCLAMP-BIASED SQUARE-LAW Device 133, where I,/1, cam be 4 2xmined rom Fig. 49-3 once ~ Vi/¥, is specified. For esaimple, logs = 4A, Vy = —4V, Vy = 2V, Yoo = (OV, and Ry = 2KO, then and in turn [yy = Jy/logs ~ 05: hence Yad nf) = (IOV) = (4 V) cos a In this example the minimum value of 1, = gs is 6V: since this is greater than ~ Vp, we can be sure that the FET remains within its saturation region, for which the Square-law model of Fig, 49-1 is vali (lz general, an PET remains within its ssturation region if tag > ~ Vj. oF equivalently, pg ~ Yqs > ~ Vy for il tie. oS a4 Su tlle Fig 94 Por of Se = lle jo pekslamp s-wave dive fs balun ample.134 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOUREIS 49 For theclamp-biased model of Fig. 49-1 wemay als defines iarge-sgnal average fundamental transconductance Ay Dns) hilly HN HITS ~ KH ated wwhete tqo = 2ous!—V, i the small-signal transconductance evaluated at vgs = 0 LEg. 4-8) A plot of Ga= Ge __blly eo HF) sya. YyJ¥, obtained directly from Fig. 49-8 1s shown in Fig. 49-4, With G, obisined Irom Fig, 49-4, rd) may be writen in the equivalent form Von ~ Gn c08 0 405) ‘Thellect of 0.7 V diode turn-on voltage can be included in the previous results by defining the dain current at this tum-on voltage as [gs and substituting appro- priately. [Effet of Drain Resistance a In the analysis to this point, we have assumed that jp isa half'square-law function ‘of og and is independent of 2, = vps. This assumption is justified only if Ry is Small compared with the eflecive output resistance of the square-law device, If 'R, isnot small, a more exact model for iy must be employed. (Boundary of saturation region) Fig, 49-5 Typical sat of FET drain characteristics, Figure 49-5 illustrates a typical set of drain characteristies for an N-channel junction FET which clearly indicates that no characteristic for constant vgs it horizontal (a condition which would have to be satisfied for Tp to be independent of tne) On the contrary, each constant-rgs characteristic has & slope which, wher htrapolated, causes all of the constant-pgs characteristics to meet at » commor 49 CCLAMP-BIASED SOUARE-LAW DevICY 135, point ¥, on the negative tps Thus, for ops = sant 4El n> te wo Pos + Ys) ves)? van EM te) wy Where Ig is the slope of the tas effect of tee On i if we now employ the expression for ip given by Eq, (497 in the model of Fig 49-1, in which Z, i a high-Qy parallel RLC cireuit tuned to the fundamental frequency of fp and having @ resistance Ry, we obtain characteristic, Equation (49-7) includes the Yoo + Vp _ loi, £08 06! tam fan + Manet — test) F2 5 eos ngs + eos 20, x [B+ Fomog + Peos20u + eee (49-8) where Joys all snd Iy/l ate the coeicients presented in Fig, 49-2, and py i Ihe amplitude othe fundamental component of ip. The fundamental component tip can go be obtained from Eq (49-8) inthe form Mts tol pote 49-9) Ios xe + Tolose Hence Eg, (49-9) mabe solved for Ip, to obtain rls «i Y) foe Efe, 2] +l, * 3, 1 te (49-10)136 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES 4s 06 os ose a 4 03 oa] ou 05 ie iy, 29 3 Fig. 49-6 Plot of Fp/lacs ¥ —¥sYp With Ruroas 8 parameter Figure 49-6 includes a plot of tor values of Ru/t of 14, and 0, The cure for Ry = O coresponds to the hill, curve of Fig 49-3. “as an example of using the curves of Fig. 49-6, we consider the ciruit shown in Fig, 49-7. We observe for this circuit that vow Tag on) 225m hence from Fig. 49-6 we obiain Joy = 28)(041)mA = 115 mA. In addition, since the resonant frequency of the drain circuit is 107 radjsee and the circuit Or = 10, 20¥) ~ (ILS V)eos 107. Since v,{) > —V,, the FET remains within its saturation region and the assumed FET model is valid evens iy ac. Fig. 49-7 Tuned FET ample. PROBLEMS: uns 137 41 Assume dat of) = 3 sia wot in Pig 41-1, Determine the ds fundamental und econ ‘monte components of) for values of Yc of £2 V, and 24V. Skeich swaveshape foreach ce 2 oui 200 del diode nae) es nea wo oo mio Figue 4P-1 42 Assume thatthe diodesin Fig. 4-2 rede! Find the ds, fundamental, seond-hurmoni, fad thie areranic components fia ia ths ecu. 43. How woud the euks of Problem 4.2 be changed i the lower branch wer incoased wo 3 VP agniude ofthe 444. Assuming thatthe diodes in Fig 4P-3 are ideal, sketch he waveshape of 20 its third harmosn component uty inthe dexeulte138 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES W caneosin (a tv 2a Figure 4P-2 Figure 4P-3 45. Assuming eal dodesin Fig 4P-4, sketch (and determine th de, Fundamental second hhsmonie, and thied-harmoniccomponens i Figure 40-4 a promins 139 Figure 4P-5 446 Assume a devise withthe charctride shown in Fig APS. Portis dvi, wf { toh me > Hae a, sho whore py = +2 Vand = 400 A/V, value te large signal averaye transconductance for this dvi forte ease where ne tat Hoos! and Ye 2V ile i VS Was Yak 447. Assuming hat Vue = Oud ¥% ~ 3 eos find the de fandamentl sesond-armone a ‘ied harmonie component of in the dave of Problem 4 448 Sketch the output current wveshape for a device with an exponential euren-voltage relationship ig tx 10-12 A when, = 0520 V cos ‘specity the “conduction sng” Find the d, fundamental, scond-burmoni, an hid ‘Rimonis components of his current What i the lrge-ignl average transconductance for ths devi th ths diving waveshape? 149 tn the cicut of 7g 4.P-6 the die conducts the sume current a the emir of hes Wor wien tartan, Mle 2mA, Vee +6Vy and Z, i627 KO ess, how iaree ser be baler teres 292 distortion in the opat voltage? MF, i cela by a ural tone cic esonant at and with x resistive era of27A0, how lrg can Ws Ee taore terest 2 departreininarty between the peak amples of npol a out put ac voltages? ln: Note the siiarity of his cat to the ileal pi of tam tors) 4410 Inthe ctcit of Fi AP-6 assume that a SOO resistor is paced ath in series with the ‘Sode and rely in series with the enter. Plot a curve of collector current vs bas found voltage over the range 198 > le > O0SmA. Compare this curve with te appro- re Gta from Fip 46-2 und explain the sgiicance of tbe resisors in extenting the pnak-handling capacity ofthe amphi, What ate the small-signal voltage gums (= Peaytor me wo dfeent cases (Re = S0f2and Ry ~ 0)? Stateand explsn sssimsions Deiermine the output-tuned circuit voltage in Fig. 4P-7. The toned ciel is esonant at ‘and tas Qy = 20.140 NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES Prowens 141 Ke im 1F | Yieos 01 (0 ima as. lane ae Figure 4-8 caov7eas304 (oo Qm ene ze pe (ap= IPsec so) 1m} . Go0mV)eos uxt (~' Ww Figure 4P-9 4 For cach of he cain Fig AP-10 dt and ech fa i. In hc afi)» (260 mV) cos 107t Fer te orcat own nF AP demi 9 whe S98, C= 0. nd soleil, 412 ThePETin Fig 4P-iateon gd na ng rapide of han Yogi 416 Rept Pn 5 Lm 33 Ha C= 209 See ee eee eemmta thea? Whartisolae | arp pep trcben 41S Djmovd ad win 1p nd C= IF ‘oitage wil sul inthis cage? What the dct’ voltage "gsn"? How much powers 7 reer re tse PET desing nt persion? Th tuned eet reoan 210" pe 405 9 For eto le 12, dena ws oman fh oak cel ie 8 eee cree a ee ee 1) Make a plot of, 4 ease, vares fom —8V to +8, What is thelist of the emiter Figure 4P-7 ais or : ') Determine the minimum value of which Kees the ttalharmonicdistortionbelow 1% ae1 [NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES ye sv 1000 bay 3 fee uo noe mouse M3 tke sai + a» Bo, ” QDetpena pe ” “T saw Vol dod ewe 4-1 Wy aKaAPPENDIX TO CHAPTER 4 FOURIER. EXPANSIONS ‘The general approach to finding the average value or any harmonic component o! 4 repetitive pulse train of period T = 2xja is 10 make a Fourie series expansion o° J. ln making such expansions, we choose the time origin so as to minimize terras ane take use of vatious trigonometric identities to consolidate terms, ‘The final fore ‘Ol the series is quite dependent on the variables chosen to express the waveshape ‘tnd on the particular identities used (o simplify the expression. ‘Most ofthe periodic waveforms f(t) that We are interested in result from passing a depluseosine wave through a nonlinear nonmemory (no eneray storage) deviess hence the output wavelorms possess symmetry about thet = Oaxis and thus may be ‘expanded in a Fourier cosine series ofthe form a+ $ acoso fle) = a + a4 COE + a5 608 20> + - where 1m com Ff Ou aan) and an2" soommna 1 is usually convenient to change the independent variable from time te an angle in radiant by defining 0 = ox and then, since the waveshapes are symmetric bout 0 0, to multiply by two and inteprte from 0 to x, As functions of B a ‘and a, take the forms aL fftheo aaa and as) OURIER EXPANSINS 145 cot ff oe-o Fig. 4.Act ‘Train of sine.wave tip corent pulses Linear Sino-Wave Tips For the train of sine-wave tip current pulses shown in Fig. 4-1 we observe that ig = O for | 141 fin the interval x < 0-< x), where @ = cos~' (Fy), hence the fundamental component I, of f() may be writen as a2 offense ans However, for 0 <0 < it) has the valus EI = GI, cosan — Vs therefore, Ye 2f anon woo 26 1b Msin26 sn 4} 6-6) By noting that G¥, the identity sin 24 obtain fl — 608 4) and V, = 1,008 9/{1 ~ cos ) and employing 245m dreos g, we ean further simplify the expression for (0 hed - cosdsing 1th es AT)146 FOURIER EXPANSIONS Ina similar fashion, we obtain (4A-8) and pn Beesessin ad x n= D0 fecene ned aa» Normalized plots of ,/, vs. conduction angle (26) are given in Fig, 42-3 for values of from au to ive, Negative valuca of the eoefBicents in tho plot are indicated by @ minus sign aftr the designation ofthe particular curves that is n = 4 implies that the fourth harmonic is negative. FFor small values of ¢ we can approximate to obtain and (4A-10) From Bq.(4.A-10)itisapparent that theratio of to fe approaches 2as approaches, zero, This, of course, i a property possessed by any narrow pulse tain For a pls as wide as 90°, however, Iy/1o = 1.88 and Jaf = 1.56; even for ¢ 120? pulte, /y/ly is 1.80, which is within 107% of the very narrow pulse ratio value of, ‘Square-Law Sine-Wave Tips For the train of square-law sine-wave tip current pulses shown in Fig, 48-2 we observe that ip = 0 for (2K (in the interval x <0 squent stage ‘The basic difficulty im analyzing the apparently simple circuit of Fig. S41 is that, because of the nonlinexe load, superposition is no longer vali. Thus the time varying and de components of the currents and voltages within the citeuit are in fgenecal related. ‘This interelationship makes general closed-form solution for ve1S) REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR SEMEN COMDATIONS sa ¢ ae 4 ao woe we }eto = it Fig S.-1 Capacive coupling to nonines load, (0, ted, and i) in terms of of@) practically impossible. However, if we assume that op isperiodic and that the series coupling capacitor Cis an elective short ciruit ‘compared withthe nonlinear load over the frequency range occupied by oft) [that i, that ocd) contains only a de component V, oF at worst a slowly varying component ‘compared with 1), then in principle we may dstermine the steady-state expressions forvah oc), and i(¢) In addition, in most cases, we are able tocaleulat the transient build-up to steady state i v() is applied at ¢ = 0. Fortunately, in most cases of prac- tical interest, the above assumptions are vali. In the time domain the assumption that the capacitor is an effective short cirévit corresponds to the assumption that the circuit time constants arc such that the Capacitor voltage remains essentially constant over a eycle of w(?). Consequently. if il) is applied at 1 = 0, the capacitor voltage slowly adjusts itself 10 its steady-state value og = Ye= — Vue, and in tura vl) approaches v(t) + ¥,x- Since in the steady ate the average value ofthe capacitor current must equal zero, and since the capacitor ‘current and nonlinear load currest are equal, Ve = ~ Ve may be found as that value which causes the average value ofthe load current to equal 2er0. Piecewise-Linear vi, Characteristic If the vy characteristic is piecewiseclinear in form, we ean determine Ve by the following method. We assume a value of Vo, apply ut) = v(9 ~ ¥e tol ronlincar characteristic, and withthe techniques of Chapter 4 determine i and the Average value of), that i p= Je. We thea repeat this procedure vil we obtain nough values to plot a smooth curve of Vo v5. Je. The point at which the eurve Intersects the Ie = Daxis determines the steady-state value of Ye = ~ Vig ftom which the steady-state values of v,() and i) follow directly ‘As an example of this method, consider tla nonlinear characteristic to be described by the piecewise-linear curve of Fig. $.1-2 and oj) = (V)eos ot. Figure ‘51-2 also indicates two additional characteristics which combine in parallel to yield the original characteristic, [This superposition of characteristic is performed only to focus attention on the structure of it") I we now assume that the capacitor C is an ac short at wand that its voltage is given by Vo, then at) = 3V cost — Ve sa eaPnemve COUPLING TO RONLINEAK 14) 151 and ian tan tt, where ne = 2M) and 1,0) isa periodic train of sne-wave tip pulses of peak amplitude 2 OMI=2V)— Ke 2K b ‘and conduction angle ev av 2p = eos ‘The average capacitor curcent Je is given by dem igm da thay where, lye -eY eT! sand Ty isthe average value of the train of sine-wave tps, which cun be determined directly Irom Fig. 42-4 once a value of Ve is assumed (Vy = ¥ + 2V). Table $ tabulates values for fa. Lp. and fe for several values of Ye. These data ate also plotted in Fig. 51-3, from which it can be observed that Je = for We = ~ 133. Consequently, in the steady state =133V and aft) = ~GV) cose + (1.33 V1 oie © ENghs Tava Fig 1-2. Nonlinea characteris forthe rei of Fi 5.152 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS sa “Tabi 1 Tabulation of. dy. and Lows We lama Fig, S1-3 Plot of fev Yo “Actually, one shoul sce by inspection that only two points need to be computed tosolve sucha problem, Since the right-hand branch in Fig. 5.1-2 contains an desl Code, fs must be postive; hence for i, (in a branch with only resistance and a battery) Wo just balance it the current in the left-hand branch rust be negative ‘Theretore, Ue mus br greater than ~2V to make j, negative. Or zhe other hand, if Ye exceeds 260, then in wil be zero, 30 that two reasonable initial choiees for Ve are vey and IY. Site Jp is a relatively slowly varying function of voltage in the Fegion of interest, straight line approximations for both currents wil be zeasonables hance, a simple interpolation is possible ro obtain Ve ~~ 1,33 “This problem focuses attention or the clamping phenomenon which occurs in capacitively coupled nonlinear circuits. ‘The term clamping refers o the shit inthe saplage value of the load voltage o, with drive level. With eA®) = 0, in the steudy siatee, = 2 V hence, as the amplitude of, increases from 01 3 Y, the average value 3a [CAPACITIVE COUPLING TO NONLINEAR LOAD — 153 of et) shits from 2'V to 1.33 V. A further increase in the level of o(2) causes the ftvenage value of wl) to decrease stil further. We thus see drarcatically that in sch {t oulinearciccut the total output voltage cannot be obtained by the superposition otindependent se and de components, as it can be in a linear circuit, Analytic v,~j, Characteristic the vy, characteristic ie described by an enalytic relationship, itis possible that Yo. oft and i) may be obtained withou sesarting to a graphical analysis For cecample, consider the circuit shown in Fig, $.1-4, for which Ae) Bye ~ Lae Gey For this cas, if we assume that oft) = cos at and that Cis «shor citeuit st the frequeney o such that y(t) = Ve = — Fie then Ln) = Leethottenees G12) where, as usual, x = gh/kT. In addition, = le = Bye ATI) ~ Jaw 61-3) where lel) the modified Bessel function of order zero, Hlence,in steady state, where Je = 0, we have AT plas _T. Vyge = in — Tin tee aol @ i i wo End) ~ Mag 4% 6 Where Vag is the value of ¥,, with F; (or x)equal to zero and A\Vis the bias depression {or the variation in clamping voltage) induced by the driving voltage, Thus, for the vlinearty and érive function, ¥, is 8 simple analytic function of fa, and tae” Fig, 51-4 Nonlinear Block consisting of « ‘hr generator and a did154 RBACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS sa FFor values of x larger than 4{V, 2 104mY), one may approximate the Jolx) Bessel function term to within better than 4% (within 6% for the x = 3) by e 16) = Em. S15) t= ie (51-5) from which it follows that ar er, 2g tees) = Y — Zindex = Y, ~ (238mV) — (13 mV) In nbd = = 55 (3amv) ~ (3mi9) “Therefore, for x > 4. Vac = Veco ~ Ve + @B8mY) + (9 mV) In (1-6) Since the (13 m¥) In x term varies by less thn 32 mV as x varies from 5 to 50(130 10 1300 mV), one sees that Hg will vary almost ina straight-line fashion with over thisregion. The value of Vac willbe a function of hth J (a junction parameter) and (a cirevt parameter). Since the natural logarithm of 19 is 2.3, 10 to 1 change in ce ofthese quantities will result in only GOV change in Vseg- Figure 51-5 plots Vac vex and V; or the ease where Jy = ¢72° mA = 10-*© A (a typical value for an integeated-circuit silicon diode) and for 'y values of0.1,1.0,and 100mA, , For Jue = L0mA, Vagg = 30 % 26 = 780 mV. Hence for x > 4, one can approzimate VY, quite closely as (780 424-4 26)mV—M% or 30mV) ~ F, |What this implies is that as far as calculating voltage levels is concerned, the constant current source and actual exponential dit-le combination may be replaced by an ideal diode in series with a battery as shown in Pig, 51-6 “This ideal clamping circuit clamps the top of V; to the positive battery voltage; hence Va, = — Ye is always just the battery voltage minus V. Therefore, to within the precision allowed by the approximation, peak values of driving voltage greater than 830 mV will result in negative valves of Fa, while small values will result in positive values Of Yo Once Vag = Veis known, itimay be inserted into Eg. (5.1-2) 0 determine Le). ‘As an example of using the model of Fig, 5.1-6, consider the circuit shown in Fig 51-7. For this eircuit, we frst replace the LR combination by a currentsouree approximation and then use the model of Fig. 51-6 to arrive, in a simple fashion, at theoutputacsignal voltages and de output level. Once the output voltages re known, ‘one can revert to the basie diode equation orto the eurves of Chepter to determine the diode or source currents. ‘Consider the practical case where the reactance of Lis large with respect both to the loss term and to the equivalent diode impedance, so that the ac current through the inductive branch may be assumed to be negligible. su CAPACITIVE COUPLING TO NONLINEAR Land 155 ese position 8 ad pay say ihe ow) 11300) (7 m¥L < Mel diate Fig. 51-8 Plot of vs xand Y, “Then from the viewpoint of de current, the inductor-resistor combination may be replaced by a constant-cuttent generator, Then the circuit of Fig. 5.1-7 may be replaced by the circuit of Fig. 1-4 and finaly by the model of Fig, $.1-6. tn this Grout, the final valve off. isalso constrained by the additional de circuit relationship hag = Ye It we assume that fg = ¢72¢ mA (as in Fig. $18), then with a drive voltage '425mV an assumption of Jye— 1 mA would lead to a battery voltape it theSee APEC 8 ee —H eat diode Lar a ctuye £ AE in hye AL me») Fig, 81-7 Inductively biased clamping iru model of Fig. 51-7 of &40 mV. (This is 10 mV more than the value used previously, because we used the actual value of x instead of an estimated value) Since Yo = 840 — 425 = 415 mV, then if r = 5000 (@ possible value for a 1H torroidal coil) the circuit relationship would lead t0 £4, = 415/500 = 083 mA. ‘Now the model could be recalculated for the Iy. = O83 mA ease instead of for the ImA assumed initially. If this is done, the change in the battery voltage will be less than 5 mV out of 840 mY oF rauch Ses than 1%; hence sueh an additional eyele of ealeulation is probably not warranted Ifr = 500, then our initial calculation would lead 10 Iy, = 83mA. A reculeu- lation would lead to an increase in the battery voltage of 261n 8.3 = $5 mV and hence in f,,of 1.1 mA. = (55/50)mA. A further recalculation would only inerease the battery voltage by 261n (9.4/8.3) = 32 mV or less than 04% and hence would rarely seem necessary. {In the real world one seldom has the simple case shown in Fig 5.14. In practical circuits one often has driving voltage source with's nonneglgible source impedance \while at the same time the diode (or tinsistor junction) may have either a deliberately ‘added or an inherent series resistive component. "The cieuit that we shall consider is shown in Fig. 51-8. (The case of a finite source impedance and a resistanceless diode may be transformed into the form of, Fig 5.1-8 by adding equivalent current souress 10 “move” the ly. generator to the other end of the souree resistance. ‘The amount of the variation in the de voltage across the espacitor is identical inthe two case.) 51 ‘CAPACHEIVE COUPLING TO NONLINAK LOAD 157 Figure 51-8 In this case cine con + Ef] tue a 4a lig} cae = Vicoset ~ Fe Now the capacitor wil not pass de, hence if) = 0 or equivalently Zi) = Hh “Thecireit will aozst self tothe value of de capacitor voltage that causes} = ye ‘ gencral relationship between ¥_and ijt) does not seem possible; however, solutions are posible for the two limiting cases where fc jg and where Thuk » KT. (The second case is equivalent tog in R > 1) ‘On the basis of our experience with, the curves of Section 48, we plot the bins depression AV Tor hese fvo extreme cases, normalized as fn Section 48, and find that they form tight set. We ten conjecture tha the fy P = £7 ese als halfway terwesn the other two: thus we have the wherewithal to estimate Ve Veg + AV forall practical cscs. ‘When Ris zo we revert to Ea, (5.1-4)to form AV = Ye Yeg = (Taha) and normalize iY which i KT/g in the R = O case When lek > kFi,the physical diode resistor combination may be replaced by the model shown in Fig, 48-3 to obtain the cieut shown in Fig 51-9. For this nite quiescent value Of Veg = Vargas + Pad the normaiing voltage R (Wea) Fipere S19158 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS sa Veg" lu. In addition the ideal diode remains forward biased for VIM, < 1, the cleouit operates linearly, and no bias depression AV = Vaeg ~ Vas exists For Viv, > 1, iy becomes a periodic train of sine-wave tip pulses and Moc adjusts itelt6 cause & = Jy. This is precisely the problem that was solved in Seton 48, from which we obtain that Ve= Yecosg ~%o (1-9) and ay “Thus Ve and in turn AVY, can be evaluated in terms of F, and Y from the values of given in Table 48-1 ‘Now both these curves, normalized with respeet r0 : 6.119) halt + Ro are shown in Fig. 51-10. The dotted curve halfway between the extreme cases is the conjectured curve for IR = KI ot P= Mw , Ke an example of the above ovalysis, let I= 26mA, R= \Oohms, V, = S20 mV, and Ho = ATI In a/ fs) = 065 V in the cient of Fig. 51-8. With ‘tose values’ we observe that Veg = —DG76V, fyR = be Yo ladR +a) = SD and Fi/¥ie 10; hence fram Fig. 51-10 we obtain AV/Vi, % 7, from which we he 2 sok ash | “tee Mer latent ® o F eee Figue 51-10 | | 52 TRANSIT BUILD-UP TO STEADY SrATE 159 follows Ve = (0676 V) + (N(S2mV) = -0312V and 40) With this value of 2(¢) one can return to the characteristics of Fig. 48-2 and obtain ¢ reasonably accurate point-by-point plot of the diode-resistor current. For example vo) — Vo hus a peak value of 282 mV; thus (2) — Vaan Vo, Sin this example, This vilue determines a normalized peak current from Fig. 48-2 of Lalas © 86 0F Jog % DAMA. ‘With R = Obst with the same drive voltage, and the sume Jy, nd Ip the capa tor de vollage sould be +198 mY, while the peak current would be approximately 28mA or 30% lsiyer. Hence an apparently small source resistance or series resistor ‘ean have a reasozably lange effect on both de, ac, and peak values of the circuit's voltages and currents. The key tothe effect thatthe resistor will have isthe sie of TheR with respect 10 (ET) = 26 mV or equivalently th size of g,.R with respect to 1 G12mY) + (520 mV} cose. 52 TRANSIENT BUILD-UP TO STEADY STATE If ofa in Fig. 51-1 is periodic and appiied to the circuit at = O, we ean calculate the transient bsild-up of Ye and v4): thei steady-state values computed above. ‘Cleary in this ease Ve = Vell) is @ funtion of time; however, in order to obtain @ Teasonable solut'~r, we continue to assume that this fonction of time is varying Suficienty slowiy 50 that Vet) is essentially constant over any complete cycle of (d) With this assumption, 20), J, and Te = ele) ean be evaluated direst in terms of Vt) by the same method employed in obtaining their steady-state vals, In particular, the Ve-Ic curve obtained to determine the steady-state value of Veo Vous (cf Fig. 51-3) now relates the slowly varying capacitor current J(0) © the eapacitor voliage V0) by an expression ofthe form Idi) = FV) G24) “ve apc tu res Ee oY by he expreon y= hence, by eliminating fc) fom Eqs. (52-1) and (52-2), we obtain the first-order ‘nonlinear differential equation for Vl) inthe form tft =p. 62-3 IU isknown in analytic form, we can solve Eq (5.2-3 directly. as we illustrate in Seetion $3, On the other hand, we can expand f(V) in a Taylor series about the160 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS 52 steady-state value of Vo = Vegs to obtain Ae gg + Wes Neg « PEG UH = Oe — Voss) + bxlVe — Vess)® +> (52-4) af Vossh¥ Ve. and ef Wess) bore “The advantage ofthe Tylor aries expansion sthat.jn gener ony afew vcs must Pekeoe to cbecly approximate /V,) over the range of interest of Vin aio, it Fi unite orly graphically asin Fig 51-3 the cooks ofthe fet fev Je 8 the Taylor series ean be determined by standard curve-fting echnigues 10 closely approximate the Vem Je curve. “Ava Brat approximation fo the transient build-up, we Keep only the first nonzero term in the Taylor expansion to obtain cite a where —G is the lope of the Je-Ve curve evaluated at Ye = Voss. Equation (3.1-5) is near, withthe solution Vel) = Wess + (Vel0*) ~ Vessle "lth, (62-6) where leas = (Yess) = 0.6 for n 22. Yess) co We where ¢ = C/G. For the nonlinearity of Fig. 51-2, which resus in the Ye~Je carve shown in Fig. 51-3, (¢) = ( V)coscx is applied at ¢ = 0, then VO") = —2V, Vege = -133V, and G = 072m0; hence Yai) = (=(1.58 V) ~ (Q67 Vera) and 2) = [= Vt + (3 V) cos ord Rhee f (LIORDIC. A sth of 90) is shown in Fig, S2-1, Since V0) varies nly between —2V and —1.3V, the linear approximation forthe Vere eharse- terns quite valid. When'cims beyond the first frm ofthe Taylor series expansion for fe) ate xept then the solution to Eq. (52-4) i obtsined in the following manner We rearrange the equation inthe foom =< av. CH Vea = OIG \weexpand the denominator of the ightshand side in partial factions. and we integrate Wn by term, We llustate thie proeedore forthe cise where /(H) may be approx mated by the fist two nonzero terms in i's Taylor expansion, Le, where Ete Ge ~ Vass) + ble — Yo (52-8) 62-7 fe 32 TRANSENT HUILD-UP TY SEAN Sra 16) syle I ie 4sy ay | ni | oes sg eles serv avi ig. $2-4 Output transient when & 3 peak sine wave is suddenly upped to ihe eet of Fig S12 For this ate We (We Voss ~ Uba/G)Ve = Vest : ae, __tosanae_ (52-9) = Ness = MVe = Kews) Vie ering and ering olin Md = Yon ee a2 rere K is constant ofintgrtion and + = C/G. When b iszr0, this equation of bute reduces tothe nea ease. Unles K0,/@ i appeesable vith respect uy, theinlaeace ofthe square term I always stall. Ina case, b does ot nlsnce the length ofthe onsen In most exes by fets merely the ata slope and the values of Ve) fort <= 1 Similar esl cb obtained if V) cons Specialy Ea (52-8) has the form Heo -atte - ¥% of linear plus @ cubic term. 24 then the solution for V0) takes the form Val) = Vess + Goma Tit tia where K isaconstant of integration and « ~ £/G. Again, unless, K/G is ppreviable Compared to unity, be by-erm has no influence, And again the ime ofthe Wansient (52.12)162 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR EEEMENT COMBINATIONS 53 is set emtiely by + = C/G, as it is for any polynomial approximation, of whatever ‘order, of fi) oF for an exact analytic expression for (Ve. For the diode nonlinearity of Fig. 55-1, Ze = J(e) is given by Eq. (51-3) and less) _ Asyar eran x) = Ui a) — Aen) = (52-13) |As we shall see in the next section, the transient is governed by the time constant {ef Eq, 53-11) Ge are CG = @ With 2 knowledge of the rate at which Yo varies, we are now in a position to Aetermine the value of C which justifies our assumption that Vel) is constant over a feyele of e(0) I the period of oi) is 7, and ite > 207, then V(0) varies less than 5% inthe time interval T: Consequently, if c> roc = 8 oe PC > aon, where « = 24/7, then our assumptions are justified. In many practical situations the inequality of Eq (52-14) may be relaxed by a factor of 2 or 3 without any notice- able effect on the expressions derived. 53 CAPACITIVELY COUPLED TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER-CONSTANT CURRENT BIAS Since a great many large-signal ac transistor ampiifiers are eapacitively coupled, we shall study this coupling problem in detail in this section. We beg, sy analyzing the capacitively coupled ampiitier shown in Fig. 53-1, which i biased from a constant current souree 14, and driven at its emitter terminal (common base) by the input Voltage oft), We then show, in Section 54, thatthe analysis is essentially unchanged ifthe drive is applied to the base with ts emitter eapacitively bypassed (common miter) or if the bias is developed by the more conventional scheme of resistively Gividing —Voc and applying it to the base with a resistor R, placed in the emitter Circuit In all cases, We assume, however, that the input volt-ampere characteristic Of the transistor may be modeled by an exponential relationship ofthe form ig = Tage =OMT me ge 00, ay thatthe collecor-fo-emitter voltage never reaches zero and saturates the transistor, that the collector current may be modeled by a current source aig, where «= 1, lover the entire range of emitter currents, and that the internal reactances of the 33 “TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CONSTANT CURRENT ins 163 te Vente wo Gea sat) Fig. 53-4. Copasivly coupled transistor ampli transistor, such as eharge storage, may be neglected. These assumptions provide an xcellent first-order approximation tothe performance of many transistor umpliliers for values of [2 less than 100 k2 and frequencies up to the tens of megahert2, For the circuit of Fig, $31, we frst determine its steady-state behavior with ‘t)a perodie drive and then determine how the cireuit builds upto steady sate, In ‘tdcition in Section 5.6 we develop the transfer function of the network for the ease Aohere oft) is an AM wave of lowe modulation indes. ‘This transfer function proves to be useful for evaluating the steady-state stability of transistor oscillators and the ‘output signals oft -nsistor limiters. ifwe assume forthe circuit of Fig 53-1 that the coupling capacitor (‘ssulficiently large that its voltage ng remains constant at Ye = ~¥, over a eyele of n() then the model of Fig. 5.1-6 is immediately applicable. FFor a given input voltage, we determine the value of the battery and ienee of the clamping level and the capacitor voltage, We then determine the enter current ihe diode current in the model from the knowa de value of eurcent, Ke. andl the driving voltage waveshape. For example, sssume that the waveshape of Fig, 53-2 i cieeuit of Fig. 53-1 ‘a reasonabe approximation to aid in fixing the battery voltage in the model, we might model the input as 200 mV peak sine waves hence x * 7.7. For such aa. plied as oe) in the wh the (LT/2q)ln 2x term becomes approximately SO mV. If we assume that J, ig ImA and that Jy is 107! then Hg Me Yaug = 160 V. a hss164 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR SLEMENT COMISATIONS 53 a | q 200 | tomy | 100 av 200 mv pea : re Fig, 53-2 Plot of viband ily = MO) ¥ “Hence, ta very good approximation, the emitter voltage will be clamped to a peak voltage of +810 mV; thus the capacitor voltage will be —610mV. (If the 200mV ‘peak signa i to reach 810 mY, the capacitor voltage must add 610 mV to it) "The emitter current can be expected to flow primarily during the most positive interval of the driving signa} Since this interval consumes only one-eighth ofthe total period, the curvent during this interval must be eight times the aversge value, 1 BmA. ‘Once the current is known to flow primarily in narrow pulses, it follows from ‘Chapter 4 that the fundamental component is approximately wice the de value that is, py = 2lgr Therelore, if Z, is a high-Q parallel RLC cirenit tuned at c= 2n/T with a parallel resistor Ry, then the output voltage v,() may be closely approximated by D0) = = Veo + Datla, 608 ot (53, Ifthe starstep waveshape were replaced by 2 200mV peak sine wave, then the ‘same clamping level and capacitor voltages would exist, For this eas, the ratio 0! the peak careent to the average current is, Loe Eis 629) [The corons that flow yes the input to the emitter i 810:nV ang when it i 710m ace Jropostonal to eo e92" mp4 = 48, Hence the current during the maximum vollag= Ferd i times the current ow during the adjacent spments ‘Thus assuming that ll the ‘arent lows ane At toppe pulse vl ead st most vo about 3274 ero 53 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER—CONSTANT CURKENT sas 165 for x> 4, Thus for x= 7.7 and Jag = 1mA, fy TmA. Figure 45 3 indicates the general shape of the current pulse, while Fig 45-4 indicates a vonduction angle fof about 104, Figure 4.5-5 indicates that for this value of x, I, = 1.85%4,; hence ‘again ifthe Load is. tuned cireuit, the outpot voltage can be found as bt) = Vee + 18501 4.008 0. 63-4) If the toad is tuned to some harmonic ofthe input driving waveshape. then either Fig 45-5 or the tables of 20s)/l(2) that appear in the Appendix a the back of tte book may be uied to determine nt) ‘A more general aporoach to the circuit of Fig, $3-1 is to define « waveform function W() a: she ratio of the actual emitter current, i) to the peak emiter ‘current Jp. Hf the esfaitor voltage has reached a steady-state value ¥ Ip = Together, yl) = Hagen, and Wy = erin ered 5 639 “Tho wavelor ‘oetion contains the time-varable portion of i; Hence if Ip and Wo are known, then i) known, ‘The average or de value of 0) will De Le times the average valve of (0) Le = 1. 63-8) ‘Thus if Jy, and oft) are known, one first evaluates or plots Wn, which is only & function of vf?) and finds its average value WFC. 1 FPG) and 14, are known, then Jp isfixed, However, fixing fp fixes Va and completes the solution. ‘When an unbypassed series resistance exists in either the buse or emitter eiceults, the results of Sections 48 sné 51 for the added resistance case are again diectly applicable. ‘Transient Buildup Ifthe periedicinput ff) is applied att = Oxo the circuit of Fig $:3-1, ur upto steady state the slowly varying component of capacitor current is given by 63-9) Hence the diferental equation for Y(t) = — et) takes the form ALO yates rginelht Gh * (53-19)166 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR SLEMENT COMBINATIONS 33 We may integrate Eq. ($3-10) in straightforward fashion to obtain vraimr - {laelles a WO) + Re where = CkTYQls. = Clea, K is an arbitrary constant of integration, and oa fu~ 2la/kTis the small-signal input conductor of the transistor in Fig. 83-1 Tfve asime that for less than zero 0, =O then eee a le Tes od Kn gent WE aon With this valu of X, Bg (3-11) reduces (ort > O)t0 oa (ladles 3a Oo Teena ST seeaiiey or equivalently, te ’ Vad) = ~Piga, + En is (3-38 aT TT Gwen Now in the steady state, W— Igq/lp and o! = 0; thus Bq. (53-13) reduces to Vig = = 63-139) This exact form for Vj also results ifthe waveform function is employed to evaluate the steady-state transistor response in a fashion discussed previously in tis sector. ‘By noting that LAO = Doge ATHY) and employing Bq (53-133), we may also obtain (ort 2 0) a 349 WO- WE where, of course, W(t) = etitttfetmas®, Ast co, Eq, (53-14) reduces to the ‘expected form ig = 1-10. For s(t) given by the staircase waveform of Fig 53-2, W/) has the form shown in the same figure, W= f, and Pigg = 20DmV; hence, for this ease, with kT /q = 26 mV and Tallis = 5 x 10", Sia] PS es a inl (53-158) 53 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CONSTANT CURRNT HAS, 167 and Vel) = (614 mV) = QEmV}In [1 + (ATX OF = Yer (534 ‘Table 53-1 presents valves for Va?) and the peak emitter current I) vs. ee for the expressions given in Eg. (53-15) [Ip0 is the coefficient of 17() in Eq, (5.3-14) or Eq. (S3-15e)} In addition, a sketch of i), given by Bq. (53-15), s shown in Fig 53-3 13s apparent from Fig. 53-3 that at ¢ = 0, when oj@) adds directly «0 ¥40) = ~Ved0)uer0ss the input exponential characteristic ofthe transistor, an exceptionally large emitter current flows with waveform Wi? The average value of this large current, flowing primarily through the coupling capacitor, very rapidly decreases Vacand in turn tecuces the peak valle ofthe emitter eurrent."In particular for if 1 “Table S3-1, Tabulation of valusfor Vtband iar a 1d Vedi ° 2200. 160 1 126 6 2 925Iee 18 3 kane, sia 4 Risle Gia 5 Bae os 40) 8, Fig. 52-3 Sketch of (0 8 for oo sven in Fig S2-2168 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS 33 the peak value of the emitter currentshas fallen from 2200. (i/¢ = 0) t0 12.7 By the time #/« = 4, steady state has been reached forall practical purposes. ‘Tae practical dificultes with this solution are that for any appreciable ot) the turn-on current is so enormous that the bulk ofthe emitter curcent transient is lover by the time 1 = 0.10r o less. The practical consequences of the demand for this large current are several. First, C must be very lage oF the assuraption ofa small change of capacitor voltage per eyee is violated. Second, the supposedly very large instanrancous currents lead to appreciable voltage drops across internal transistor {or diode) resistances, so that we cease to have the irue exponential voltage-current relationship that was assumed, We have instead a resistor-transistor combination ofthe type wssunned in Section 48, "The actual wausieat ina eal creuit is somewhere between the extreme value suggested by Fig 53-3 and the value obtained from a resistor battery model formed by the techniques of Sections 5.1 and 48. The reason is primarily that the presence of the resisiance limits the initial emitter curtent amplitude for 0 <1 < O.le without appreciably affecting the remainder of the transient For the case where v(t) = ¥; cos ax, Wie) has the form shown in Fig. 45-5, Wm and etm met hence from Eqs. (53-13) and (5.3-14) we obtain kT, dallas a7 MOO TG) ~ LN ce 140 = yee 631) ‘A sketch of iin this case ha essentially the same form as the skech of Fig. 53 excep that the pulse shape is given by Woh. Consequenty, here again the emiter current starts witha very large peak value and rapidly decreases toward its seady- State level, which i essentially attains for ¢> 4." Again the internal transistor 1 Sistance of the generator impedance limits the ial value ofthe emitereurent ‘A this point, itis apparent thatthe respoase time ofthe ciruit of Fig, 53-1 governed bythe time constant + = Ce. Therefor, iff) isan AM wave and the fvelope of this AM wave varies slowly compated with «, the cireuit essentially reaches steady state foreach envelope vale. Consequently. any steady state trans function relating the peak value of (to a curator vllage inthe crcit of Fig 53-1 ean also be used to relat the iee-varying envelope ofa) 10 the corresponding current of voltage. For example, with 2() = ¥; cost the fandams cueent i given by : icy = thee cose, fe eT) oat tal steady-state collector 34 [TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER--RESISTON bias 169 where x = gl/kT, However. if ofa) = s(}cosot and gf) varies slowly in come parison with ¢, then 2 LAO cog 6319) TelastovkT} [Again we note from Fig. 45-5 that if i large in comparison with K7yy forall Values of Eq (5.319) reduces to fey © Daly eos oF and the eieuit strips the AM information from fy, thus functioning as «limiter Note carefully that if the cireuit of Fig, 83-1 i used to process AM signals, the value of the coupling capacitor C must be arrived at by a compromise. The valve ‘must be large enouigh fo appear ab a short circuit ai the fundamental feyueney of 10) and yet it ust be small enough so that + ~ C/giqismall in comparison with the time over which the envelope of the AM wave varies. Such a compromise is possible ‘only if thee isa wide separation (of a factor of atleast 100) between the maximum ‘modulation frequency and the earrer frequency. Tn Section $2 we sew that the coupling cupacitor appears as a short circuit at the fequency it ‘oF equivalently, fs son, 63-20) “Thus Ea, (53-20) pats a limit on the minimum value of C. "To obtain an inequality for the maximum coupling capacitor value when using the cieuit of Fig. 53-1 t0 process input AM signals, it would be desirable to obtain 1 general expression for the capacitor vollage and the emitter current a a function Of the envelope of of) and the capacitor value. With such a general expression, the maximum capacitor value which produces the desired emitter current could readily be determined. Unfortunately, a genera relationship is mathematically intractable; however, a small-signal transfer function felting low-index envelope variations to nal variations in capacitor voltage and emitter current is possible. In addition, the maximum coupling capacitor value obtained ftom the small-signal analysis again provider an excelent estimate of the value required for large-signal operation, ‘This Smallsignal transfer function willbe derived in Section 5.6. 34 CAPACITIVELY COUPLED TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER—RESISTOR BIAS In this section we sontinue oul analysis of the large-signal capacitively coupled transistor amplifier by considering the circuit shown in Fig. 4-1, which is biased in {conventional fashion. Her, in addition toa coupling capacitor Ca base bypass170. REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS s4 Fig, 54-1. Capacivaly coupe transistor amphi capacitor i included to ensure that the entire periodi ac signal (0) appears across the emitter-base junetion, We again begin by determining the steady-state behavior Of the circuit. This analysis is somewhat more involved than the corresponding, Gaalyais of the czcuit of Fig, 53-1, because the depression in the de emiter-base oltage caused by the application of o(@) results in a change i the average emiter turteat from its quiescent (9, = 0) value. Hence, in addition to the average emitter base voltage, the average emitter current must be determined us 2 function of e(@) before the totl emitter current and in turn the output voltage can be evaluated Fortunately, as we shall demonstrat, the change in the average emitter current \with input drive tevelis usually a second-order effect in most well-designed transisor “amplifiers; hence Jeg merely replaces 1y in all previously derived results. For the ew cicuits which are exceptions tothe le, we develop the st of universal curves for Grlsifgqg shown in Fig. 4S-S which directly replaces the curve of Gym of Fi 45-6 inthe analysis of narrowband circuits with sinusoidal drives. ‘We determine the steady-state average emiter current Jgp a8 a function of a(t) by frst computing the depression AV of the emitterbase voltage from its quiescent value when #, is applied, and then we employ AV 10 compute the shift ia Typ from ts quiescent value Ing ‘When x > 4 for sinusoidal drives, the clamping mode! of Fig. 51-6 may be used in two successive approximations to provide a very rapid answer for this circuit, (See Problem 55 at the end of this chapter for an example.) Tin the analysis ofthe circuit of Fig. 54-1 we again ussume that the transistor does not saturate, that icw dig of = (l= Oe, that internal transistor reactances are negligible, and that ig Iago 54 ‘TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER RuSIStOH was 177 sv ey 1000 pF sok 2099 kty=26 win) Bate ow eavp— Fig. $4.2 Narrowband transistor amplifier. With these assumptions and the Thévenin oquivalent of the bese circuit shown in Fig Sa te quiescent emiter-base voltage Vag and the quiescent emir current Tog which exis prior to applying of] are relate bythe equations ert iT ig tee . Yao Te c a) and Yoo =5 s to" R+0- oh : In general, Bas. (54-1) and (54-2) ae dificult to solve simultancoushy; however, i we assume Iug= 2x10 A and AT/q = 26mV land tabulate Vjcg vs fgg 88 shéwn in Table 54-1, we find that Fysg experiences only ‘inall variations about 160 mV for values of fag between 0.1 mA and 10rd. ‘There- fore, for many practical circuits, Viep may be closely approximated by 2 V. snd with this value of Pigg, Ba. (54-2) simplifies 10 ayy ake The value of Iug = 2% 107! A corresponds to a silicon transistor integrated on a “chip.” For # nonintegrated silicon transistor, Lys 2 = 10"'*A und Hacg nay be approximated by 650 mV. For a germanium transistor, fag = 2 x 10°70 ‘and 220 mV provides a reasonable approximation for Vuze. 643)172 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR HLEMENT COMBINATIONS s4 “Tale $441 Tabulation of Veg ¥- foo with Diq = 26 mV and yg 2% 10 A Fag Tag, A 700 on 160 1 20 io 80 100 If we wish the quiescent point toemain fed, independent of temperature or production variations in the transistor parameters, [gg must be insensitive to these Watiations. If fgg does not vary, Log = esq Femains fixed, since a ~ 1 and in turn Vong, which isa function of leo. Heo. and the bias circuitry, isstable. We observe from. Bq. (54-2) that, to keep Iyq independent of transistor parameters, the following conditions must be satisfied Re>(l-aRe (54-40) Yas > Vaca (54-40) “The greater the strength of the above inequaltis, the greater the bias stability with reapeet to tansistor parameter variations, If Ry © Ry and Yop * 10 Vs.q, excellent bias stability is achieved in most applications. I now the periodic input o(1) is applied and both Cy and Cy, are assumed to be tc short circuits over the Iequency range occupied by n(), the emitter current for the circuit of Fig. S41 is given by Ig = Igo hT eon ee Mage tne TW, 645) where Vac is the de voltage which develops across the combination of Cy and Cr. ‘We observe here that the emitter eurrent waveform still determined by ead js therefore invariant with changes in bias configuration. In addition, we observe that, if —o(@) were inserted in series with C, and C,, were returned to ground, Ea, Get) would remain unchanged; hence, if», (2) = %,cos wt, the only diference between driving the emitter and driving the base would be the shift in the emitter current by half ofa carter cycle Ife again define the steady-state emiter-base voltage bias depression AVaas AV = Vaca ~ Vows oa then the expression for the emitter current may be rewriten as tie TW, 64-7) Irget¥*-67, In addition, the average emitter current Igy is piven by 648) and sa [TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER-RESISTOR HAS 173 In the steady state, Fay is also constrained by the bias cieuitry to have the form, gn tafiedt|, en Tro her 11 Ie (R= a fog ths fh eo vie sD aad ash os dle an pon fer ooy a rat ay ett AYRE pone ATL (54-19) Because of the transcendental nature of the expression for AV’ given in Ea. (6.410) its impossible to obtain an explicit solution for AV in closed form. Fortu nately, however, for V; > S20mV [whichis always true ina well-designed cieuit— of Bq. (54-Ab)}, the value of AV satisfying the equation AT eh HTS at) liffers by less than $9 from the value of AV satisfying Eq (54-10), and the agreement is closer with higher values of Vj} Consequently, with the approximation for AV iven in Eq, (54-11) we obtain the closedsform expression wary Wand (549) ot sm ty or wen) By noting {fom Eqs, (54-7) and (54-8) that Ie0/leo = WUN/WID. we may finally ‘same hat AY, sts Ea, (54-11), Therefore equating Eos. (54-10) and (54-1, we abttin (10 Ua carn or equivalently, However In(l + x) x: therfore and, for HAT > 2, ava | in terms ofthe steady-state values (of V, (Yaa) and Iyy (sass) Suh that, once Yigs 3 found, the assumption of high Or tan be checked. To accomplish this goal, the model of Fig. 85-3 is further simplified by replacing the output eurrent source by an equivalent linear conductance, 4h ¥ Gu = ‘which maintains the same currents and voltages throughout the network: This simplified model is shown in Fig. 5.55 from whic it is immeciately apparent that L beeen oa 552 LG + Cis) on where Jase Guus FS More important, however i the fact that nonlinear loading across a high-Q tuned ciceuit has the same effect as linear resistive loading. We now demonswate the above method with several examples. ig. 55-5 Simplied mode wih nonlinear load replaced by equivsent near conductance 35 NONLINEAR LOADING OF TUNKD cnRCUTTS 185 ‘Example S-1 For the citeuit shown in Fig. 55-6, find 0 Solution. We assume Q, > 10 and write u4() = ¥, cos 10°. Applying this voltage to the nonlinear load, we observe that i) i a square wave, with a peak-to-peak amplitude of x, which may be expanded in a Fourier series ofthe fortn ft) = (mAjfoos 107r = F083 * 107+ Leos x 10" ~ ‘The resonant circuit, with « high value of Qy, appears as an effective short ircuit to the components of it) at = 3 > 10" radjse, 5 x 107 radjse, ete; hence ‘Ld is obtained by multiplying the input cursent, less the fundamental eamponent OF UL) by the tuned-cireuit impedance evaluated at co ~ 10° rad/se, that is, sult) = (2 mA)(2 KO) e0s 107r = (4 V) cos 10"r It is apparent thatthe same valve of nt) would be obtained! by replacing the soalincur loud by a resistor of vale Guus” Tass” Zima ~ 7H Consequently, 2k : r= GOP radiseoNS aA and our assumption is justified (4 nay co oh Figure ss-6 Example S5-2 For the circuit shown in Fig, 55-7, determine un expression for ¥() Solation, We ageir assume Qy > 10 and writes) = ¥, cos 107t. Apolyng this solagetotheseesdiodattery-resstorcombination weobservethatforby 23, Yu) es Osthue f= 0. For ¥, > 25, the wavefora of {0 63 pnd tein of STneowave tp pulses of peak amplitude 1, = (Vs ~ ¥a/B and conduction angle 26 = 2008” ¥,/¥,), where ¥; = 25V and R = 10kQ. Table 55-1 includes values Pip and fy for velac of ¥ between 25 V and SV (cf. Fig. 42-8) and ig, S3-8 inches a plot of a i186 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR BLEMENT COMBINATIONS “Table 55-1 mayeos to igure 5-7 In addition, since Kirchholl's current law must hold for currenis ot the resonant frequency oy flowing into the tuned ciscuit of Fig. 55-7, we obtain the load line Which is also ploted in Fig 5$-& The two curves intersect at Iyiss % 67 HA. and Vige = 43. Consequently, 1 Gass (oshich justifies the high-Q assumption), and finally, nt) = 43 V) 08 10%, 652, p= Example 54-3 For the circuit shown in Fig, 55-9, ealeulate Soluion, We note that this example i identical to the previous example except that the resistance in series with the diode is equal to zero. Clearly, then, when making a table for Jy similar to Table 5S-1, we find that Ig; = o0 forall values of ¥, > 2.5. ‘Consequently the curve for fy vs. V, takes the form shown in Fig. 55-10. 35 [NONLINEAR LOADING OF TUNED cIRcUTTS 187 [— sontinee fundamental Shanice Le =tmn—MEe aati) OR Figure 3-9 Again plotting Ja = QA) ~ aa con the same set of coordinates, we obtain Vise = 25V,188 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS 88 bs Figure $5.10 and 1oKAy0K TO" radeon si) Or 100. Hence the method of solution is justified, [Note that in this problem, although a battery 2nd diode are placed directly agross the tuned circuit, the voltage remains sinusoidal of the form v, = (25 V)cos 1D"; hhence the major elfect of the diode is to clamp the peak-to-peak amplitude of the resonant circuit vollage to twice the battery value, The diode does not,asis sometimes ‘erronzously believed, lip the top of rf) and leave the bottom unchanged, Such a ‘waveform obviously cannot exist, since its average value would be different from zero and thus could not be sustained across an indoetor. “The circuit ofthis example finds application as an FM limiter, Clearly, variations fof the input current about the $mA point resull in the same pesk output voltage of ¥; = 25V. Only when the input current drops below J mA does ¥; drop below its 25Y love Bxample S$-4 For the circuit shown in Fig, 55-11, assuming that no collector saturation occurs and that both input and output tuned circuits have high values of Qrand both resonate ate, determinean expression for» (0)and v0). Alsodetermine the effective linear loading the transistor applis o the input paralel resonant eireuit Solution, Since Q for the input tuned circuit is assumed t0 be high, WU) = Mycosuigt — and — tgp = VyCOS ag! + Van ‘Thus if an exponential relationship is assumed to exist between ig and vpe i) it tiven by salt and in the steady state the amplitude of the fundamental component of emitter current Ip is given by eth ol groin 219) Tals)" day dae 3s NONLINEAR LOADING OF TUNED CIRCUS 189 ie Figure SS-11 Since fg aig and ip = (1 — ag, the amplitudes ofthe fundamental components of the collector and base currents are given by Jog wat 2h) es = alec gy his) and te) respectively, ‘Now to obtain an expression for V, (o x) we equate the fundsmental components of the currents entering the input-iuned eieuit to obtain ‘equivalently, a where ua = lad. By plotting the “oad fine” oe fac (= agg ‘on the same set of coordinates 28 214(2\ Tole) vs % as shown in Fig. 55 12,e obtain oe nd 2/ (s/o) a8 the coordinates ofthe intersection ofthe wo curves; thus190 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS 3s ayy Figue $5-12 ETS 60s ant 1 EE C08 Specially, if If — elgg 2 and (1 — aga, = 6, by plotting 2 ~ x/6 on the ‘coordinates of Fig. 45-5 we obtain 21,0) 1) With 2 (xssV1ofxes) known and the output-tuned circuit Q assumed tobe high, alt ean immediately be written 3s 7 135, aes 2, and oy(f) = (S2mVpeos aye 2 Yeo lesR 608 at 2Uilsss) Tol%ss) ‘The equivalent linear loxding onthe input-tunedcireuit is given by Io _ Hex, Gal yh a were = a/(1 ~ #)and Gy isthe lrge-sgnal average fundamental transconductance Dthe transistor, which is ploted as afnetionofx and normalized t0 gi Fig. 45-6. For this bias configuration, gq = alqa/KT Gy may also be expressed in the form Vag ~ ale, HER, 005 wt Gu 65-8) 6s9) Bee where galf i the smallsignal iaput conductance looking into the base with the temiter grounded Itheemite, rather than the bases driven as shown in Fig. 55-13, the equivalent linear loading on the iaput-tuned circuit is 4 Gna = ba28, (6510 Oe ‘Welter the base or emiter is riven and the bias is developed as shown in Fig, 4-1, the algebraic expressions for Gy, femain unchanged; however, = algQ/KT and Galta must be obtained from Fig. 84-5 rather than Fig. 45-6. 5s [NONLINEAR LOADING OF TUNED cIXcuITS IST sea ag ga we ACD Figere S513 Example 55-5 To the cireut shown in Fig. 55-14, determine the oviput voltage fi) and ihe resistance seen by the input current in the steady state, Assume that Qr> 10 Soluion. For the circuit of Fig S3-14 we first note that, since Qy-is high and the circuit is driven by a current source at its resonant frequency, then rl) must have the form ot) = ¥; eos oat. We then observe that, singe C is large, it appears as a battery V4. in the steady slate, Consequently the ideal diede-battery combination limits V, (0 Mg of, Eeample S53) and in turn et) = Vi (cos wot — 1) Now, to evelsate ¥; as function of J, we note that with 940) champed! to 2er0 the diode conducts only at the peak of o,() and thus ip) lows in extomely narrow pulses: hence if?) may be represented as itn tlt +2 § co) (Fora periodic tin of very narrow polses, the amplitude of the harmonics is twice the average value) However, since the average value ofthe capacitor current 10 A= Ves a ES igure 55-14192 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR FLEMENT COMBINATIONS ss ‘must be 2er0 inthe steady state, then Jote Thos the fundamental component of inf) has a magnitude of 25)/R. When 2¥,/R is Added to the fundamental component of ig, Y/R, the sum is equal to the input driving current, = 3%/R. Consequently we finally obtain IR FB eosagt- 0. In addition, the equivalent resistance seen by (i given by WLR eres Up tothis point we have assumed that a high value ofthe leaded Qin the circuit of Fig. 55-1 keepe vj@) sinusoidal ofthe form 1) =: V, 008 wet, We shall now treat the problem more quantitatively by obtaining an expression for the total harmonic distortion (THD) of (0) as 2 function ofthe louded 2 and the nonlinear load. Thus, ‘once a specific nonlinear load is specified, we may determine Q, to Keep the THD below a desired level " ‘At the outset of the analysis we assome that the THD is sufficiently small (say below 5%) s0 that the current wavelorms obtained assuming vt) = ¥, 60% wet in the circuit of Fig. 55-1 very closely approximate the actual current waveform. With this assumption the expression for (0 and in turn the expressions for the lull) sourees of Fig 55-2, can beobtained using the steady-state value of V;.. Consequently, the harmonic distortion component of v,(} can be obtained by determining the ‘contributions ofthe various harmonic current sources of Fig. 55-2 flowing through the parallel RLC circuit Specifically, itwe define Fa lg bale Uy is the amplitude of the total nth-harmonie current component flowing into the parallel RLC circuit} and n then from Ea. 35-4) Zain) Zia) |” = 7h) wo (EU) where Z (jo) the input impedance ofthe parallel RLC circu. Since the Q ofthe parallel REC cireuit is assumed to be high, then ftom Ea, (34-12), Ete ef. (5-1) 10) 3s NONLINEAR LOADING OF TUNED ciRCUNIS 193 Equation (5.5-11) can therefore be rewritten inthe form eo SJE Ut) Gea) Et ay {is apparent, however, that hhenve and the THD reduces tothe desired form ons lit (35-13) mo-2/E5 Where Qy = eyCKG + Gyz) For any nontinear load, the ratio 1/h, may be deter~ ‘mined inthe steady state ifthe maximum tolerable THD is specified. then Lo. (3.5-13) ‘may be solved (erploying the fist few terms in the series) to yild the minimum permissible value of Oy "As an example of this technique, let us determine the minimum value of Qx \whish Keeps the THD tes than 001 (17) forte eit in Fig 5-8. this cet the ideal the steady-state value of) is given by 140) = (2.5 V)cos 10°: therefore, Giode conducts only on the postive peak of 2), and i) i constrained to flow in fexiromely narrow pulses, However, for narrow pulses fay = Ja Fax In addition, C5Y) ba, Jay ly = YG = mA) — 10K atio into Eg, (55-13) yields le. Ly. 35-5) then Iy/lay 4+ Substitution of thi THD 1 is now apparent that, to keep the THD below 0.01, Qy must be greater than 47, A value of Qy = 10 yields 8 THD = 0047 (35%) ‘Smoothly Varying Nonlincariies If the nonlinear oad shown in Fig, 55-1 has no abrupt changes in slope, we ean often approximate its vi, characteristic by a polynomial comprisins the first few194 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS 55 terms of its MacLauren expansion, that i, 10 = ay + avd) + asosO? + asloJOP + (55-14) If the nei, characteristic is known analytically, then the coeicients a, may be eval- uted in the form 0 Glas 6515) However, if the oi, characteristic is available only graphically, then a polynomial of the desited order can be fitted to the characteristic by standard curvestting rechniques. ‘Once a polynomial form for the tI, characteristic is obtained, it is a simple matter to determine the equivalent linear Tonding on a high-Q tuned circuit and the resultant level of oJ) Specifically, i (¢) = ¥, cos cagt and we approximate (0) by 4 polynomial of order 3, then if Equation (55-16) may be arranged in Fourier-series form by use of the trigonometric identities a + a, cosa! + a,VFc0s? wot + as} cos* ant. (55-16) cor? gt = Feosupt + Yeos3ayt and Thus cos? agt = $ + 4.008 2upt saa ay oH ros + EVA one + BV 2 cos Qugt + ZV} cos 3c, 7) BV icos2we +P ce 6517 from which we observe that a= Vilas + 2a) 518) and ay + aa? 6519) Hence, iff and G are known, then 1 = GY, + lay + VD (55-20) ‘and a cubic equation for obtaining ¥; is obtained which may be solved graphically for analytically. For example if 4 mmho aa then the steady-state value of v() i (1 V)c0s ot and the equivalent linear loading of the nonlinear load is Guy = 4 manho, a=G=immho, a= and ly = SmA, 56 TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR LOW:INDEN am INPUT 195 56 TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR LOW-INDEX AM INPUT In this analysis we apply & lowsindex AM signal ofthe form (0) = [¥; + ot] 608 wot. where vil « Vj, €0 the generalized capacitively coupled input cireuit shown in Fig 56-1 and determine the resultant AM variations on the envelope of the fun damental component of We then adapt the analysis to the specific transistor ‘amplifier shown in Fig. 53-1 —w wo Me Nt ne HN cover nl cot uu Bo cose woken SSencralzed capaciiely coupled nonlinear input ict Fig 56-1 Because of the nonlinear load, variations in the envelope of v(t) produce varia tions not only in the envelope of ie) but also in Ve and the average value of {8 "The form of these variations, which we assume 10 be small in comparison with the ‘quiescent values ofthe respective parameters [ie the values obtained with e(0) = Oh Shown in Fig 56-1, small yariations ae assumed its apparent that 0) = Guo + Grats = Gr + Cron ai 10) = Goi2409 + Goord0s and, in ation, 66-2) where196 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMMINATIONS 36 [Q-pt denotes Ye = Vag and ¥j(2) = Vj}. Thus, by expressing Egs (56-1) and (56-2) in Laplace transform notation and eliminating ie) and vg(), we obtain 1 nan oP sie HP) 65-3) where 19) = £{Fy] and H(p) = Lo, (0). The transfer fonction Yip) permits the determination of i() once the form of vy (9 is known, For the capacity coupled transistor amplifier of Fig, S3-1, A) = LAO = Tee °F OOM? eo5 wr anise eo), 08 whee LAG 0 Taglt) = Teslolxteye om” an Tel) = Teal Lane; veme 650) [vows 101} (36-5 29, 6659 Tol) an dies be abe ibd ce Ba At sess 38] (6 Bg. Act), 66-58) 56 “RANSHER FUNCTION FOR LOW.INDEX AM DLE 197 ‘Consequenty, (7) is ven by sah) i nw sell 66-6) p+t where + = Ca and (isl aig) = 1 657) 7 sol) A pilot of A(x) vs. x is given in Fig, $6-2. It can be shown (by differentiating Ba, (86-8) that Hig] de] Tob), 200 Ta 68) sla thus fr smal values of (or). Y's gen by HO) KO = sug Te 569) Which of ours, th admitance which relates smal stati arin io ¥ fas From the pole-zero diagram for ¥(p)it is apparent that the maximum Iequency component oy of 2) oF ¥() must beat least an octave below A(x. for any sive ‘alge of to permit (>: use of the sttie transfer function relating Jy, and ¥ forthe tase ofdynamicenvelope variations. This restriction may be expressed in rts ofthe inequality aie WE 66-10) 400" Beadle) Since a(x} decreases with increasing x, the maximum pérmisible value of the coupling capacitor which satisfies Bq. (56-10) also decreases, For example, if x= 10. o£ 00118. Ein However, from Eq, (53-20), «Cg, > 40x; therefore for correct operation of the circuit of Fig. 53-1, we require x)= 00089 and 2 > 106 x 10%, a,198 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS, 56 OE 1 Fig. 862 Pot of ix) x Even though this restriction may be relaxed somewhat, we see that i the circuit is 10 function as a narrowband limiter, which necessitates large values of x for its correct ‘operation, there must exist a large separation between the maximum modulation frequency and the carrier frequency. If this separation is not achieved, the circuit Tails to limit properly, even though its static transfer characteristic indicates tha it should, Consequently, in limiter applications, the single-endea transistor is not particularly satisfactory and the diferential par, which may be operated without a coupling capacitor, finds more widespread use. ronuens 199 PROBLEMS: 1 Show that areesonable aporoximaion fr the “scady stale” values ofthe source current, ine) and the ouput voluge, el fOr the eteit oF Fig. SP-Ma) i given by the rests shown in Fig 3 P10) Assume that Caan ae short eu, 52 Find the tendy-ste valve of») in Fig. 3P-2. How much average power is consumed inthe kdb restor ater the capacitor woage reaches equilbum? 53 ‘The repetitive wavestape shown is applied 0 the circuit inFig-5.P-3, Find the de capacitor solage andthe shape nd amplitude ofthe silicon diode current. 54 Susie the collector current waveshape and find the collector voltage an the de capacitor ‘tage in Fig. .P-& so uee 5 2m Sonv. Wma ~ Bo mV i al aimee see ua) o Figure SP-1 tig seston cieie a ovina aun “0 del ose Pigwes.P2200 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS ‘omy wong of *| wm 1 al aeoee fa Tang | pt Nowe 3-3 seston et ‘ Eee eg | naz xe Be le ota (01) cs lecggama sv 2654 aie | asi Fiewe 4 5.5. Use he model of Fig. 1P-5o) with the sssumpsion that all of the $mA flows through the diode to determine an itil valve fr Vin the eit of Fig. S-la. Then approximate Tye VeJRand rlne Ip = (St0A) ~ fy 10 Fr a second (and tinal) vale for Vy Find the ‘uiput collector voltage fortis final cae, Compare th reals wih those obtained emplay- ing Fig 545 ‘56 What i te emitte-current conduction angle in she cuit of Fig, PSs)? What isthe approxi value ofthe pak emiterebrent inthis circa? How large must te capacitor beifiny = 1% 10° and the capacitor volige should vary less hun 2% over the pesiod of sine wave after equilibrium i reaches? 5.7 For the csc of Fig, P-6, in the de voltage across the 10.000 pF spacitor, the fonda mental component ofthe diode current, the equivalent nea loss resistance ofthe die, tn te a power losin the 1 kf resistor Explein and justify your asun tions. 158. Assume ha the volage source of Fi SP-6it replaced by acoilofQ, = 15Dat 10" radsce fod a singsoidal current soure of radian fequency 10° radjce and peak amplitude of JimA. The col is tuned to resonance woh the elfestive input capacitance ofthe two capac jtors What is the fardamental did carcnt? Whats the loaded Q ofthe tuned ciel? 4 shot ieut Proms 201 + . * | nod : 500) 204 | - ov ena L tov A eye ° c E(Eeereee asomvycoruy’ (~ * ” (150 mW) cor ai! wttaS CD) HY pzsxeoma Ten VIR=(02) mA S0A ® Few sr tor igure $.P-6 pasaaaaat oe axa CS * deems (ovycosen (> cong anes202 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS. 5.9 Expluin how the rsuks of Problems 57 and 58 woul be modified if the radian frequency ere reduce to 10" raise S10 Find the ouput voltage, ey). and the fundemental and thint-barmonicdiede curens forthe eveut of Fig SP SAL. Find the total hammoneistortion in (in the circuit of Fig 57. SAD For the cteit shown in Fig. 8, determine a axpresion foro) and ees se shot cient mA)eos ws lemme oP) 205 opr. 0. a Jy igure SP-& rows 203, 5.13 For the circuit shown in Fig, 5-9, in »(i)and vf). Also sheth el) S14 For the cieuit shown in Fig 2-10, determine am expression fore) and the equivalent linear loading toss the tuned circu fr each ofthe ollowing nclinear lows an inpat carrent levels. Tn each ea i the THD presen in IA, ig = Ie ee Fig, SP vA (se Fig SP-110) ©) = 2A, = CONV E + 10 UV, @) I, = 2mA Gee Fig SP-116), ©) y= 1SmA Gwe ig $110) S15 Find the de wollage aston the lapat capacitor in the cteult of Fig. P-L. Estimate the Shape eanduction angle and pea valve} ofthe cleto current pulse fr tis ese. Repeat for theca in which the soaros impedance teduced to $A. What isthe own and mag rite ofa) fortis use? Does the transistor saturate? e. a}—= enitv(t 2 ps na soy Figure 5P-9204 REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS. eos CP) wee: 1oyat 3 1000 pF * oka . @ Ima Tow Figure SP-11 CHAPTER 6 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS In this chapter we combine the results of all the previous chapters to explore the ‘design and analysis of a numberof sinusoidal or almost sinusoidal oscillator cireits. ‘Once the waveshape of the output Of such a circuit Is speciled as sinusoidal, then the two properties that remain to be defined are the operating frequency and the output araplitade. A good portion of this chapter will be devoted to examining the frequency” and amplitade-determining mechanisms of various circuits, the stabilities ofthese mechanisms with variables such as time, temperature, or supply voltage, and the interelationships between amplitude and frequency. There are methods of producing sinusoidal signals by fering separately pro= ‘duced square wives of impulse chains or by the nonmemory shaping of triangular waves; however, the discussion of such circuits wil be reserved for Chapter 1 Both from the viewpoint of the techniques employed and from that ofthe prac: tical division of circuits its convenient to consider most of our circuits as belonging. toone oftwo classes, In the first class we combine a two-port active device with a (wor port passive network in a feedback configuration. In the second type we combine a ‘ne-port active device in parallel with a one-port passive network. Obviously some tireuits may be considered from either viewpoint. In spite of this, the division i still, ‘sel We shall first consider the feedback type of circuitry. In subsequent sections ‘we shall consider the one-port or “negati-tesisiance” circuits, ‘All sine-wave oscillators must, atthe minimum, contain 8) an active device with power gain at the operating frequency (the circuit must supply not only an output signal but also its own input driving sil), ) a frequency-determining clement or network, and ) an amplitude-timiting and stabilization mectanistn, In practical cirevits these functions may become quite intermingled. However, initially we shall consider these operations separately So thatthe necessary or dest= able properties of each one may become evident 61 OPERATING FREQUENCY AND MINIMUM GAIN CONDITIONS FOR LINEAR-FEEDBACK OSCILLATORS In order to sustain sinusoidal oscillations, network must have a pair of complex conjugate poles in the right-balf complex plane when power is applied at r ‘These right-half plane poles, when excited by thermal noise or the slep generated by closing the power switch, give rise toa sinusoidal output voltage with an expon-206 sinusoibat oscintarons 61 entially growingenvelope. Ifsuch 2 network has been designed to sustain a constant- amplitude sinusoidal output voltage, then, as the envelope sf the noise-induced sine wave increase, it causes a change in the value of one or more of the network ‘parameters (usvally the amplification) in such a dizection that the complex conjugate poles move toward the imaginary axis. Finally, at some predetermined umplitude ofthe growing sinusoid, the poles reach the imaginary axis and a constant-amplitude sinusoidal output is realized. If for some reason the output increases further, the ppoles move into the letcalf plane and the output decreases toward the desited level, ‘here again the potes lie on the imaginary axis. ‘We now see that the basie requirement for sinusoidal oscillator consists of 2 pair of small-signal eoraplen coujugate right-half plane poles, which 2oterminc the frequency of oscillation, plus a mechanism for moving these poles toward the Gisinl ——-—< iin ny vn Hip) Fig. 61-1. Generalized lodback amplifier imaginaty axis asthe eavelope of the output waveform increases. This mechanism determines the steady-state oscillation amplitude. In order to obtain right-half plane poles, we require some form of feedback. Figure 6 1-1 illustrates a generalized Feedback amplifier whose transfer fiction is given by Atle) AIG) in Vip)” T— ABO T= ALY 7 where As(p) = ABT Hp) is defined as the “loop gin of the amplifier. I is “ppareat that the pole ofthe feedback amplifier are the 2er0s or roots of Ag) = 0 612) “Thos if, (61-2) has a prof complex conjugate roots inthe right hal plan, nl) will bea growing sinusoid even with of) = 0 ‘The process of designing a sinuspidal oscillator now becomes clear. We select a suitable pole-zero pattern for Alp) = AHH) which causes one pair of complex conjugate roots of Eg, (61-2) (snd no other roots ‘otherwise unwanted oscillations might occur) to cross the imaginary axis ata pre determined frequency wy as A (or ~ A) i increased, We also determine the minimum ‘yalue Ais of which places the roots on the imaginary axis,and choose 4 somewhat larger than this value to ensure selPstarting, We then incorporate somie nonlinear vs 6.1 FREQUENCY AND GAIN CONDITIONS FOR LINEAR-FEEDEACK OSCILLATORS 207 mechanism which reduces 4 10 Aq 88 the output oscilation grows toward a desired Amplitude, Finally, we choose a network having the desired 4,(p) and combine with it the desited nonlinear amplitude limiting. 7 “To arrive at pole-zero patterns for Aulp) = AH (oH) which are eapable of producing oscillations, we start with the simplest pole-2er0 configurations and plot she lac ofthe roots of Eq (61-2) as A is increased from zero fo infinity and is secreased from zero to minus infinity. We then increase the com= plenty of the pole-*to diagram and repeat the root locus plot until a number of polozero diagrams eapable of producing complex conjugite right-hal plane roots le obtained. ‘This appronch immediately indicates that 4g{p) must have two or sore poles to cause Eq, (6.1-2) to have right-half plane complex conjugate roots For example, with dol +o) ox Fa) the toot locas is shown in Fig. 61-2 as 4 is inereasd (a) and then decrease tb) from zero. We see from the figure that a pole does indeed enter the right-half plane xs {S increased. However, since itis a reab-axis poe, the result is 8 growing exponential ‘waveform and no} a growing sinusoidal oscil Ap) = @ o Fig, 61-2 Root lous of Aa) wit a single pole We also find that if 4y(} has two poles and no zeros, oscillations are impossible ‘The simplest pole-zero combination for A,(p) which iscapable of producing right-hall plane roots in Eq. (61-2) is the combination of wo poles und one zero. The root Tous for this ease with Aow CFole tes is showa in Fig, 61-3, from which we observe that postive fenlback, A > 0, is required for oscillations, It is apparent that for A > 0 the zero may move somewhat jnto the let-alf plane without destroying the possibility of oscillation. Au)208 siusowaL oscuarons 61 M0 Geko Fig. 61-3 Root locus ef fp with two pols and axxo “To determine the frequency of oscillation w (Le, the point at which the roots cross the imaginary axis) and the sinirnum gain A for oscillations (Le. the valve of A which just places the roots on the imaginary axis), we assume A= Ayn, With A= Ania? = jp must be a solution of Bq, (61-2). Hence Auli) = 1-3) or equivalently, Be Alin) = 1, (61-4) $n Aaling) (61-45) [Equations (6.1-4a and b) provide a necessary condition for oscillation (this condition is known as the Barkhausen criterion) and thus a set of to equations for solving for Aya, and co. The Barkhausen erterion makes sense intuitively, since it sates that atthe frequency of ovillaion 2 the signal must traverse the loop with no attenoa- tion and with no phase shit. With Axlp) = APA + oP + a2) Ant 03( 010s — ilo, + 0? + ly ob oa) Fon Asli) = from which itis apparent that oy = joy. In addition, Eq, (6.1-4a), with ey = Jo, yolds Ait. He Aaljong) = one feom which we obtain 6.1 FREQUENCY AND GAIN’ CONDITIONS FOR LINEAR-FEEDEACK OSCILLATORS 200 Fig. 61-4 Oselatorcitcit with A.(p) having negative real poles anda mr a he orga Figure 61+ illustrates a small-signst¢ Tinar model for x cireuit with the pole zero diagram show in Fig. 61-3, For this circuit 4,(p) is given by v2) thus Aw A,0y = Rib, and os = 1/RC, I H/RC = Ryle then we have the speci ase where oy = wy = Oy = I//EL aNd Ayia = 201 Ay = “Another way to conser the eiruit of Fig, 1-3 isto ask at whut sinssoidal irequsny the pasa around te loop zero. The fst stage has single pole at TSU ence ts phase goes rom zero 10 ~90" as. goes om ert iis: The “cand wigs has zeroat the erg ands pole t ~ RC; hence its pis goes fom “F90" to aso ase goes rom aero to infinky. IF T/RC ~ R/L, then the overall 20 Jeueshit point har om /RC. (At this point the magnitd ofthe hme lt omcach cuit 43) Ati requeney cach network hasan atenation of 3dB ones again per alae af /2 i equied to raise the lop gain back to unity. This Mindoer aot have toby spread through th circu, but can Be concerted in one point Tostead of two resLaxis poles and a zero atthe origin, Au(p)can bechosen tohave a ptr of complos conjugate le-half pane pols aod a zo a or near the origin “Te foot locus for this ease with Apis Ag) = =~ (61-3) ) = FF Dap + oF is shown in Fig 61-5. Here again we observe that oscillations are possible ony for {A> G. However, this pole-zero configuration has two advantages over the con feurtion with reabaxis poles. Fist, sialer Aga i required 1 produce oscilla tions, Specials, for this pole-zero pattern we find, employing the Barkhawsen criterion, that y= 0% and210 SINUSOIDAL esciLLAToRS 6 Fig, 61-5 Root loou for 4,(9) with two complex conjugate pols and a 2:0 at the origin, where Q is the @ of the passive circuit within the feedback loop. Clearly, then, 48 Q, increases, the required amplification of the active element within the feedback loop decreases. "A second advantage of the complex conjugate poles of 1p) is increased fre- {quency sibility. If spurious poles and zeros should appear inthe pole-zero pattern ‘of Au{p) because of parasitic capacitance and inductance, the root lores is modified somewhat, However, if the poles of 4,(p) are suficiently clase to the imaginary axis to start with, then the modified loci are still consteained to cross the imaginary axis relatively dlose to 0 ‘This frequency stability may be observed from a different point of view. If the passive network has @ high Qz, its phase shift varies rapidly with frequency in the Vicinity of (ef Fig. 22-7). Therefore, spurious phase shifts introduced by parasitic clements within the feedback loop require only 2 small change in frequency from ai, to produce a compensating phase shit from the high-Qy network and a net zero Phase shift around the loop. Thus the higher the value of Qp, the smaller the devia~ tion from ato the Irequency a at which zero loop phase shift exists and oscillations sre possible For exaimple, with 4,(p) given by Eq (61-8) the phase ¢ of Ai) inthe vicinity of wis given by = tan! 200 — 2) 6) and 4 205 doles ‘Thus, with Q = 10* (ypica of a quartz crystal), a 1° (00176-rad) shift in the overall loop phase shift leads to only an 87 rad/sec or a 138 Hz shit in frequency in an wy = 10 rad/sce oscillator. 6.1 FREQUENCY AND GAIN CONDITIONS FOR LINEAR-FEEDIACK osciLiatows 211 to Fig. 61-6 Oscillator circuit with 4,() having «pai of complex conjugate poles and zr0 a the origin. Figure 61-6 illustrates one of many small-signal esillator ei transfer, contains & pait of complex conjugate poles and a zero tthe origin. For this circuit, (ps given by in ere cy = 1, TE 2 = GyfCand Gy = Gi + 1G, hist could he eaized Uyany ofthe tsformertiteneworks shown in Table S-leascael with acommon 2c ansistor a common gd triode ora common pate FET. Regatdes of how implemented, te minimum gy required for osilation a ers) foam which decreeses with decreasing Gy or, equivalently, with inereasing Oy = oC /Gp Figure 6.1-7 ilstrates the root loci for several other pole-zero putters for Ay) which are capable of oscillations. Included in the figure are the corsesponding ‘ales of tp and Agi The networks which yield loop gains with such pole-zero diagrams are explored in subsequent sections and in the problems atthe end of the caplet. Tt should be noted in passing, however, that because of the closeness of the ppole and 2er0 in Fig. 61-700) (he Meacham bridge), spurious poles and zeros have Ney litle effect on the jae crossing of the roots; thus this configurition should surpass the others in is ability to maintain a stable frequency. Tn no cases the root locus plot necessary to solve an osillator problem. It does help in understanding the action ofthe circuit and also in determining whether iti possible for 8 circuit to oscillate at a second undesired frequency. An alternative Incthod of exploring the osillating potential ofa circuit it to plot the phase angle of, “Ayljo) vs. cand to determine whether O or + 2x of phase exists at a frequeney where {AyLio} exceeds unity (ef Eo. 1-3)212 SINUSOIDAL aScCRLLATORS ot nue AP —ep ented rake dae Hs od “Atpy= AE=2asp +02) Meacham bridge, eS Briar oe) aa 2 : 2 - ” et fee mo eH aay Pras p AO Bradiete) Pe) at aco 4 Age =~ BS (e ine 4B ES Staaf + \ iS vara Tan AO Ptah Grab FO wii yo Vyasa 2 Ana ORS See Oe a) +b x } = / PBS fara Fig, 61-7 Root lai for several yp) capable of producing cxiations. (62. AMPLITUDE-LIMITING MECHANISMS So far we have ignored the problem of the determination of the amplitude at which the oscillations stabilize, At least four different methods or combirations of methods of amplitude stabilization are employed in practical circuits. 1a) One or more temperature-sensitive resistors (a thermistor, a low-voltage light bulb, or a semiconductor resistor) are used to. build an attenuscor. This power sensitive attenuator is constructed so that its attentuation 2 inereases with increasing Grive level. It is inserted in the feedback loop in which the smal-sigoa! amplification 62 AMPLITUDE-LIMITING MECHANISMS 213 4M ice iE I Saal Vicor out Ll My a otal toop api TN rept opening fa aie state Fig, 62-1. "Noolinear”astenustor a oop amplitude sabiizs exceeds the minimum required for oscillation, The result is a curve of loop gain scale factor A vs, attenuator input drive such as the one shown in Fig. 62-1 “The thermal time constant ofthe attenuator is made long in comparison with the period ofthe lowest lrequeney expected from the oscillator; hence inthe steady state {he attenuator is “linear.” If, im addition, the signal levels inthe active device are kept within the linear range of the device, low-distortion sinusoidal signals exist throughout the lop. "The long thermal time constant imposes a limitation both on the lowest fre- {quency of operation and on the rate at which sueh oseillators can be swept or changed in frequency. This approach is widely used in audio- and video-frequency laboratory signal generators, particularly those of the RC network types. IC is particularly applicable for adjusting R, andor Ry inthe Wien bridge and Meacham bride osc Iators shown in later sections and inthe problems atthe end of the chapter-t 1) A-second technique, which also produces low-distortion sinusoidal oscillations atall points throughout the feedback loop isthe use of an amplitude detector (any ‘of the types discussed in Section 10.2 or Section 10.) to provide a control signal, proportional to the amplitude of the sinusoidal output, to inversely contsol the gain Sf some amplifier within the oscillator loop. Again the gain should decrease with increasing amplitude, so that a characteristic similar to Fig. 62-1 resalts, There is *FHlundreds of commercial thermistors(negativetemperature-cefiient cessor) eis, Ress. Aico aloes for 25°C are available from 140 of less up to L M2 with then tis constants from? secupto200 sec or more. Not llcombinations are wvalable, nor at ll units saison, ffom ibe renctive viewpoint for Blind insertion ino any eetwork Miiny units have only 20% Tolerance al are sue: fo variations with abet temperate ‘Any tungsten mp wth acting Wo ess may be used postve-temperatre- coefientyeston, Hot restores may be ten times 8 peat a cold estes, 1 the operating temperate is consdersbly above the ambien (bt Plow incindesceice), then the ambien ‘tions wll be meek. tos significant han for hermision. Cod resstaoe 25°C) vals range From below 1 for 1V tach bats to perhaps 40002 for «3 W. 120 fight ball. ‘oveal ofthe ecerenes i Section 67 eosin exesive data on such unit. Later examples wi eonai austrative data on some wis214 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS 62 ‘no nooessity for either the amplitude detector or the gain-controlled amplifier to have alinear characteristic with respect to the envelope ofthe detector drive signal, The ‘gain-controlled amplifier, however, must have # linear transfer characteristic if the ‘oscillations throughout the loop are to have low distortion. Asin case (a, the more steeply the variable-gain curve cuts through the required gain line, the better the amplitude stabihity willbe A third and very common form of amplitude stabilization uses the nonlinearity fof the active device to provide the amplitude-imiting feature forthe circuit. Iw such ‘eases the active device must be followed by a narrowband filter, which passes only the oscillation frequency, in oréer to remove the harmonics generated by the non- linear active element and thus mainisin w sinusoidal output signal. Most tuned ‘oscillators similar to the one shown in Fig, 61-6 do provide the necessary filtering. at the output ofthe active device, If the nonlinear device is a common base transistor, then is elfective trans- conductance at the oscillation frequency is G(x}, which is plotted vs. xin Fig. 45-6. Cheary, if for x = 0 (H, = 0) and Gus) = Eng the small-signal vale of Ay(jog) is some number M which is greater than unity, then when power is applied to the osil- lator at ¢ = Othe amplitude V, ofthe sinusoidal input tothe transistor grows unti it reaches a value Fig (or xo) for which (ji) [or equivalently, Gy(e)} has decreased NL sets anya a Ve brie Fig, 62-2 Characters for oi amplitude stabilization. by a factor of M from its small-signal value. Therefore, xp and in turn Vig = kTolq ‘may be obtained by determining at what point GyG)igag = 1/M as illustrated in Fig 62-2. For example, if M = 2, then from Fig. 45-6 9 = 33. [As we shall se, any of the nonlinear characteristics of fundamental current vs. sinusoidal drive voltage of Chapter 4 may be used as the basis for an amplitude stabilization scheme. 4) Afourth means of amplitude stabilization is presented by the problem of Example 55-3, where a diode-battery combination is used to limit the output sine wave from ‘8 tuned circuit. ‘While itis always possible to add an external diode and power supply, such additional circuitry may become available naturally in transistor or junction FET 62 AMPLITUDE-LIMITING MECHANISMS — 215 av oomph + ve wee ck wo ws 09% 7 ae 30 mV) eos Fig, 62-3 Colectoras iting circuits when the collector-base or drain-gate diode is driven to the edge of eon duction once per cycle. Figure 6.2-3 illustrates the situation. From Eq. (45-13) and Table 45-1 we can evaluate the peak amplitude of the fundamental component of the collector current, ,, im terms of fq. and! the peak ‘amplitude of (0. In this case, © 098 x 1.79 = LTSmA. [Now if Vee were large enough we would have a peak tank voltage of Ry, = 17. Since Voc < 17.5 V. he collector-base diode ofthe upper transistory conducts when pt exceeds 12.7 V this mits the output tank voltage tou sinusoids! peu amplitude ‘of 127 provided that Q; > 10. Note that for the oscillator oft is derived (rom {30}; hence, once limiting from colletor saturation occurs, we know the peak tuned- circuit voltage Vand in turn the feedback network yields the value of (0). With this value of n(@) we can then determine J. The ratio Kf, yields the equivalent linear loading of the tuned-colletor circuit, from which we can determine Qy and, in turn, the distortion of the output sinusoid.216 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS. 63 63 FREQUENCY STABILITY ne of the more important attributes of an oscillator is its ability to maintain an ‘output frequency which is independent of changes in temperature. supply voltage, circuit loading, humidity, ete. Undesired frequency variations ean, is general, broken into two broad categories: “direct” frequency variations end “indire Irequeney variations. Direct lrequency variations result from changes inthe param- eters which directly control a9, For example for the oscillator of Fig, 6.1-6 a is given By wp = 1/4/EC: hence, ifL of C varies with ‘emperature, wy also varies with temperature. Quanttatively this variation in ay may be expressed in the Form Ao 1 (Begs 4 Mee, te. 4 (lear «Sea on Afat 480 alec ‘where Aco is the variation of the oscillation frequency resulting from variations of ‘AL and AC in the inductance and capacitance respectively. Clearly a 1% increase in L or C results in a 174 decrease in a9. Therefor, forthe ease of an LC oscillator of the form of Fig. 61-6, the main frequency-determining clements, the inductance land the eapacitance, must be stabilized against temperature variations stray loading, ete. ‘Temperature stability is usually accomplished by trying to choose an inductor ‘and eupueiter(orresistors and capacitors in an RC oscillator) with equal and opposite Temperature cocfcients, thereby causing the variations to cancel in Eq. (63-1)+ Stray capacitive or inductive loading is usual!y minimized by coupling the LC tuned circuit to the active element by means ofa step-down transformer, #s shown in Fig. 64-9, Still father requency stability against temperature may be accom= plished by placing the main frequency-determining elements in an oven. Thisis often ‘done when a crystal is employed in liew of the LC tuned circuit inthe oscillator. In general, direct frequency varition of wy may be expressed as 632) where the a's ate the various circuit parameters on which oy depends. Clearly the highest ditect frequency stability is achieved by choosing an oscillator configuration {or which a depends on the fewest number of parameters (g) and then stabilizing these parameters against environmental changes. Alternatively the parameters may be chosen in such a way that their net variation with ambient changes results in a small valve Aw. ‘Fypeal Land C temporatare coefficients ate tabulated by Ekenberg: BK. Ekberg. “Fre {quency Stablty of Clapp VCO," IEEE Transactions on Insinenenaion ail Meaeirenen, IMB, No.3, pp. 221 (Sept 1969, 63 saaquency stauuty 217 “The oscillator whose polo-zerodiagraia is shown in Fig. 6.1~5 and dhe Meacham bridge ocllator (Fig. 61-70) are two examples of oscillators with valves of tuhish depend on a siall number of parameters, Consequently these pole-zero Giagrams represent optimum configurations for achieving a high dircet (roquency ssabily Tlzet frequency variations are a result of parasitic reactances which introduce ditional poles and teres, with unknown locations into the pok-zeo diagram of Sib). thereby changing te frequency of oscillation. Unfortunately many of these teen voor are functions of temperature and supply voltage (ee, ovsput capacitance fe transistor isa fonction ofthe collector-to-emitter voltageand therefore the supply voltage) ‘Fo vechow these parasitic poles and zeros fete, we recall that isthe radian frequency at which he net phase shift of Ay(p)is zero. Since the parasitic poles and zeros intredvee additional phase shift (et us say 4) the frequency of osilation sera shit by an amount Aas which causes the main frequency-dstermining elements ar aad the known poles and zeros) to supply phase shift of ~ A and thus main- tain zero phase shift around the feedback loop. For example if we have a erytal orilator that operates near the nowninal series resonant hatweney, wp, ofthe crystal then ifthe rest ofthe circuit suddenly intro- aon an additonal phase shit of +1 deg the operating frequency shifts until the ac ieion through the crystal produces an additional compensating ~1 dog of pase shift, Its apparent tha if the erystal has a variation of phase wile with fe- fauency oft deg/Ftz then only a 1 Hz shift in frequency results “Thus the greater the phase variation Ap of 4,(o) for a change ‘hw from aig the greater the indirect frequency stability. Conseq0 the indirect frequency stability Sy as Ad te $0 Rafer * dell ew here Ad is the phase variation of 4g(jo) due to changin Frequency Be from oy ne aguas the value of Sp, tho beter the cicuit functions in combating parasite Ghanges in frequency. Specifically, if parasitic elements in the feelack loop chanae the phave by Ag, the resultant change in Frequency from wy is given by Aw = S088, 34) frequency ly we define 633) Note, however, that $, predicts variations in a only for those cxses whste the snain frequeney-determining poles and zeros of A,(p) are stable: Le. direct frequency stability has boon uccomplished iin erdet to compare circuits, itis instructive to evaliate S, fr the several oscil: ators for which the poleera diagrams of A,(p) were presented in Section 61. tn ach case we must ivaluate 4s Fa218 soon oxematons 63 however, ice o=So. were sar the anges conibte by the individual poles and eos of Alo then (63-5) Consequently, by evaluating fora single zeal-axis pole and zero, a pair of complex conjugate poles, and a pair of complex conjugate zeros, we may apply superposition to obtain S, for any of the pole-zero diagrams for Ai(p) lo~ or y af %y fi 7 = t * B Os 7 ” cy) ig. 63-1 Pole zero diagrams ofa single rea-ais zero and prof complex conjugate nro. “The phase angle forthe real-axis zero at ~0, shovn in Fig. 6.3-1(a) is given by (63-6) thus om) A realanis pole —a would have the same magnitude of S,, but a negative sign. Tt is apparent that, if the realaxis pole ot zaro lies atthe origin (w, = 0), its net contribution tothe indirect frequency stability is zero. This is so because the phase 63 FREQUENCY sramuaty 219 of the pole oF zero remains constant at +/2 or —/2 respectively, independent of the variation in ca. In addition, its apparent that if, is close to infinity its contribu- tion to Sp is small “The phase angle ds ofthe pair of eomplex conjugate zeros shown in Fig, .3-M(b) is piven by 6.4 bye tan PEP 4 tan EB, os tive cogs | = _Rawoleil + a5) 7 saa ole = Ge ay oo where wi? ~ 0? 4 fi, For the usual ease where ap = wo (the Wien bridge and the ‘Meacham bridge), Sy simplifies to Sn = B= 20r (63:10) where Ory ~ w/2a is the elective Q of the zeros. Again, fora pair of eomplex con- jugate poles, the magnitude of 8, is unchanged but the sign is reversed. Similarly the sgn would be reversed ifthe zeros were in the right-alf complex plane with the same Ore Or apy above ahs tothe oxlsor for which A) cons of 40 vee ee een Soy and am anders eon shown Fi Cee swig __outin a ing +0 a Se* “TH logit Tr tania * ey ire noc the at hat of = ee, th 5 sins to ‘The minus sign merely implies that is decreasing with increasing wo; hence a positive Ay rom the rest ofthe circuit requires « negative Ag from the frequency Setermining elements and 3 positive shift in frequency. A plot of ~Sp vs @x/0 's given in Fig, 63-2; from this we observe that Sp reaches its maximum vale of —1 when the vo poles of A,(p) lie at the same point. In addition, the masimurn is fuiiently broad so that even ifthe pole positions difer by # factor of 14, Sp has decreased only by & factor of 2 fcom its maximum value. For the oscillator for which 4,(p) hes a pair of complex conjugate poles at cae where « +f = ei = 8) and a zer0 at the origin, Sy may be written ditesly from By, (63-10) as p= -20n a1)220 sINUSoIDAL oscHLAToRS 63 on ar i Fig.63-2 Plot af —S, eof, for dle) = Avni + e010 + 02. ‘where Qr-is the Q of the passive network yielding 4,(p). Clearly, as anticipated inthe previous section, the higher the value of Q,, the greater the immunity to changes in Irequeney due to parasitic elements. For the Wien bridge oscillator for which A4(p) is shown in Fig, 61—1a) and for which 08 = cj = cajog, Sp may be written ditectly as the superposition of Eqs. (63-10) (with a negative sign) and (63-12); thus spur Fo 20 6334 {cis quite apparent thatthe indirect frequency stability of the Wien bridge oscillator ‘exceeds that of the oscillator with two negative teal-ans poles by 20r., while its Frequency stability i essemilly the sume as that ofthe parallel RLC oscillator with comparable Q,. For the Meachain bridge oscillator for which Ay(p) is shown in Fig, 6.1-7(0) and or which wy = «Sp may be immediately written as Sp =MQp + Ord ong, where Or and Or, are the Q's ofthe poles and zeros respectively. As we shall se, in smany eases ‘where A isthe voltage amplification of the active device within the oscillator loop. Hence with = 100 we can obtain an S, 26 times that of the pole vairaione. Thus, 63 FREQUENCY stawuiTy 221 ifthe poles of 4,(p)are the result ofan RLC network with Qr = 100,then S- = ~5200. the poles ate due toa crystal wth Q, = S000, S, can be Increase to 8, = 260,000. For either of the phase shift oscillators for Which ,(p) is piven in Pig 61-7 ( and €),S;-may be immediately writin as olen Seo -Lvedal® 63416) Which, forthe spe-il easet where “This value i signiicantly less than that obtainable with the Wien bridge or Meacham bridge ovillator or with the oscillator shown in Fig 6.1-6 with a high value of Oy. In addition, for the phase shift oscillators w depends on w, (23, and cy’ hence these oscillators have poor direct frequency stability Internal phase shifs are caused not only by reactances within active devices cor amplifiers but by de blocking capacitors, by transformer couplings, and by the presenee of harmonic terms in the active device voltage or curtent ouput. In all ‘ses, the higher the S,, theless troublesome these effects willbe “As we proceed through this chapter it will be useful to bear in mind that itis generally desirable in any oscillator cireuit to provide the maximum possible isola- tion between the device and the network. For one thing this isolation will increase the circuit's frequency stability, since the frequency-affecting device reaetances are normally fanctions both ofthe Q-point and of temperature. Most usc osillaior Circuits achieve this isolation by what amounts to a gross impedance mismatching between the device input and the network output impedance and between the net- ‘work input impedance and the device output impedance. From this point of view oscillator elgcuits ean be classified into the four forms shown in Fig. 63-3. In this igare the deviee is shown as driving the net work, which in turn works into the input impedance of the deviee. The term “eurrentriven™ implies that the network input impedance is small in comparison to the output impedance of the device: the term ‘"voltage-driven” implies that the nctwork input impedances large in compariton tothe output impedance ofthe device. ‘Allsuch clusifications are relative. Thus a S00 deviee input impedance may be considered us an open circuit ithe network has an output impedance vf 50 ‘Most ofthe ereuits of the next three sections will be of the type shown in Fig, {63-3a). The beidge cieuits of Section 638 are normally of the form shown in Fig, 63-36, while certain of the crystal oscillators, as well as some of the circuits of Section 6.10, illustrate the other two forms ‘Fis case results ia the maximum value of Sp.222 SINUSOIDAL oscitaToRS 64 wo ay + ¢ © a0 »o + | » « Ruta a “ | 4 Fig. 63-3 (6) Currntdriven network work- inginte an "open" eit. (6) Currentsriven hetvork working into-a “short” ert 6) Voltagedriven network working into xn “oper?” cea, () Vollagediven network working inte a “short” cea “This generat classification is often useful when one is considering the use of a new deviee in an oscillator circuit or when one is considering w possible new circuit ‘configuration. In such cases its usualy desirable to go back to the basi principles rather than merely to try to “convert” some existing cireut 64 SELE-LIMITING SINGLE-TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR, “The majority of actual oscillators in common application are seif-imiting single- ‘transistor osillators ofthe form shown in Fig. 64-1. In thissection we shall examine the properties ofthis type of oscillator, and in subsequent sections we shall extend ‘ur analyss tothe cases where the active element is replaced by adiferesril pair or Junction field elect transistor. 6a SOLE-LIMFTING SINGLE-TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR 223 oSue Jig. 84-1. Prototype sngle-transistorColpits oso. [Although the fequncydeermising network in his (Cops) olor i a appa apa te eercer, ay he tnaformerite ivorks sow fy Table cerns pea lye! wihow lng ihe anayem, Some oie other configurations Seabownin a oe Porthe ato Fis 64-1 the queen emit eure gven by = Yaa _ Vs a Re where Vezo % 0.65 V for a silicon transistor and 0.22 V for & germanium transistor, “Thor tata inpa ondecane a tb emis by Vs a ta EE. ao © © Fig, 4-2 Other configurations for sngletrnssor oscars, Harley oxilator, 0) Tuned coletoroilator224 sewusoIDAt_ OSCILLATORS 64 no} en] eto WOrQe7100 C-GEME FE) n~CyNlCy3 Siow) eee aye tivte Fig. 64-3 Small signal model for sngle-transiorosilator. and the smalbsignal transconductance bas the forin fg = te Ive assume Op > 10, Qe > 10, and nO > 100, then the capacitive wansormer riay be rplael by the aneformer modal of Table 25-1 toa the small-signal Cellar uit shown in Fig 64-2. Cleary the smlsigna models ideteal to the model show it Fig, 61-6 from which we abscre that growing oselltions cecur tha Hequency of oy = IA LE provided at oe Satan = SEE CH Bate a ‘or equivalently, Gx 4 Gy tno > Badan = (642) fap > fate = GE aay (642) If the inequality of Eq (64-2) is satisfied, the oscillation grows until the transistor nonlinearities reduce Ag(jan) fo unity, at which level the oscillation stabiizes To determine at what armplitude (F) the ac collector voltage o() stabilizes, we 1). that collector saturation does not occur and 2}. that the passive circuit Q; is suiciently high se that for large-signal operation the second and higher harmonics of »)and »() are negligible, and consequently the capacitive transformer can be replaced by its ideal transformer mode! given in Table 25-1, ‘With these assumptions, on a large-signa basis, 20) = ¥,c08.009t and 2f0) = Vi €08 ot + Vass (643) 64 SSLMLMITING SINGLE-TRANSISTOR OsciLLArOR 225 Vevey G(017,608 oo! Ba Foe -Guse CENCE MCI vig Fig. 64-4 Largosignal model forthe cet of Fig, 64-1 where ¥; # n¥, and VY, isthe average value ofthe emitier-to-base voltage. In ad tion, the cicuit for obtaining of) may be modeled xs shovn in Pig, Got-4. In this rode! the nonlinear transistor input characteristic has been replaced by its equivalent linear conductance GxV/ael. Example 5.54) and only the fandamental component fof collector current Gytx)¥% cos aot has been retained, sinos all other harmonic components are effectively shunted fo ground by the high-Qy tuned ireuit. The transconductance G(x) is given by Eq. (54-17). tis apparent that the large-signal model of Fig 644 is identical to the small- signal model of Fig, 64-3 except that G(x} replaces gag: therefore, 4,09) = | Or that value of x = g¥\/kPfor which Gut n'Gy cea fa al — na)” ‘or equivalently, Gh) ee By plotting the constant (64-5) a1 J). a+ me mo! + ape] aoe G+ 8G, Reonll = ma) con the characteristic of Fig. 54-5, we obtain (with the appropriate value of ¥) the Value of x, and in turn ¥, or which the oscillation stabilizes. With ¥; and n known, = Pin is readily determined and the problem is solved. In almost all selFlimiting ossillators, Q is high (to keep the ouput volta sinusoidal) and » <1 (since the output voltage amplitude is usually roquired to be lncge in comparisersvth ¥,). With these wo conditions (Oy 2 1 and.» « #)eertain Simplifcations resui. The fist i that Eq, (64-5) may be closely approximated as| Sate). ao bot 66)225 stwusoIDat oscitaToRs 64 ‘The second is that the total conductance Gr shunting the tuned cireuit of Fig. 64-4 may be approximated by G,. The total conductance Gy is given by Gy = G+ Ge + Ga a7) With the substitution of G,(x) given by Bq, (64-4) into Eq, (64-7), G, simplifies to Gy, ees) Tale Which is the ested result. The implication here is that in «1 the total loss reflected through the transformer ie negligible in comparison with G,. Similarly, ont. ast 0, = Ew eS 649) To addon form & 1 ise demonstrated that r= Or = 10% an) where OC) agg st Or Gee Gain Or Ta GaN hence Qy 2 1 and m <1 ensures not only that u(t) and oft) are sinusoidal but also that the capacitive transformer may be replaced by its ideal transformer model [The reader should convince himself ofthe validity of Eq (64-10}} Example64-1 Forthe Colpitts oscillator shown in Fig. 64-5, determinean expres. sion for wlth C1013 pF 20 64 SSLE-LIMITING SINGLETRANSISTOR OsCILLAvOR 227 Solution, For the oscillator shown in Fig, (4-$ we note that 9a eq = San = 0465 mA, tee hw bua = TF = HX Boe and r= axCR, = 100 Since Qr » 1 and n « 1, and of are sinusoidal and the model of Fig. 6-4 is valid; thus the ossillation grows a cg = 10° rad/secand stabilizes at st value of x for which Gylsi2nq = OA [et Eq. (64-4) or Bq. (64-6). Thstefor, from Fig, S43 (V,= 58 © co), we obtain x = 35 and in tum H, = 99a. Hs = Yn 719.V, and filly 10V) + (19 V)e0s 107, which does not saturate the transistor. otal Harmonic Output Distortion ‘To obtain an expression forthe total harmonic distortion (THD) of wiv. we assume that the distortion of y@) and 2) is suficently small so that i, in the cirewit of Fig. 641 has the form We then replace the transistor input by a current souree i) snd reflect (through the capacitive transformer [by taking a Norton equivalent of the circuit to the right fof G, sind assurning that Gy & negligible in comparison with oC, -+ C:) over the Tequeney range, co ® Ww, ovvupied by ig) — Iyg] to obtain the cicuit model shown in Fig. 64-6. For this circuit the amplitude of the fundamental component ot ven =1) : att)228 spusoipaL oxcarons 64 0 au : Lt LI Dara ups sunt | aa) Fig, 64-6 Citeuit for obtaining THD off. whereas the amplitude of the Ath harmonic component of (i given by taste - 3% i) Zs (Jk (64-12) “ae 2se he « the Qy ofthe circuit of Fig, 64-7 is high, then k ZuGhod = ay (66 Bq, 34-11), In addition, for n « 1, G, + 0G, = Gs: «2% [ET BT eo wom (3a) LS) [A plot of D(x) vs. x obtained by numerical evaluation ofthe significant terms of D(x) is presented in Fig. 64-7. For large values of x, Ae) Te and thus D(x) approaches the upper asymptote therefore (ef, Section 3.5) where 64 SELP-IMITING SINGLE-TRANSISTOR OBCHLATOR 229 es u bias TGs) i Tout humo dinenin 2 09 = / poe Se a Fla, 64-7 Plot of Du) vs. For small values of x, bb) fork = 3.4, nw ~ f i (ch Appendix at back éf book); therefore, D(s) approaches the loner asyimprote 21,0) 3110) ~ ‘These asymptotes are also illustrated in Fig. 64-7. From Fig. 64-7 it is apparent tha, ifthe oscillator stabilizes with x= 10 (V, = 260m), then THD = 0642/0,. Consequently Qp must exoced 64.2 co keep the harmonic distortion below 17% Clearly the smaller the value of x at which the ‘oscillator stabilizes, the smaller the distortion. Unfortunately, small steady-state value of x often results in poor amplitude stability, as we shall seein the following paragraphs, Du) =230 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS. 64 Amplitude Stability ‘The amplitude stability of an oscillator is the sensitivity of the output osilation amplitude ¥; to variations in supply voltage, temperature, ele. In particular, the amplitude sensitivity factor i defined quantitatively as ange, awa where jis the parameter within the oscillator which is subject to variation, Ay is the amount ofthe parameter variation, and AY, isthe corresponding variation in Y ‘Small value of are desirable: the smaller the value ofS, the smaller the changin With changes i ‘With this definition we may evaluate the various amplitude stability factors for the ossliator of Fig. 64-1 by fies writing the output voltage inthe form 8 = —Ver + Moos, 415) wwhete ¥,= Vi/n = KPsfqn and xi the solution of the equation Guts) wal fe Jae) Gy + 3G amo 31Gb)! * GWT | ~ Wl = Wen ‘We then vary the parameter of interest) the desired amount (A) and determine the resultant vale x from Eq. (64-5) o¢ Fig. 54-5 This value of x immediatly yields the new value of V; = kYsjgm from which AY, may be computed and in tum S, evaluated Consider, for example, the evaluation ofS, forthe oscillator of Example 64-1 1s replacement of C, causes the transformer ratio mo increase from 1/80 to 3/160, {an inorease of 50%—that is, Anfn = 3) With the new value of n = 3/160, Gabe) Ge Emo Mag therefore, from Fig, 5-5 (V, = 20) we obtain x 6.1, from which it follows that V,= 845V, AY, = 053V. and 5, = O13 (On the other hand, if Gy, is increased from 100 25 t0 150 &3 in Example 64-1 {gain a change of 50%, then Y= 4.7 V, AV, = 32 V,and Sq, = O81. ‘Several facts become apparent at this point Ifwe wish to minimize So, oF Siea = Spugs We must minitie the Variations of « with Gy oF Tag. We accomplish tis by choosing the parameters ofthe oscillator so thatthe oscillation amplitude stabilizes in the vicinity of x ~ 2, at which value the slope of the GyCsVtag cutve instezpest ‘On the other hand, if we wish t6 minimize S, for n <1 and ¥, ~ 00, we choose the parameters ofthe oscillator so that the oscZlation amplitade stabilizes forthe largest possible value of x such that 2/,(x)/llx) = 2. For this condition, Gd 25 Ge tao 3 hing (6414) 64 SUL-LMITING SINGLE-TRANSISTOR OSCLLATOR 231 and v= Mag . eg a, G, which is independent of»; thus 5, -. Similarly, if we assume thal gag = Qlag/kT is the primary source of parameter ‘yvriation with temperature, we oblain Sp 0 if the parameters ofthe osillator are Chosen so that the oscillation amplitude stabilizes for x as large a8 possible ‘Let us ow try to consolidate the above information in the form of an eximple dealing with the design of an oscillator, (= (0) costo 4h Hk) = Keon 101 Figure 64-8 Example 64-2 Design a Colpitts oscillator which provides an 18-V peak-to-peak, 107 radjsee sine wave, having a total harmonic distortion of 1%, to u loud resistor of 3k ‘The oscillator should make use of available +: 10-V power supplies and provie reasonable first-order amplitude stability with temperature variations. Solution, We fist draw the schematic diagram of the Colpitts oscillator we intend to empioy, as shown in Fig, 64-8. The design entails the choice of C,. Co, Ly Ree and the appropriate wansistor to meet the required specifications “To achieve good amplitude stability with temperature variations, we require the oscillator to stabilize wit a large value of x or (V;)- On the other hand, a very large valve of x requires a very large value of Qy 10 achieve the desired THD, thus we232 sanusorbat oscuaToRs 64 ‘compromise by designing the oscillator to stabilize for x = 10, which is achieved if (el Fig, 54-5 with Vj = 93 Y) 0) Bad MBagll — a) With x = 10, rom Fig. 64-8 we obtain D(x) = 0642; thus to obtain THD = 001, we must have 6419, 42, Op oyCR, cor equivalently Cio 642, “CFC, ~ GRAIUT radioed) c 140 pF. ‘Therefore, L = 1/8 = 467 aH, (Slog tuning of L is usually necessary to obtain the exact required value of a.) In addition, Ye Cx 26mV0) Ho" GeG7 ye (hich ensures ¥j = 9V with x = 10}. From the above value of C and n we obtain © © c= Sm 007 er and C= = 2200pF. With a value for », with G, specified, and with the knowledge that « = 1 and 1Gp-« Gr, we finally observe from Bq, (64-16) that Wale xT 008250, or equivalently, Rye S1SKO [At fiat glance the choioe of the de bias resistor R might sem unimportant; however, this is not the case, since it ditectly determines Jgq, which in torn sets the value of ‘ap and thus the steady-state operating point ofthe oscillator. In choosing a transistor, two Key factors must be considered: (1) the collector te-base breakdown voltage and (2) the inherent frequency-limiting parameters ofthe transistor. In this example the maximum value of vey is 19V; thus 2 transistor ‘with a breakdown voltage in excess of 19 V must be chosen. ‘in general, if the transistor is chosen with an output capacitance small in com- parison with C, and an input capacitance small in comparison with C, the transistor has little effect on the oscillator design. In general, low-power transistors can be found with sufficiently small values of input anc output capacity so that designs similar to the one in this example are valid for oscillation frequencies in excess of 100 MHz 64 SELE-LIMTING SINGLE-TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR 233 Variable-Froqueney Oscillator Ifa single-transistor oscillator is to be used as a local oscillator or a local osilitor= tmixer combination in a superketerodyne (AM, FM, or TV) reesiver, the oscillator is usually constructed in the form shown in Fig. 64-9. ‘The basic reason for this thiee-winding transformer configuration isto isolate the inpot and output capacity of the transistor from the tuning capacitor C by providing 4 step-down transformer fusne ratio bath to the colletor and tothe emitter from the La~C tuned circuit. Such fin arrangement prevents changes in the transistor capacitance, which is quite easitve to small variations in supply voltage, from affecting the Frequency of wsila- tion, particularly at the high-frequency end of the tuning range where C is wsually ‘quite small nd ¥68 wot Ke lg. 64-9 Schematic diagram of oe exitaor Ir the Oy ofthe tuned iets assumed tobe high the ossilator of Fig 64-9 gas the tase signal made for determining 5) a shown in Fig, 64-10% therefore a a TE eee adian egusncy of ty = Ha/LaC and stables hut vale of YR or which (My, /LabGule) T+ Ges GH eee ‘or equivalently, Gale) Gut a Beg Magi Mialls ~ Wi234 SINUSOIDAL oscULLATORS 64 ey VTEE, 8 Mela Fig. 64-10 Largesignal local escilator model ‘Again x is determined from Fig. 54-5, and in turn ¥; is obtained as ¥; = kT x/ga Although m{@) and v,() are reasonably sinusoidal, we should recall thatthe collectar voltage isnot sinusoidal because of the presence of the series inductor (I~ Kf), (ch Section 25) Collector Saturation the value calculated for the amplitude of the fundamental compone't of collector current Je, on the assumption of no collector saturation exccods Y/R; ee + OUR; (in Fig. 64-1), then collector saturation does occur and the tuned circuit voltage is limited 10 Vee + 07. In this case the emitter-base driving voliag= is m times the known tuned-cireut voltage and the amplitude of the fundamental collector current is 21s) Tats) where x= gniVoc + OTYAT in the saturation case. The difference between this current and the allowable net fundamental current into the tuned circuit isthe com ponent removed by the collector-base saturation pulse train. tis apparent that, ifthe foaded Q of the tuned circuit is high, the effect of collector saturation may be represented as an equivalent lineer conductance shunting the tuned circuit to yield a total shunt conductance Grs given by Grs = V/leys ‘whieh for the circuit of Fig, 64-1 reduces to Jey = G,f3)n = ala alee 200) Ges" Fee OF Tes) os Note that this equation is valid when Gys > Gr, that i, only 50 long as saree tion does oceu on the peak ofeach yet "Thus, fcolletor saturation oceus, the output amplitude is rectly proportions, to ec, While the elective loaded Q of the circuit depends on Vee Tas and Specially, Or = oC /Grs 64 SeLp-LIMIING SINGLE-TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR 235 Example 64-3 For the Colpitts oscillator shown in Fig. 64-11, determine an expres sion for 26) 10 (= eos gts He ROU AF eo dv = Sie Figure 64-11 Solution, For the oscillator shown in Fig. 64-11, we note that 1o00pF, = he 10 ade, oie cae ara we y=93¥, Iq = 09308, amt fag = 1280.236 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS 65 Consequently, Gals). G Boa Fae and, from Fig. S4-5, x © 8S; thus ¥, = 221 mV and ¥; = 12.7 ‘Since V; > Vee + 02, itis apparent that collector saturation does occur on each negative peak of of); hence ¥, 1s constrained 10 a peak value of Yg = Yoo + 0, (or 10.7 Vin this case Now /, = 10.71 = 134mV and x = 5.14. From Bq, (64-19) and Fig. 45-5 we note that the collector saturation has increased G> from 100 zmbo to 156 jamho and has reduced the loaded Qy from 100 to 64. Additional calculations ofthe same kind lead to the values shown below for the effects of varying min this circuit. 204 es vo | 0s | et yo | si | 64 vio | 26 | 76 0 veo | 9 (65 SELP-LIMITING DIFFERENTIAL-PAIR OSCILLATOR In any ofthe oscillator circuits discussed in Section 64 the differential pair may te ‘employed in eu of the transistor as the active element. The result isa sef-imiting iferential-pair oscillator similar to the one shown in Fig. 6-1. “Two distinct advantages result from employing the differential pai element. The first isthe fact that the ovtput sinusoid v0) may be obtained at tke collector of transistor 1, which is external tothe oscillator feedback loop, by choosing 2, as. parallel RLC circuit. Consequently, variations inthe load have litle effet fon the frequency or amplitude of oscillations provided that transistor I does not ‘The second advantage is that, fora given value of Oy for Z,, the total harmonic distortion of the output sinusoid is much les than it would be for a single-transistor ‘oscillator. ‘This lower THD is a direct consequence of two fac: () that no even harmonic components exist in the collector currents of either transistor in the diferental pair: and (2) that, for a given input sinusoidal drive level, the harmone Amplitudes of the collector current are signiicans'y smaller than they are fora singe transistor. ‘To determine an expression for 20}, we require a large-signal model for tke dliferential-pair oscillator. By proceeding ina fashion identical to that ofthe previous section, we arrive at the large-signal model shown in Fig. 65-2, which is a valid representation of the oscillator of Fig. 65-1 provided that Qy = ayC/G, > 10, that m= MjLy < 1, and that neither transistor saturates With this model, which is the active 65 GW cost SELE-LIMITING DIEFRRENTIAL-PAIR OSCILLATOR «237 Tae i [oer rreosagt Cie Fig. 5-2 Large signal model for eltsimiing diferent par ost238 SINUSOIDAL asciLLATORS 65 identical to the large-signal model of Example 6:2-3 (except for two compensating phase inversions), we conclude that oscillations occur at « radian frequency of y= Va/E,C and stabilize at that value of x for which? Guo) _ Ane) GG, fe a BD Be os mn this case, x is ound by ploting Gy/gqal ~ n/B) on the curve of Fig. 46-5. With, the resultant value of x, we obtain ¥; = kTx/g and ¥, = Vy/n For the selflimiting differentia-pair oscillator, the total harmonic distortion (THD) is readily found, by methods similar to those used for the single-transstor oscillator, to be of the orm =P 5 m2 “ ri = 2% re) ee ne a es chen w= [Es «9 ‘The Fourier coefficients o,(x) are defined by Eg, (46-10). A plot cf 2x) vs x obtained bby numerical evaluation of the significant terms of D(x) is presented in Fig. 65-3. [Note that, for a given value of x, D(x) for the diflerential-pair cscilltor is lower, by more than a factor of 7, than the corresponding Dix) for the single-transistor oscillator. This, of course, i an anticipated resi. ‘The upper asymptote Dy(x) shown in Fig, 65-3 is obtained by noting that as +00, fey and fey approach square waves and thus (sa) ar Ji, a Delx) ileal - FR eons 659 ‘Therefore, For small valves of x a” FTheapproxination of Gena ~ n/B)by Gu/ean is valid even itn snot much es ha 1, ro Tiled that is lrg. This Srct esl of tefact thatthe base rather tha the ester, beng UIven and dus the reflected loading acrors Gy ie reduced by 2 lator off (fom that obianed Sth a consponding emiter drive, "Therfore nthe diferent pa, Dy C/G, > 1 and Pov reps the conditions of Qy ® I and mer 1 requied of m singe (ransstor ss safcent Conditions tensrethe vty ofthe ea ansformer model, o ensure he validity OF assuming tebe smuseidl and 10 ensure Gp = Gy, 65 SOLE-LIMITING DIFFERENTIAL-PAIR OSCILLATOR ~ 239 ey nf 0185 presi) ous on Fig, 5-3 Plot of Dx) vs. x forthe diferent pai (cf Section 46); therfore, Dix) approaches the lower asymptote § ag ~ 128° Duy = (65-5) which i also plotted in Fig. 65-3 Example 65-1 For the oscillator shown in Fig, 65-4, determine an expression for 240, Also determine the THD of 0) Solution. For the cixcuit of Fig, 65-4, Matas, = 10rndles and Or > Ory = wCR, therefore ifwe assume that nether transistor saturates then the large-signal model of Fig 6.5-2 may be employed. With the use ofthe model we conclude that the oxilla tion frequency is 10° rad/see and that the oscillation amplitude slabilizes for that value of x = g¥,/kT for which Gy) fasts) Ge Pars24 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS. 65 10 Tai Fig 65-4 Forte ceut of Fig. 65-4, of san off where paw tego gle RT kT 260" hence Gal2V 52, which, with the aid of Fig. 46-5, yields x = 42 and in tum ‘Consequently, (0) = OV) + (545 V} c08 107% this value of », doesnot saturate the collector of transistor 2 sass rip 228 eos 373 this value is quite emall, as expected 66 SELP-LIMITING JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS » 241 66 SELE-LIMITING JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS Like the diflerontit pe. the junetion field effect transistor may be used as whe svtive clement in any of the sl-limiting oscillators discussed in Seetion 64. Invaddition, the FET may be employed as the active element of the tuned-este oscillator shown, in Fig. 661 c + Vig.66-1 Tunst-ate junction FET oiler. ‘The tuned-gate oscillator is probably the most logical configuration for a sel limiting FET osillator, since in this configuration the tuned cireut is virally not loaded a all by the FET and therefore it possible to maintain a high value of Oy with its accompanying good frequency stability, Obviously Ra. which is usually Chosen anywhere between {| MQ and 10MO, does not appreciably load the tuned Greuit In addition, with M/L, «1, only aa exceptionally small amount of loading ‘due to the output impedance (both capacitive and resistive) of the FET is reflected through the transformer, The ac component of vs is azo kept small with M/s « the result being a negligibly small "Miller effect”; therefore, the capacitive loading fof the FET input directly across the tuned circuit is minimized. The Colptts, Hartley, and tuned-drain configurations possess none of these advantazes and therefore do not find as wide application as does the oscillator shoon in Fig, 66-1 ‘Note that the FET oscillator of Fig, 66-1 is clamp biased; i. the combination of the capacitor Cg (which isan ac short creat the oscillation frequency) and the fate-to-source junct:¥n diode clamps the pasitive peak ofthe gate-o-source voltage Reecntially 1 zero? pus ile; = Vy, 608 et then tus = ¥,(C08 cat ~ 1). This form [rvaly ves lamp Yo, theurmon bias fthe diode Since Ye funtion of theaverape Ta eieat Fle 1-0 and since am fy Of veal megohms equles the ave die ‘hrvent to be quite sme gg oleh Hs usually equied to be les tan §¥even fr sibcons thos a good fet approsimation we ty usually asune fy ~ 0.242 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS 66 of bias, in contrast with that obtained My inserting a negative voltage source in series with Ro, thus applying a fixed gate-to-source bias, has the advantage that the oscilla- tion amplitude may be stabilized with the FET operating completely within its square-law region. This property is quite desirable when the cireuu of Fig. 66-1 is employed as an “oscillating mixer" (Capter 7), n which ease squareaw operation ‘minimizes undesired intermodulation products. With a clamped bias, the FET transconductance decreases with increasing. sinusoidal input voltage amplitude within the squarelaw region (a necessary condition for amplitude stabiliztion—f. Fig. 49-4); with fined bias, on the other hand, the FET transconductance remains independent of input voltage amplitude for operation completely within the square law region fe Eq, 44-61 Note also thac the transformer in Fig, (6-1 with M/Ly « 1 keeps the reflected impedance in the drain ericuit quite small; hence the output resistance r, of the FET may be neglected in obtaining the FET model or equivalently the drain current ly may be expressed inthe form ta= F(t = 66-0 where Joge is the valle of ip when tgs = O and Vag = Vino, and ¥ isthe pinetnom voltage ofthe FET. In addition, M/Ly < 1 ensures that the ac drain voltage is quite small, eausing, in general, operation completely within the saturation region of the FET, From the above considerations and the assumption that 2 ofthe tuned cirewit 's sufficiently high to keep n(0) sinusoidal (hat is, of) = V,c0s wot), we may obtain the large-signal model shown in Fig. 66-2 for the oscillator of Fig, 66-1. In this ‘model, because of the assumed high Q, only the fundamental component of drain ‘current isrefleced through the transformer, inthe fashion of Fig. 25-7, to obtain the driving current source Me y, FiGatico800h where G,. is the large-signal fundamental transconductance of the s!amp-biased FET. (A’plot of Ow/tqa ¥8. —/¥) is shown in Fig, 45-4) In addit'cn, because of $0.4, cosunt Fig. 66-2 Largesignsl mode! for the twoed gate FET oscilatoe. 67 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS — 243 the assumption of high Q,, the clamp-biasing circuit is replaced by its euivalent conductance Gp, = 3/a, whicn is developed in Example 55-5. With the model of Fig, 66-2, we observe that Fon Alig) = for tay The and that M Gu (06-2) Pe Aili) = FO (66-2) for tht value of Fy fe oie 42 Git 366 166-3) tao where 40 = 2pco!~¥y is the small-signal transconductance of the FET with os = 0. Cleary, once Vy, Ings. Gxs and Ge are specified, ~V,/¥, and in ture Ve, may be determined from Fig. 49-4. ‘Asan example, consider j= 10uH, | Mata, C= 10pF = Ce, Re= 3M, R= SKQ = —4Vy and pss = 4 mA, ‘Therefore, oy = 10 radsee, Oy = 41.3 > 10, tao = 2000 umbo, and Sa = 0.105, kao From Fig 49-4 we obsain —1/¥, = 167; hence Fy = 667 Vn ft) = (667 V) cos 10%. 67 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS: Since 1921 there have been hundreds of artises, tens of chapters in textbooks. und several books about éystal oscillators and piezoelectric resonators. Geiber and Spkest have provided a resent summary of the tate ofthe art with respect to erystals while Hainer? has weien extensively on crystal unit models and the measurement FEA Getter and RA Sykes, “State ofthe Art—Quartz Crystal Units and Ossian.” Pro eb pp. 103-146 (Feb. 1968) Somary of ata and characterises; tem Dig TE Hulne, “The Pesoeectric Crysial Unit~Definitions and Methods of Mesure, Frcs IEEE, pp. 179-201 (Feb 1989) Inelades a 46ers bibliography244 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS 67 of model parameters. Sections 6.12 and 6.13 and Chapter 9 of Edsont and Sections 8.1, 82, and 83 of Grosekowskit provide textbook summaries of many quartz crystal properties and also discuss vacuum-tube erystai oscillator circuits in detail, It is not our purpose here either to provide design information about piezo lecric resonators of to catalog all possible erystal oscillator crieuts. We wish simply to point out the basie properties ofthese resonators and to explain how they may be exploited to produce satisiactory circuits "The rasan why one employs & piezoelectric resonator in place ofa conventional EC combination is thatthe available Q in these mechanical vibration devices may be up to 1000 times greater than that available with conventional elements. As we have seen, indirect Requency stability fs directly proportisal vo Q; hence crystal oscillators are used as fxed-Crequency, highly stable frequeney or timing sources. “The principal material used asa mechanical resonator for oscillator is erytaline quartz. ‘The properties of this material difler in different directions through the Systal; in addition, each diferent “cut” may be mounted and vibrated in several ‘feront ways. These different “cuts” have diferent temperature propertis, dlleent ranges of possible operation, and different relations between their dimensions and their mechanical and electrical properties “Table 65 in Edson surnmarizes the propertics of twelve ofthe 1>re useful “cuts.” Some “cuts,” for example the GT cut, have frequency shifts of considerably than one part per million per degree centigrade over a 100°C range. Other “eats” oo 7 Fig. 67-1 Elearcal mode! fora quartz ert resonator. have less desirable temperature properties but may have higher Q's, lower series resistances, oF more desirable properties at harmonics, The basic electrical mode! for a properly mounted quartz crystal and its holder is shovn in Fig. 6.71 'AS we shall se, the crystals normally operated within 1% ofthe series resonant frequency of one ofthe shunt branches; hence th2 circuit normally is reduced to Co in shunt with a single series resonant circuit. The multiple branches result from WA Bison, Vacoum Tube Osilators. John Wiley, New York (1953), 1H, Grosekowak, Fegueney of Self Osciltions. Macmillan, New York (196), 6 eRYSTAL oscntarons 245 ‘mechanical vibrations at approximately the odd harmonics (usually called overtones) of the fundamental frequency. Since the mechanical frequency of the fundamental vibration is proportional to the erystal dimensions, practical considerations usually limit fundamental operation to the neighborhood of 20 MHz or less. By operating ‘on an “overtone” frequency, exystal oscillators up to the neighborhood of 200 MHz are possible. For higher frequencies we must employ harmonic multiplication from ‘a lower-frequeney cireut. If operation at a particular overtone is desired, then this should be specified when ordering the crystal, Ifa “eur” and mounting are used that minimize overtone effects, then sinusoidal operation may be possible in circuits with no filtering elements ‘except the erystal ise? 1 yy = eee 8) i Pept ok be whee Oe Fig. 67-2 Model fr s crystal its adminance equation, and its pole-zerodingra. Figure 67-2 repeats the simplified version ofthe model together with its admit- tance relationship and polezero pattern In order to understand the particular properties of erystalsit is use to consider typical numerical values fr the erystal perameters, for example, 5 = 107 radfsee, and 2, = 20,000, Which lead 10 C = 0.08 pF, L = 250 mH, and r = 1250. For this typieal ease, the vertical spacing between the pote and the zero in the vicinity of w is approximately246 SINUSOIDAL eSciLLATORS 69 ag200, while the horizontal distance from the j-axis to a complex pole or 10 a ‘complex zero is ci/0,000, or 1200 times the vertical spacing between the complex pole und 2eto locations, Thus near a complex pole one has in ellect an isolated very high-0 pole, while near a complex zero one has in effect an isolated very hih-O zero, ‘Two choices remain before we can select a circuit configuration. We must decide whether we want to use the exystal as a low impedance [near a zero in Zip) oF a pole in Y(p)] or as a high impedance (near a pole in Z{p) or a zero in Yip), ‘and we have fo choose a method of amplitude limiting for the circuit Series resonant mades of operation nsually place the crystal directly in the feed ‘back path or use it ro shunt a bias resistor. In both cases, the object is to keep the Joop gain below the minimum required for oscillation except at the series resonant frequency of the crystal. Since che pole of Yip) [zero of Zip) is independent of Co such circuits should nor be affected by eircult-caused variations inthe erystal’s shunt capacitance, ‘A capacitance C, in series with the erystal modifies the seale factor of Yip) from Coto om oH Cy and shits the ples of ¥() rom oto [Ex Ore, Vat * When Co » C, this capacitance changes the approximate vertical polezero spacing from Can2Cy to Gee _ Cs Hy G+ Cr ‘Thus thepossbility ofa slight adjustment ofthe series resonant frequency ispurchased at the expense of a narrowing ofthe pole-zero spacing. Iq = 100C and C, varies from Co to Co/5, it possible to have a frequency tuning of 0.166% of wg while reducing the minimum pole-ero spacing by only §: ‘A great many vacuum-tube oscillators employ the crystal operating in x high= impedance mode. Field eect transistor oscillators ‘end to follow this same patter {all these cirevits the operating frequency tends to be below the zero of Y(p} [pole ‘of Zip) ata distance w/Q, oF less from it At these frequencies the crystal looks like parallel inductance-reistance combination and is used to replace an inductance in a Colpitts-like or Hartley-like configuration. Such arrangements can be “tuned” by varying the shunt capacitance, Co For operation at higher frequencies and higher overtones, the pole-zero spacing ray be ineressed by adding a shunt inductance L that resonates with Cy at the ‘operating frequency. With such an arrangement a new pair of complex poles in ‘Ziphis formed these poles lie between the complex zeros of 2) and the origin. For 67 CRYSTAL osciLiavoRs 247 Cols = LC and Cy » C, the approximate vertical spacings of the wo complex poles ‘about the unchanged zero position is NE nico = 0a + 1A amt (8. We nt me a te ai te yaad Ss Ce eats caren yee ober are ans ria ke See aur ce Sul dopo el Macey hy ol educa pee oy SEE Tete cei ated weet eye atts) Meena soe henaeldcesnsn pg wry Fis vthe dal ofa high-Q poral esonant circuit where only the fundamental vgs ex.248 snusoIoaL oscitLaross 61 w= Ke +H cote O so Pnet ‘serene fia, win peso of oy WG /C HD, C= 6 [+E Fig. 67-3 Seis mode ysl ostiator ‘where Via if the amplitude ofthe fundamental emitersase voltage Now Veo i {fanetion of, and fy which ean be ound by assuming that an ac current source land a de current source drive the emitter-bate jnction and calealating the funda mental componeat of te emitter voltage, [Nole tht the emiter-base voltage is ne Tonge sinusoidal since the crystal separies he jonetion fram tac assumed sinusoil voltage 01) ¥ ig tye Deg + Tey 20801. (6-2 then sey inte 4 Ho (s+ [con (67-3 is a Trg Hence, ifthe last term in Fa, (6.7-3)s expanded in a Fourie series, we may determine Ye 0 bo the orn Yen EL 7 -sFi} om 67 cemvera. seruiatons 209 where y = Ir/leg: © sition, van Mot 2 TP] ws For this ease we define a fage-signal average fundamental transistor input conductance us Iso. Hee iP a fory $06, A plot of Cling # shown in Fig. 67-4, If we now assume that the feflecied loading of she crystal resistance i aeies withthe transistor inp rexisianee 19) » | Geftoe ost oa a | 1080 Bye es| ~“ 83 | abe ae \ 83 | oper SS | ties = | Ss ar as 06 8h olathe Fig, 61-4 Novi input conductance fora crrntrven justion 11,1) across Ry is neeigible, then the loop gain for the ciruit of Fig. 64-3 may be witen 8 76 hence the asilaton stabilize for that value ofy = Ju/leg for which Aula) = orequivaenty, So), 7-7 “veg Hay — lla’ bettas where « is the se*ir resistaner of the crystal, Ry is the Toad resistance, and acute + Cah250 SINUSOIDAL oscHLLATORS 69 Its apparent from Fig. 64-4 that for reasonable amplitude stability yy should be between 04 and | times Igy oF that 050 095, (67-8) aanaes tannery eR, =) In order to caleulate the operating amplitude, one calculates Gyno from Bq. (617-7) and uses Fig, 67-4 to find y. ‘Then, since V, = al, one finds that Y= opteahy ‘As an example, we might modify the cituit of Fig, 64-5 to include the erystal fas in Fig. 67-8. If we increase from 1/60 10 1/50 white mins 'wing all the other ‘quantities a their previous values, then for ¢ = 98 and = 1259, Gai) _ 56 Emo TOS a, from 67-4, y = 082, so that fe, = 0182fgg and V, © 37 or a(t) = (OV) + 37 Veos ox. ‘Theeffctive loaded Q ofthe crystal is gL divided by r + Ry = 128 +71 = 195.0 hence the erystal Q hus been reduced from 20,000 °> 12,800. “The erysal dissipation for thiscaseis yr/2 = 8 4 thisamount a dissipation will certainly not eause excessive frequency shifts In making the previous calculations we assured that the tuned circuit consisting of L, Ry, and C,C3/(C, -+ Ca) Was tuned {0 the ses resonant frequency of the exystal [the pole of ¥(p)}in Fig. 67-2. We might ask what happens to the amplitude and ftequency of the oscillations as the tunéd cireuitis detuned oF mistuned. Ona small-signal basis, in the vicinity of the pole in Yip) of the erystal, Yio) is closely approximated by Ya) & Oe, Ue) * a+ aD were dL 60= 0-H, Wy +WX2m, and Y= a, Bi sat Gary Ving “The normalized form of the variations in the magn’tude and phase of this function are given by the Q = co curves of Figs.2.2-7 and 22-8. The same normalized curves fare also valid forthe impedance ofthe tuned circuit near pascbrse SSEEEESS Gia + GAOT where the subscript ris used to dilferentiste the parameters of the tuned cireut from those ofthe crystal. 2G), Or ¥ woRiC, (67-9) 67 CoRYSTAL oscutarons 251 we detune the tuned circuit by «9/80, (2 kHz in the example where Qy = 100 and ay = 10"), we reduce the magnitude of Zo) from to 070K, and introduce ‘phase sift of 14. To cause a return to zero net phase shif the operating requency imust shift until the erystal phase shift supplies the compensating 18". Since the tffetive crystal Q is much higher than the tuned-cireult Q, the frequency ne only shift by da = co/8Q, (16 Hz when oy = 10" and Q;, = 12, 00yf; however, this fre ‘quency shift causes an equivalent normalized decrease in the magnitude of Yu) “Thus, if we let 1 Tea? sich ste normalized desea inthe magsitude ofthe tanec impedance as well asthe decrease in the magnitude of the erystal admittance, then Eq. (6.7~1) becomes (61-10) 0) N\t 7 wae (aes =n a If Say is excesave, then GylNtig exceeds unity and oscillations ccuse (ef Fig. 67-4), Thus dewning the tuned circuit eauses only & smal shift in frequency ‘ot may cause an appreciable change in amplitude, With N ~ 097, Fu) with proper tuning ¥, = 3.7 Y. Thus good amplitude stability in this citcuit demands Feasonable frequency sibility in the wed circuit. If we assume that transistor feactances are negligible, then tuning the tuned circuit for maximom output amplitude yids operation at the series resonant frequency and thus minimizes the effects of mistuning oa ine amplitude. ‘Numerous vatiations of this basic circuit are apparent. For example, if we isolate the crystal from the emitter by an emitter follower and then use the same emitter resistor for both the oscillator tansistor and the emitter follower, then a dliferential-pair oscillator results. Figure 67-5 illustrates such a circuit. Ti such ezcuts it will often be true that Ry is small with respect to the “average” largesignal input impedance of Qs. When this isthe eas, the driving voltage will sill be sinusoidal and, except for the need to aecount for Toss in gain vhrough the Ry Feyuarsttenvator, the amplitude calculation wil be idemtical to that of Section 65. Ti’, becomes too large then an exact ealculation will require an expansion similar to Eq, 67-4) for the differential pai. While such a calculation is quite possible it seldom appears 0 be necessary, and hence the results ae not presented here. yx ost, and ee 25V 3. sagR, = 25 {We assume ere that ds neglibe in comparison with du, $0 thatthe ef of dy onthe {naghitude and phase of he waned eruit may be neglected,252 aNvsoibat escuLaToRs 67 67 ‘cavsTAL oscutaToKs 253 arc SR Fig, 67-5 Diflorental- pic erystalogelator Se, oxo ar | fede | notes | i Re | © | Fig, 61-6 Another series mode crystal stilt, | ig. 7-7 (a) Pierce sircut (Capit like b) Miller cicat Manley-Ihs, Ifthe crystal overtone frequencies are properly suppressed, then operation ofthis Itisapparent that, for satisfactory operation in such a circuit, we requirea much circuit is possible with commercial integrated-cirevit differential pairs in which 3 higher erystal series resistance than in the previous cases. This is true because the load resistor seplaces the tuned circuit and the combination of the exystal series | lective Q is reduced to rR, + Ry + 7) ofits initial value, where r isthe crystal resistor and the base input resistor replaces the capacitive attenuator. f Series resistance and Rand Ry are the eieuit outpat and input resistances respec-254 SINUSOIDAL sciLLAToRS 63 tively. ICR, = 4k, &, resis ‘Another variation of the single-ended circuit is shown in Fig. 67-6. If n= Mjd. = 1/S0 and r = 1250, then this cieuit hus the same output aimplitude as the circuit of Fig, (7-3. The esleulation of this amplituse is performed in exactly the fashion outlined previously. Intuitively we se thatthe circuit can have adequate Joop gain to cause oscillations only when cis near the series resonant frequency of the efystal (Le, when the low series erystal resistance bypasses he large emitter impedance Figure6.7~7 illustrates two possible high-impedance mode FET (or vzcuum-tube) crystal oscillacor circuits, I both eivouis the e:ystal behaves like an inductor and the operating frequency is near, but slightly below, the pole in 2(p). For the Piero 5000, and 1OKQ, then only a § degradation of © o which for Cy « Ce and Re >» Rpleads to Gy ~ I/Ry, where Rp isthe lox resistor. ‘The required G, is much smaller than for dhe series mode transistor; ho #7ver, since the available G. from an FET or vacuum tube isaiso much smaller the combination is ceasonable, That the operating frequency mast lie slightly below the pole frequency is seen by considering the erystal as an equivalent inci.ctance whieh resonates with the series combination of Cp and Cg. Ooly within several multiples of dpa/Q, thlcw os wil thecryeal havea safSdent mductive rescence, c Oy > GEG + Gm, or @ a Nfs ce Ea a FS Fig. 67-8 Series mode FET crystal osiator 68 squrcona 255 Similar arguments hold for the Miller ciruit, where C resonates iwith an equivalent inductance from the crystal in series with an equivalent indvetance fom the drain-tuned cirevit. The algebra is more complicated inthis ease and lends tle insight int the eircuit operation; hence itis not presented here. Figure 67-8 shows a series mode crystal oscillator circuit which isa variation of the FIT circuit of Fig. 6-1. In this case the smallsignal g,, with the erystal removed, is reduced t0 galll + £aR.). IPR, i suciently large so that Ea, (66-3) ‘cannot be sitisted even for zero gate bias, then, with the crystal replaced, osilations can occur only near the rystal's series resonant frequency. ‘As in the bipolar case, the source current i forced to be sinusoidal; hence again eamplete caleulation necessitates finding the fundamental source voltage as & function of the ac and de currents. 68 SQUEGCING Inselimiting sinc-svave oscillators whore the feedback loop is closed wich coupling capacitor, itis pose te have an interaction between tne me constanis ofthe bias “ind coupling cireuits of the loop an the Hime constants ofthe high-frequency tuned Girouits of the lesy such thet @ selFpreduced amplitude mzedulation of the high frequency oscillation occurs. Such selé-modulated behavior Known as squeeging. “Thelow-lrequency variations of the envelope ofthe high frequency may be sinusoidal orexponential * Tn this section. we indicate an approach that either allows us to design for deliberate squegging of, a8 is more oflen ‘2 case, guarantees that it will not occur. First ne shall out!“ie @ general method, and then we shall apply it to a speciie transistor cireuit te chia definite numerical results, Tn our aalysis we assume that conditions exist for normal high-lrequency oscillations to oceur and that these oscillations have been set up. We then examine the small-signal low-pass transfer function that governs the amplitude ofthe envelope Cf these osilations. Ifthe low-pass transfer function has only Tet-half plane poles, then after an initial (ransient at ¢ = 0, the amplitude remains constant tits desired wale. However, if this low-pass transfer function has right-half plane complex Conjugate poles, then sinusoidal oscillations of the amplitude occurs and if it has Fight-half plane *el-ani pole, then exponential buildups and decays of the amplitude ‘Since we want some information about the onset of squegging, we are interested in the perturbation of the parameters relating to the envelope around theit normal seudy state values. Consider fist the generalized selPlimiting eapucitivly couples becilator shown in Fig, 6 $-1, for which the self-limiting transistor oscillator shown in Fig, 68-2 is 2 special case. If for the circuit of Fig, 68-1 we assume a small perturbation v4(?) on the envelope of of), that is, H(t) = [Vs + lt cost, then « small perturbation (results in the envelope ofthe fundamental component of i{0, We note, however, that the right-half portion of the eiewit of Fig. O81 Is256 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS 68 identical tothe cireuit of Fig. 56-1 ; thus (0) may berelated to, (t) by the admittance YG) given by Eq, (546-3). In addition, if Zya(p) is a syminettic nar-ywband filter ‘entered about og {which it almost always is} then the results of Section 33 tell ws that v4 (0 is related 80 the envelope variation of the fundamental compcrent of the ehh Noptinear 200} )X cose A= fo hy 04 ag F008 Dat 4u)= Fig, 68-1. Generaliod se iiting cspaiivey coupled osciltor(oatinea bad) acon ppeo | o af | Lh i Fig. 6-2 Transistor ocilator, iis sssumed that collector saturation doesnot occur and that normal highequency esellations are possible) 68 sauvoune 257 = “a Pr ee ep 8) Arab =27 102212409 Fig. 68-3 Envelope eedbuck cro, rare current driving the flter by the low-pass equivalent transfer function 7.,(p) of the filter. The complete low-frequency feedback circuit relating /(°) and v4 (7) is shown in Fig, 68-3, from which it is apparent that Areal) = #% (PZ 2,00 (68-1) If 1 ~ Araalp) = 0 contains roots in the right-half complex plane, then sqveuzing results, Even ifno right-half plane roots exist, the postions ofthe ll-hatf plane roots 2 ofthe envelope transients when power is applied Lo the ossillator fre usa goodi arao “To carry the analysis further, we requite expressions for ¥(p)an8 Z0) For the tans oullatr of Fl 69-2 (or any ofthe selimiing ransstor osilatoes iscussed in Section 84, Ys given by (6B. 56-8) Js Ax] Mot, [: we Yi) i pee where x = Cells in = alu T, and Ais gven by Eq (56-7) and plied vs. in Tnaddition, fy = UgCRy > 10, then ky Zale) 68-2) 2RyC, Ris the total loading across the tuned-collector circuit, and aR. where ¢ he M/ly. As sequined ofa low-pass equvatent, Z;2(0) = Zia) Now with txe cite values for Z)2,(9) and YP) Arsh raters to T yf ee oe258 sto: onan és Mowe since the ci is sumed 10 te essing tay Al) =o cmc, wea 1 oe sty = Glan Sa 10. (The latter condition is necessary if Cy i 1 be considered ‘asan ac short circuit) 68 syuncan 259, Fig. 68-4 Poleero dtngam of Ap) oot ecus of = ALaadPl = 0 sis) Ta) Sauepsing our peat ome Fs Clte au ro) ig, 6845 Plot of A) For example, if 2yCelé = 20 and Q, = 50, then from Bq, (64 5b) and Fig. 68-5 we see that @ design value of x = 64 will cause squegging. For proper non- squegging operation of such a cireuit, either x must be kept small (below 64), oF Or must be increased If squegging is allowed to occu, then its intial frequency of sinusuial variation willbe the frequency at which the oats of I~ Ayip) = Deross the janis or [r= ABAD) _ ouy/T = AAS) ae VDC 68-6)260 stwusowat osciLtaTons 68 By combining terms we ean write ; sh Aiea Tolx) Fale) “able 681 Hats several values of (T= AGG Table 6-1 x | yim am oo ‘008 lo 036 20 a3 30 86 so | ass 109 097 © 100 soc wig lew expansions for 1) ands on cr snow that 0 wii Vira 21 “Therefore since the exact foquency of squegging i ekdom of peat importance and Since oqueing is most kel for = 3, som reasonable to rewate Pq (68-0) 8 “ot ~ 5/165) 20 He0C e/a) aot te Prvious rams, wher Op = 0, aul = Band x 64, we find One ean ig ¥ OglATS Tn actual circuits the values to be used for C and sor Ce are usually obvious from inspection. For example, ia the Colpite-type circuit C = C,Cy/(C, + C2) and Ce= C, + Ca. Ifa bypass capacitor Cy is placed from the base to ground (as shown in Fig, 4-1), then Cy} — a) must be added in series with C, to determine the total coupling capacitor. ‘A similar technique, starting with the results of Fig. 68-3 and evsluating the four partial derivatives, ether analytically or experimentally, will ead to a similar set of results for vacuum-tubet or FET oscillators. In all eases squegging can be stopped, ‘Pawo sources that consider squesgng in th vacuurn te casein some deal are: (1) W. R Moet ean, "Crier forthe Amplitade Stabity ofa Power Oss,” Proc IRE, #2. pp. 178 791 Dee 1954); and (2) 8, G. Dammers, J. Haan) J Otte, ane H. Van Suchet, “Saucesing Oselators in Apalicaton of the Blecronie Valve ix Rio Receivers and Amplifcs, Book IV NU. Philip’ Glonianapenatricken, Eindhoven, Nethetan (195) Chaper IE, pp. 227-250. Inthe vaca ube canis not possible to rive a early soo a compas nor universal esl swe have obtained hee fr the ransisor. 69 RIDGE OSCILLATORS — 261 iTit occurs, by some combination of 2) reducing ihe size of the coupling capacitor (if other restrictions will allow this reduction), ') raising the tuned-circuit Q, and «) reducing the activeelement driving voltage. 69 BRIDGE OSCILLATORS Bridge oscillators utilize the transfer function ofa bridge network to produce a pir ‘of high-O right-half plane complex zeros. As was pointed out in Section 6.3, such a Sctof zeros contributes directly tothe indirect frequency stability ofthe vic Tn this section two basic bridge circus are discussed, The list is che Gxed> frequency Meacham bridge. in which the already high Q of a erystal resonator is rnultiplied by several additional orders of magnitude to yield a very stable citcuit ‘The second is the wide-range variable-frequency circuit known as the Wien bridge doseilator Inthe Wien bridge oscillator the aim isnot to achieve exireme frequent Stability, but rather to achieve the stability and waveform purity of an LC eireuit of reasonable Q while retaining the wideband tuning capability of RC networks 4 'A bridge oscillator consists of three main elements: fa) the bridge circuit b) linear amplifier, and ©) a bridge-baluncing circuit or element ‘As we shall ste, the desirable propertss ofthe bridge oscillators are obsained conly ifthe bridges operated as close to balance as is possible. Sinee the ampliier fain times the Bride error signal must be @ constant :f stable optration is 10 be Schieved, and since tne ernpliier gain A cannot be assureed to be a constant, We Achieve umplitade control by sampling the output amplitude and using this sia 10 provide exselly ibe zecessary bridge unbalance. ‘Figure 69-1 flustrates both bridge circuits under diseusion, With vacuurntude circuitry the selF-balancing effeet is often achieved with a positive-iemperature- Coefficient resistor (alight bulb) in the upper half of the negutive feodback a {element R.). In adcion to being somewhat sensitive to ambient temporature, ‘lements afen require more power for wc: 9peration than the total power wailable froma sinall semiscs.ductor operational amplifier; hence in semiconductor citeuitty its usually more r= sonable to obtain the selP-balancing efect with an PET, a light- sensitive resistor, or perhaps a diode acting asa controiled resistor. ‘While we could operate a bridge oscillator with a simple diferentint-pair circuit plier, the desirable properties of the circuit require high voltage ga ach Fe crate ill of RC edbuck otilators thal are misnamed Wien bride cis these Ts do nor contain any bridge sroctare and ene donot have the properties dsserined here $ Wisn bide oilers are common wih 10/1 variations in frequen pr ic rd overall Eetenuge of TOY, sy from 2Hz to M2. With an RC network 10/1 warauion of R or C (Sees af igyt saaion of frequency, wile tthe LC ease it yields only = 3161 waition. In SSiston, fr Irequences below several kiobery linear inductors become both wnwikly ame expensive262 SINUSOIDAL OSCULATORS 69 Anim AY cosa uo WEES, Fig, 69-1 (a) Meacham bridge) Wien brides hence we assume an ideal operational amplifier with a sufficiently high-impedance dlferential input that bridge loading may be neglected and with a suliiently low ‘output impedance thatthe bridge does not losd the amplifier. So Tong as we restrict the outpat signal level to several volts and the frequency range to below, say, 10 MHz. then such amplifiers are widely available at relatively low prices. In practical circuits, ‘particularly at low frequencies where impedaner-levels are high, one oten uses as FET pair at the input to the differential amplifier to further reduce the effect of lading. Meacham Bridge 1 there is ero phase shit through the amplifier, then the Meacham bridge oscillator of Fig. 69-1a operates exteemely close to the series resonant frequency of the erystil and thus Az io)is given by Rs ea 6-1) R, Ayljen)) = +a{ Bs Lino) a We define N = Ruf, M = Ryjr. and 8 = NM ~ Ry/r, ICON ++ 1)M > {5 then stable oscillations occur [4,(ja) = 1 when n+ a be 69-2) [Note: 5 ~ 0 corresponds to perfect bridge balance, while a slighsly negative value (of is obtained when o,(:) 8a small negative voltage relative to ‘te defised polarity.) For example, if the bridge arms are nearly equal, so that Af = N= 1 then b= aja; hence if A> 100, certainly [8] « (N + 1M and cer assumption is justified, It will be the job of our bridge-balaicing circuitry 10 adjst 3 s0 that Eq, (69-2) alvays satisfied regardless of variations in. 69 BRIDGE OSCILLATORS 263 “The complete expression forthe loop gin ofthe Meacham bridge is wiven by (oo) “The polezero diagram of A,(p) is given in Fig 6.1-7(b}. [The reader should convince hhimeelf that the equation for Aq,, in the figure is identical 10 Eq. (69-21) Wis Apparent thatthe elective 9 ofthe zer0s ot (Phas the ‘while the Q of the poles is given by I we define the Q ofthe crystals as, = ofr, then we obtain the following inter- sting ratios: 2 a= 90+ Ma 4 Sone 3 é NA = fe or a> 100 which completely independent ofthe purely resistive side of the ris. nd Ry NM=8 NM __NA o NM = 3M NA 9-4 » 0. ERR ED os Clearly, for @ given crystal, the greater the ratio Qu/Q,, the greater the indisest Frequency stability (see Eq, 63-15) “The ratio Q./0, is a function of N which is geometticatly symmetrical about N= i, where it oblains its maximum value of 4/4, By making N= 4 or 4, we reduce 0/0, 10 64% ofits maximum value; by making N = 10 or yp, we reduce the ratio to 38%, ofits maximum value Ive wish to vary N from unity, we suspect that it would be desirable to inerease it since this Would raise the bridge impeda.c: level; higher impedianoe evel would in turn make the Sridge easier to drive reduce the erysial current, and reduce the ‘exystal dissipation. ‘From Eq, (6) we see that for N = 1a 604B amplifier gain cun lead to a frequency stability enhancement 250 times that obtainable with the crystal alone, ‘Of course, to bersfs from this increased indirect frequency stability we must ensure264 SINUSOIDAL ascILLATORS 69 4 high degree of direct frequency stability; i, we must make sure that of of the ‘xysial remains stable, This is usually accomplished by placing the erystal in an ‘oven which maintains its temperature constant within afew degrees Celsius, ‘A beautiful feature ofthe Meacham and Wien bridge oscillators is that the seme factors which lead toa lage indirect frequency stability factor also cause the output ‘oscillation amplitude ¥, to be insensitive to variations in the amplifier gnin tha is, they cause the amplitude sensitivity function 3, to be small (f. Section 64). Speci cally, weir «= NA (69-5) hhenoe 5, is minimized with N = 1 and A as large as possible. ‘To demonstrate the validity of Eg. (9-8), we assume that Ry is the bridge- bslancing element which decreases with increasing ouiput voltage amplitude V, as shown in Fig, 69-2. Although « hyperbolic relationship is shown between ¥, and R, ,the same results may be obtained for any similar relationship Letween ¥, and Ry However, it is apparent that such a voltage resistance relatirship does lead to amplitude stability. IF V, should decrease for some reason, Ry ineteases and in turn fenuses 4,9) [given by Eq, 69-1)] to increase, thus restoring the sutnut oscillation amplitude, Fig, 69-2. Relationship between the bridge balancing resistor R, and the output voltae amp nae ‘The amplitude Vigy at which V; stabilizes may be found directly from the curve of Fig, 69-2. Mwe ascume that i large (which it must be for a well-designed circu then 6 is small, since Eq. (69-2) must be satisfied in the steady state. A small valve ‘of 6 implies bridge balance or, equivalently, Ryes = RpRy/r; hence the value of 1, whieh resuls in Ry * RyRy/r on the curve of Fig. 69-2 is Vigs. Clearly, if we desire 4 specific output amplitude, we must choose our voltage-controlied resistance to be equal to RjRy/r for the desired odtput amplitude. Or, equivalently, for a given Ry-V, charscteristic, Ry must be chosen such that Ry » Ry/N forthe desied output 69 Ripoe osciLiATRS 265 amplitude, For the optimum exse of N = 1, Ry ~ Riss. From the above reasoning itis apparent that, iA is sufficiently lage to keep the bridge balanoed andi Ra, Rss and the Ry-V, characteristic are tbe, then the output amplitude is quite table ‘We now evaluate S, quantitatively by noting that A _ AY, aR 0 8 GA TV OR, 08 Od (69-6) Since ¥, = VER, In edition since R, = NM ~ 8), and from Eq, (65-2), 25 _ w+ at un Consequently oN + aya _(N +1 AR AN Sine {drops ou! ofthe expression for Sj, we sr thatthe exact fora of te oR, chanactritis ot eral oo long Re produers the desited Vis “ho praca asacham bridge oxllstor cruisin which Ry B contolled invernly withthe ct ampltede ae shown in Figs 69-3and 69-4 In Fig 69-2 iperDurbut voltage dries small light source which Auminaes a High-ssnstve (for large 4 Lightsenitive esr Fig. 69-3. Meacham bridge controlled by light-sensitive resistor.266 SINUSOIDAL @sciLLAToRS a fnsuated-gute PE Fig, 69-4, Measham bridge controll by enhancement mode insulaed-gate FET. semiconductor resistor. As the output voltage and, in turn, the power to the light source increase, the semiconductor resistance decreases. Many sealed units con- Jing both the light source and the semiconductor resistor wre available com ‘mercially with nominal resistance values (with no jlumination)frorm sevzral hundreds ‘of ohms to several hundreds ofkilohms. The Raytheon Comporation produces a line ‘of such elements under the trade name of Raysistorst In Fig. 69-4 the output voltage drives a zeak envelope detector of the form ‘iscussed in Section 105 to develop a de voltage proportional to V. This de voltage in turn inversely controls the drainsouree sesistance of the enhancement mode ingulated-gste FET. Since the drain-soutce resistance in ths ereuit remains linear ‘only for drain-source voltages under 200 mV, thave will be some distortion in the voltage across the FET if V; is designed to stabilize at too high a level. Fortunately, however, the Meacham and Wien bridge circuits possess a large amount of negative feedback (as the interested reader may calculate) at the harmonies of wo ; therefore, very little of the harmonic componerts appearing across the FET appear at the ‘ouiput, especialy if 4 is large. Thus, for large A, nonlinearities introduced by Ry {do not appreciably destroy the sinusoidal purity of the output ‘Allbough maximum indivest frequency stability and minimum amplitude sensitivity both demand that N= R,/r= 1, the permissible crystal dissipation somelimes requires us to select an N diferent from 1 and make up the deficiency it Spand S, with increased amplifier gain. Excessive crystal current may cause the crystal to fracture. Flat statements about the size of @ destructive current are dificult to make, since it may exceed 25 mA Tor a physically robust low-frequency unit and it may be less than 1 mA for a fagile F Apossibie disadvantage of he Rayitor sx contol element ati equies clave large Amount ofp current and aio tends to be somewhat expensive, 69 tuupae asciiatos 267 high-frequency unit, Even without approaching the level of destruction. ‘wishes to keep the erysial dissipation below one miliwatt so as to sere suck neting usally causes shi fequency of the ey resonances Fenny td atetions of ach shits wil bea function ofthe “et f the ct aaron at sci renonance, the costal power V22rtt + Np hones for) 1bbd) ands maximum allowable ental power of 1 mV, we have on 7 | as a | as i | 80 Srna vlues of wl pace even more severe initations on Wien Bridge For the Wien brid cieut of Fig, 69-1(0) the loop ein i given by pavere ERG) "RECS oy T zal RRO “The pole-zera diagram of 4,(9) is showa in Fig, 61-7). ‘Though there may be exses where the RC arms should not be entical, i is usually desirable to impose this restriction. With the special ease where RCs = RuCa © RiCy = [fos and the definition of Ry as Ry = 2+ ORs. Ci (69-8) reduces 10 4 wah tet 69-9) WO) = 595 OF Spa a AD) 555 AE Spay + OF “This oscillator has janis poles at 2p = wy when 7 8 (69-10) andes of dagry 169-10) ‘This value for 6 leads 10a “que” forthe complex zeros of LA-3 4 wou was when A » 3; hence, to achieve Sy = 20, = 100, we must have A268 SINUSOIDAL ascuLLaToRS. 6.10 {In his case the limits on the allowable impedance levels fo the bridge are st by ‘the maximum desirable capacitance and the problem ofthe amplifer input impedance loading the bridge. These problems become extreme at low frequencies; at high frequencies amplifier ouput ipedane and input shunt capstan may beliniting factors Jn general, the bridge input impedance can be kopt to the order of several Ibuncieds of ohuns; hence the ordinaty operational ampifir should drive it without iffeully, Any of the control cireuits discussed for the Meacham bridge case isan Appropriate replacement for Ry in the Wien bridge 610 “Tite ONE-PUKT APPROACH TO OSCILLATORS: In this section we examine another approach to the analysis and desivr of sinewave oscillators. Consider the four circuits in Fig. 10-1. As we shall see," of them have the potential to produce nearly sine-wave osciliations. They are representative of class of cireuits—or of a way of looking at circuits—in which the amplifying device tnd its nonlineartion are lumped into a single, resctance-ftes, controlled source. 0 @ Fig, 610-4. Four “one-port™ esitators Allofthese circuit contain a filter, an ac energy source, and some form of positive feedback; hence, ifthe loop gain is high enough, all of them are potential oscillators In this section we are interested notin proving that oscillation is possible or in determining the exact frequency or waveshape of oscillation, but in seeing how possible nonlinearities in the controlled source may limit the amplitude of the oscillations. For the purposes of our basic explanation it is immaterial whether the nonlinear vice is constructed of separate elements such as FET’s or transistors or whether it is single one-port device such as a tunnel diode. For example, the voltage- ‘controlled curtent source in Fig 6 10-1(@) might bea single bipolar or FET transistor, 6.10 ‘Tif ONE-PORT APPROACH TO OSCILLATES 269 Fig, 610-3 Possible construction fr Fig. 610-1 (0, hile the current-controlied voltage source in Fig, 6.10-fa) might be constructed of ‘currentsensing resistor and an operational amplifier as illustrated in Fig. 610-2. ‘Figure 6 10-3 shows one of many ways to construct circuit ofthe type shows in Fig. 610-100) Tis not our purpose at this point to develop the noni cf the various active "devices," bul rather to calculate the oscillator performance ipven a calculated or measured “device” characteristic. ‘Asa first example consider the circa of Fig 610-2, where the combination of operational amplifier and ri assumed to havea characteristic ofthe form sown in Fig 6.10-4 st characteristics270 synusoIDAl. oscuLLaToRs 6.10 Hoy 4 | +0¥ p09" Re | l= —$—-—— sy aims | stma Fig. 610-4 Assumed characteristic for device in Fig 610-1 (a or Fig 6. First consider the small-signal situation, where the controlled source always ‘operates in its linear region, | < 1mA. In this region f() may be replaced by « linear voltage source, Rpict With this source the loop gain 4,(p) becomes| RepC PLCs rer” Ph where r= ry rp ‘When Rp =r. the circuit has janis poles at w& = 1/y/TC; hence sinusoidal ‘oscillations build up at this frequency. When Ry the poles are in the rightshalf plane and the oscillations grow. {0 fact, in Fig 610-1G, if we merely replace the generator /() by the negative resistor ~ Ry (ovhich is permissible, since the voltage source is linearly. related to the current through it, we can perceive the previous results in an even more straightforward manner When the net circuit series resistance is positive, the oscillations decay; When this resistance is negative, they grow. (Since for jl < I mA any increase in Causes an inerease in (9), the equivalent resistance —Ry must indeed be negative) I iniilly Rp = Arg > ry + ra thea ceruialy oscillations Suid up until even: tually at least the peaks of exceed the linear region in Fig, .10-4, For the gives ‘characteristic, when | > 1mA the f() generator ceases to be a negative resistance and becomes a 6 V battery whose polarity depends on i This action causes limiting in the buildup of f, and eventually an equilibrium condition is reacied. Tt is this ‘eauilibrium state that we shall now find. ‘In general, when operation of the circuit shown in Fig, 6.10-2 extends beyond the linear region, f(@) becomes a distorted sinusoidal voltage which may be written in the form Sli) = Vo 4 Vacoscait + Vy c08 ugh boo However, ifthe Q, of the tuned circuit is high enough that even the distorted voltage [sill produces an almost sinusoiges current through then we may assume Sinusoidal input currents of the form F, cos at for several values for 1, and utilize Fin the circuit of Fig, 610-2, Ro = Ars 6.10 THE ONE-PORT APPROACH TO OSCILLATORS — 271 nv Pulses to besubiscted Fig, 610-5 Sinusoidal current drive. Fig. 42-3 t0 calculate the harmonics in the subtracted sine-wave tips in order 10 ‘algulate the output fundamental voliage ¥;. Figure 6 10-5 illustrates the technique ‘The fundamental output voltage equals the extrapolated linear transfer value neglecting the break points) minus the fundamental components iy the sine-wave tip pulkes that must be removed from the extrapolated value to obtain the actual characteristic. For the ease shown, 1, = (12 = 6 x 039 ~ 6 x O39] V = 732, where 0.39 isthe function of 2 read from then = 1 curve of Fig 42-8 for 24) = 120°. By applying this technique several times we obtain a plot of V, vs 1, for the device. Now since the passive circuit also imposes « relationship between Mand 7, of the form 1, = ¥,/r, we see that, a8 in previous sections, the operating amplitude is fixed by the simultaneous satisfaction of the active device and ofthe passive circuit require- achts, Figure 610-6 illustrates several was to present the resuls ofthis calculation. "The taj) x & limit of Yin Fig. 6.10-6(a) is the limit of the fundamental value ofa square wave (+2 Eg, 42-2). With r= 2KQ, this cireuit wil stabilize at about Reid — f,, for geich Yy = [yr = 7.6, Now for this amplitude we van return to Fig 42-3 and caleviate the amplitudes of the first several harmonies in order t0 see hhow high Q mus‘ be for the assumption of a sinusoidal cursent to be valid in the fist place. In this symmetric case, the second-harmonic voltage is zero, while the third harmonie veltage is 2.4 V hence, to reduce the third-harmonie eu ff the fundamental current, we must have 24 Hecht ere ‘As riinccease toward 6&2 the overdrive becomes smaller and the @ require ment relaxes, Ifr > 640, then no intersection occurs in Fig. €.10-6 and operation ‘oases. In this case the nt circuit resistance is always positive272 susorat oscittaTons 6.10 rare. @ lg. 610-6 (a) ¥, v6, (rom Fig, 610-5) (b) Hy, (Hom Fig 610-5) aibetiiel iti tr ios ali ta Biro npr ereie iam ec epraberaey Tee eta ae os ee ee negative resistance —R, = V,/1, from the active citcuit, Note that since all In this approach the feedback loop employed previously does not always aps Se ae ee ee eae mst Sfsninn soa pl sre ee erate eee eccncrauas Tl onl ‘ute PHASE PLAN APPHOACH 273 641 THE PHASE PLANE APPROACH Trough the literature is full of presentations of the “phase plane” method, most of these general approaches turn out not t0 be easily applicable to practical oscillator problems ofthe type presented in Section 6.10, ‘This section presents 2 modified version of the Liénard! method that leads to sapid solution ofthis type of problem. The specific methoc presented here is appli- Cable to all second-order systems with nosfinear damping, that i, to systems in Awhich the small-signal trsaster function from the controlled souree to the controlling variable has a sing! zero atthe origin and only 1wo poles real or complex). Though the method as pressed wil not wore directly for such circuits as the Meacham bridge. it b dieetly applicable wo all the circuits of the previous section. ‘Chapler 2 of Heyashit outlines more sophisticated graphical methods that are applieable to more complicated circuits. “The method presented here provides a graphical solution for the inital eransient buildup and for the final operating waveshape of the oscillator. ts use imps that the reactanees ofthe controlted-source (i any) have been separated out and combined twth eheeieuit reaciances. Tralso assumes *ha the circuits de Q-point is known and That it does not shift appreciably beeween the no-osilation and full-oseillation cases. ‘Once the output waveshape has been determined it will be clear whether an average wrlue of current or vovtege does exist Ifso, and if such an average value wil have used a Q-point shit (this wil be a function ofthe bias eieuitry) then the result is ‘nly an approximation, In such easesit is pssible to pursue a perturbation approach through several steps toward a better estimate ofthe result. This is sektom undsr- taken since the main purpose of the phase plane method isto provide rapid insight into the type of distortion likely 10 ossur in oscillator circuits with “iow-O” liters. “The inmial estimate, even if not exact, i usually safficient for desig purposes “The method handles both piecewise-near and gradual nonlinearities with equal ease Ineircuits with highly seletive ters, however, one of the analyte methods deveribed previously will give both quicker and more accurate results, “The result {0 be achieved is a graphical construction of a contour in a “phase plane” that will indicate whether oseillations are posible (a smallsignal caleulation Mill ofcourse, indicate this fact also) and, ifs0, how they build up from any particular seo initia conditions. A further construction derived from the first one gives & Teasonuble estimate ofthe cireut’s waveshape and fundamental frequency. Ti onder 10 achieve these aims, a certain set of algebraic and trigonometric ranipulations must be presented. ‘The new reader would probably Uo well o skim through these once to see the conclusion and then return to unravel the details Basically what we are trying fo do is obtain a solution ofa nonlinear differential ‘equation of the form xt) dtr) aed + batt flak our online Osibains in Phys Systems. MeGraveHil, New York (1968)274 SINUSOIDAL, OSCILLATORS. ot where x may bea voltage ora current and f(x is some known single-valued function of x. The method involves the manipulation of the equation so as 10 remove tunes an explicit variable and so as to obtain a relationship for dyfds or yd, where 9 some Iinear multiple of x and y = (beste) dr or equivalently x = (/b)(dy/de, {In obtaining Bq, (611-1) Irom a specific circuit, itis often convenient from the viewpoint of manipulation to write the small-signal transfer function from the controlle-source output, say Xp), 10 the controlling variable, say X (p) and then, after multiplying out, t0 convert this to its equivalent large-signal nonlinear dite ential equation. subsequent illustrative example will make this point clear. This transfer function should have the form pietipehiee Fe op eb 400) = X00 a PX) + apX (0) + EX—F= PX), where X (p) = {x(t and Xy(p) = ALF(al) Taking the inverse Laplace transform we immediately obtain Bg. (6.11-1). Once Eq, (611-1) is obtained, we integrate once and divide through by ¢, the multiplier of f(x), to obtain toa ee ahaa os ona We ow remove ina em y defining ne eal 5 ots faa oe ira “The dsfde term is now removed by noting that eee (ens) aay! therefore, [Now unless b/c? = 1, we define a new variable y? = (bets? so that the slope term has a unity multiplier and so that x and y have the same dimensiens. We now ‘write the modified version of Eq, (611-6) as solution for dy/dy, 4 dy ~ “Y= TF G8 = Gio} (611-7, With this method its convenient always to factor out a minus sign and to place it as shown in Eq, (611-7. on {TE PHASE PLANE APPROACH 275; Now £9. (6.11-7) presents the incremental change in yfor an incremental change in yin terms of, y, x; and f(s). Since i linear function of x und y isan integral Of x, we have as variables the controlling variable (ora linear multiple of it} and the integral of this variable (or a multiple of it} The two final variables ave always connected via an integration ofa differentiation and always have identi units "At this point we lay out set of axes with y as the ordinate and 9 asthe abscissa and with equal ineress2us in each direction, ‘The coordinate system is known as the phase plane." Now n and y in Eq (1-7) are merely distanees in this pine. if we assume values for x (and hence 9), we may find a corresponding value for ed) — (alo treated as a function of 7. This function may be plotted in ther plane. Figure 6.11-1 illustrates Eg, (611-7) sealer sey~talos Fig. 611-1. Phase pane construction From any arbitrary point (71.91) in the phase plane, say P, in Fig 611-4, we ‘drop a perpendicular unti it erosses the f(x) — (alee curve. AC this point we travel horizontally until we reach the yranis, From Fig, 6.11-1 it is elear that tang = — 1 — (F) = lox =, any However, tan (280° — a) = —tan a hence ay Sh wn 80" 2 “This means thatthe gradient of y with cespect to 7 at any point in the phase plane is given by the perpendicular tothe radius from the equivalent point Q, tothe point P, in question, Thus from any arbitrary stating point we may trace out a path by ‘connecting successive ares of etcles swung about successive points on the y-axis ‘Several points aré worth noting before an illstrative example is undertaken Since we are working around an assumed Q-point, the /(x) ~ (es curve ean always be normalized so that it passes through the origin, Furthermore, unless it216 swusorbat, osciLtaroRs an passes through the origin with an upward slope to the right, that is, unless f(x) > {alex for small postive values of x, there is no sense in proceeding, because oscil. tions are not possible f(x) > (/e)x for small positive valuos of » implies that the loop gain exceeds unity and that the right-hal plane poles exist in the system) ‘Because the construction is both Q-point and cireuit sensitive, any change in the ircuit or the Q-point requires a new construction, [As an illustrative example consider the cizeuit of Fig. 6.10-I(b) with Ry = Ry and Cz = Cyand the fl) vs. characteristic as shown in Fig, 6.11-2, =02ms 0 4025mA Fig, 611-2 Contolle-curent source characteristic From the circuit, Xo 0) For the spevfic case where Ry funetion reduces to an) iin) ~ Yale) + YG) a Co erg Cas and ey = 1/R;Co, the transfer LO Pig TG)" FF 3oqp Fae oo hence a = 32g, b = a8, and ¢ = ey ‘Since Bq, (611-5) i of the form of Eq (6.11-2) and since bje? = a/ug = 1, we say write dyjdi directly in the form of Eq (.11-1): ao a” “-T0- We now assume variations of 7 about the Q-point and calculate [f() ~ 31] vs. as plotted in Fig. 611-3 Itis intuitively obvious that this circuit should oscillate: from the admittance transfer function at p = jig it follows that the network loss is}, while the small signal current gain around the Q-point is 4; hence the loop gain exceeds unity. Figure 6.11-3 also indicates the closed trajectory of the steady-state operating path. ‘This path was sketched out with a compass in about three minutes from the arbitrary sarting point of y = 0,i = OS0mA, 61-10 641 ‘TIE PHASE PLANE APPRONCH TT nm noe pou vos Arias pon yyy Fig. 611-3 Phage plane tasty for iret af Fig, 610-10) with (9 of Fie 611-2 ‘Once we have this phase plot, the question arses as to what we ean say about the waveshape of (oF y vs. Since y an¢ f are connected vis an integration or Giferentiation, if on® of them is sinusoidal then the other must be cesindseidal “Therefore, since the scales are identical in both directions, it follows from what we know of Lissajous aguces that if were sinusoidal then the path would be sircular "Therefore, the extent to which the actual trajectory departs from a crcl yives us. an inlcation of the nonsinusoidalness ofthe waveshape Before we look for further waveshape information we should consider the possible diflorences among the various available signals. Since y= oJ ie then y |B proportional to the voltage across C,. Certainly the effect of the integration (low-pass operation) should reduce the harmonic content in y with respect to that in Therefore, grounding the capacitor C, and taking the output aoross it should Jead toa “better” waveshape than grounding R, and taking the output across it ‘Whatever waveshape we desire, if we had the slope with respec time for every point (as well asthe corresponding value at that point), then we would be able 10 ‘make reasonable sketch ofthe waveshape with respect to time ‘From our original equations we may write or derive both dyjdt and difd ’ a 7 a oni ~evoly ~ Lf ~ 38) “These equations mean that the slope of y with respect to time is always propor- tional to the corresponding value of / or to the horizontal distance from she vertical a278 siNuSOIDAL OSCILLATORS out axis to the point on the trajectory. At the same sime, the stope of 7 with respect time is proportional to the negative ofthe vertical distance between the trajectory land the f() — 3 characteristic. Whe the trajectory crosses the /() ~ 3i charae teristic, di/dt goes Uarough 2er0; when the trajectory erosses the y-axis, diy goes toz2r0, one is attempting to plot y(t} then the easiest approach would seem to be 10 draw a circle with eenter at the origin and radius equal 10 Ygnq- Then sketch out carefully on a separate sheet of graph paper about Lf eycles of a cosine wave of rbitrary period. So long as the trajectory lies on the circ, then y()is following the Sine wave. As the trajectory falls away from the circle, the slope of 0) deereases from the siope of the cosine wave. Ifthe slope of the vosine as it passes through ro is taken as the standutd, then the slope of y() at any point is merely Zyn/Jmu HIMES the standard slope, ‘The slopetracking approach will break down near the negative peak in: However, even ifthe negative maximum is different in amplitude from the positive ‘maximum, the trajectory in the vicinity of the peak i still nearly an are ofa cite: thence the negative tip of yt wll be sinusoidal in shape, With this information itis ¢ straightforward tak to sketeh out y(). Since eq) = Rqy() this sketch provides the as | ig. 611-4 Sketch oft) = Hel MR for the case shown in Fi. 61-3. ‘output voltage within a constant. Figure 611-4 compares 0) with a standard sine ‘wave ofthe same peak amplitude andl of period w. Note tha, inspite ofthe reason ably strong overdrive, the waveshape cross C, is a good approximation of «sine ‘wave, but asine wave ofa frequency at approximately 80% oft ‘As the overdrive is reduced, the stepe of fi) — 31 through the origin is reduced nti inthe lim it becomes horizontal. At this point i would be sinusoidal with a 612 {THE DISTORTION-OPERATING FREQUENCY KuLaTionsiiie 279 peak amplitude equal to the breakpoint value of assuming a symmetsial charac {evistic is maintained asthe slope ig reduced). Any further reduction in the slope will cease the oscillations to cease ; [As the overdrive is reduced, not only do the waveshupes bevome more sitnsoidal but their frequenciés increase toward io. In Uhe next section we shall see how the Feequency of an oveiiator is alleeted by distortion in its waveshape al hence why the overdrive (with its large distortion terms) should eause a frequency depression. 612 THE DISTORTION-OPERATING PREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP ‘Almost any practical sinusoidal or nearly sinusoidal oscillator may be considered ina form similar to one ofthe ctcuits shove in Fig. 610 1. ‘Tho is it muy be con Sidered 4s @ combination of a network and a controled source. In gener. we have been neglecting active circuit reactances; however, even if they occur itis usually possible to segregate them and then to teat them as part of the network, ‘Thus iF We wish we ean consider all of our osillations as a network plus nonreactive controled source. emt $raie foc » Fig. 612-1 General nonreactive contollod source characteris, Whatever the combination of variables} a nonreactive wetive element driven by a periodic waveshape (we assume steady-state operation, bul make no initial assump tions about the waveshape other than this it Is periodie) must have revo not area ‘when integrated gcound a complete cyee. Figure 612-1 illustrates this property for the general controlling variable q and controled variable Jt) ithe active dence were reactive, then for any given amplitude swing for g the resultof the hysteresisin the characteristic would be a constant area and our approach ‘woul still be valid although slightly more complicated. Therefore, as a simpliication Wwe separate the device reactances initially and assume ne device hysteresis, ‘Fc relaonahip between dstrtion nnd operating quency of wn cailatr was ist presented UP Givelowabita tne 1920s His more resent book, Praqencyof Self Oclarony (Macmiln, Nsw York, 1960, sunemaries his easier work and presents rss for more corpse cases than are presented eve Teoaolicesoace sossiles icladé carrentontrolled vollage or euren! sours and caer INSID vcltage or carent sources; network Tancions Ince impedances amit tints an voltage so sterent atios280 SINUSOIDAL oscuLATORS 62 Now instead of taking the integration ffom goin #0 dma and Back, we could take it over complete period ofthe input eyEle, in which ease we would find fra [ [ro%t] Furthermore, since q and hence f(g) are periodic variations about a Q-point, each ‘of them can be expanded in a Fourier series starting from a fundamental component and going as high as is necessary: o 12-1) a= ¥ Qusin (ror + vad (612-2) 8 § myst 90 wre Peeters a 1 8g, (612-3) and (612-4) ae subtttdin a, (62-1 an the imeraion s performed then al tes exept those containing sin (by yh hare =m Vanish and we obiin & Oe § HOT ny, ~ 09 0 12-8) Equation (6.12-5) indicates an_active-device-imposed relationship between the harmonies of the controlling and controlled quantities and the phase angle between them, "The passive circuit also imposes a different relationship between these quantitis ‘These two relationships must coexist. In general, this means that the operating frequency of the oscillator must shift until the two relationships ean be mutually satisfied I the transfer function between f(@) and ¢ through the passive network of the ‘oscillator is H(p), then it is readily shown that F, Fon Hino) = Qysin We, $s where on H(jnw) is the imaginary part of H{Jnw) With this result, Eq (6.12-5) simplifies 0 Savi 04 Hn) = 0 (12-5) sot) =~ $ ntl wien 62 “THE DISTORTION-OPERATING FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP 281 wiih ponents inna sma cai sigh econ 2 YUmh we te pert Perrine and forn 2 Zand high Oy: thus Fon Yn) © = In aditon, __(o/biag =e) FeV) = aE Earl © able for high Qy where Aw = «9 — wy i the departure in operating frequency from cay, Thus for this example we obtain, from Eq. (612-7), (612-8) Now (H/¥;)? may be evaluated for any particular steady-state operating point by ising Fig. 42-3 Table 6,[2-1 lists the approximate turmonie ratios forthe first five harmonies on the assumption of operation around the operating pout found in Section 6.10,282 SINUSOIDAL oscHLLATORS 62 “Table 612-4 Viv, 00. Wy, 032 Wy, = 00 asa 1, 238m, 8 76V With these values of H/¥ and with Qy = 12, we find that bo BO sty = Gx O27 + 2 x 015%) pees 8 os’ 1S x10", for that the elect of the harmonics has been to decrease the operating frequency by (0.015% With a smaller Qy there would be more harmonics in i and thus more ‘uncertainty in estimating ¥,. A smaller Q, would certainly also lead to a greatly increased Aca, Equations (612-7) and (6.12-8) indicate that the operating frequency of an oscillator may be shifled by injecting harmonics of the oscillator frequency or by ‘varying the phase ofthese injected harmonics, This leads directly to the possibility ‘of synchronization with an external signal either at its fundamental or any of is harmonics ‘From this point of view we can see why the oscillator explored in Section 6.11 ‘operated so far below itsnominal frequency of operation. To begin with, theossillator ‘was badly overdriven, so that the harmonic content was high; but to make maters worse, the passive circuit transfer function Poy HO) = ak OFT 3pay Fab neither attenuated the harmonies rapidly with respect to the fundamental nor provided a rapid phase shift with frequency in the neighborhood of 2. Thus a large deerease in frequency was necessary to bring Eq, (612-1) back into balance. PROBLEMS. {61 a) nthe circuit of Fig, (P-1, Ay = Az = Ay and sources are liner. Find the valves of {Cand Aa quited if this sire rio be onthe verge of sinusoidal oscillation at 20k, Tow would the crete feted ifthe sign of ne of two or ofthe ofthe generators were reversed? by With the sme value oF C, assume thy d= Ay = 4 while amplifier 1 has the following nonlinear elatonship Bewen iisinpt rms sinusoidal voltage and is ovtpa sinsoidu voltage: _ Mo? z Find the sinaoidal output voltage a7). (Te nonlinear relationship assumed ro have atime constant that is long in comparison to ele ofthe sine wave) gene Pronuins 283 aman) 10KO S nll Flgue 6? 62 all of the 10K0 resistors in Problem 61) increas 10% with ae, what woul be the row vals of equency and ouput amplitade? IF dd not vary, but A dsesease fom ‘Foo 3s what would be the elet on frequency and amplitade? 463 A posible ino-wae oxilator crcl is shown in Fig. 6P-2. Will it werk? so. tin the fequoney andthe smplinade of, If0texplin why not, Asse tha the AVC block ‘Soest fond Qj and that = 1 oe te traitors ay 7 % 2 ave |e arKa hoo p= 100 pH} 2040 | fe ave Figure 6P-2284 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS. toro Figure 62-3 64 For the crit of Fig, @P-2, ind fay OF onilations. Find for 100 KH aseations. 65. Forthe circuit of Fig. 6-4, indicate the oi ofthe poles of pip) 95 varies assuming iden and that a current generator, isapplid atthe terminal te. What isthe minimum value of 1 for sinusoidal oxlstions? What value of C wil suse sinusoidal ‘siltons at 10 KHz ee _ epee 1oxe: ‘1 : 66 6 68 69 60 roauems 285 ago iow pF SKOZ so ong wih ce nase Figure 6P-S ln the cet of Fig Pf a teperaturesenine exir with long tims const Find, Whats the Q of th tuned eit? What asthe fread npc 0? Inthe cet of Fig SP) ese ta he Dox Bas Ry = 28S no gs shit and {eampltdecarserati shown ip GP-S). Leling = 3. Gnd he ex ad Enpltee of, (Awuie hee bes and themed shown in Fig 4) With a potoszto pain ofthe spe shown in Fig 61-70 prods by cxcating He Nenicl ols) RC cea show that ng = /SIRC and Ang = —K Ines ose Sic configaton friar Assume tht three ental. olsted RC eins are wed fo prods tettock owt wih oo loo pace as shown sn FG TAD Pov de for Shoal olations wg = IA/AKC and that dg, =~ Tete a posible vans Soul configuration forthizease What values wou and bef the oad center Secon were ean have wie he ine estan of hem oa ns? Derive Eq (69-6, Asuming that Ry = Rz = Ry ~ Ry Cy = Cz Cal Ry = 20008 rete th str furan ofthe Wien rie to the pokezero pattern of 6.1 Ta) and doer he sign of andthe magnitude of Ay eset he circ esi, ep tng Ry = 200108, Whats the Sor cach east Devve Ea, (69°) or the Messhis id oslo shown in Fp. 69 Val Let eae rausnt,Ry = 1000, fy = SOD, Ry ~ 2000, and Q = 10" bart cas (Sed asa sere: ted cei) Find for oat the eves 20) What te ‘Som of 49 Wit tne vlan, asset the pls sit the apie ss by 0104 Fn the si in roquney fom oy 2 Foe the circ shown in Fig. 6P-7, determine the output eoletor cure vonyponets at ToS0 kite and at 2100 kHz Fin the voltage across at 10S0KHZ ‘The tsar is svg and = O99; CyiC, =40, Ly = 1SDqH, Que 50, and My, = 4p The toned ‘cuit ie ane o 1050 EH Find the fequency and amplitade for the voltage a forthe ict shown in Hg, 6 PB Find the total enon distortion iy £2 outpat. Tae teanistr is con with ¢ = 098 fd Ig © OMA: Ly = TDAH, deg = 250 pH, May = 25 Hy Cy 200 Cy = {04g and R= 100K,286 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS yamv fv os ois 616 Pwowies 287 +n oe Ce 22K 0o1gr ska Figure 6-8 Isscqeeging posible in the circuit of Fig 6P-7? Ifo at what sausodal aque wilt ‘secur? Hfnok. then would it be posible if the rned iru’ @ were reduce v9 20? ‘simplified version of «commercial RC osciltor shown in Fig, &P-9. The nsiwork Trane funtion most ei found by superposition, that is by (2) calcultin ths voltage At he input to amplier 1 as 4 aneton of assuming that amplifier 2 as zens out imapodunce aad zero output voltage, and thea 2) caleulting the voltage atthe input to smnpier 1 aeuoning that amplifier 1 has zero ouipot impedance snd vols whi the ‘olluge output ofampliir 238 Ne), These two resultsarthen combined i presle the input to ampli! (assumed as having an nite ip ipedanee) as. hnetion fr {ihe two operational supliirs have equal voltage guns of, then show thal stale sinusoidal onions oscu wih ay = YRC and N= 2+ (2/4), If = 100,r = 3000, andr, = 450exp[~ 650) where Pis the ue power Jsipated in rv what isthe valve of eat equilibrium’? What isthe value ofr thisease? 14 were Increased 1040 foreach amples, how much would ot increas? How docs the inet frequency set Sp ofthicieut compare with that ofa Wien bridge oxilisor? ‘Alltsesinorsin se crit of Fig. 6P-10are silicon with r= 099, Q, and, reidental, Gus = Das = 100s cigly ~ 10000, M/L, = 120, CC, + C3} = WMO, and 1.0, is ted (othosame feoqucny 8, C,,and C, The otal oud oa the LC tuned ie ning {ts owa loss is 20402 P| Cyl) vx for thi ceuit, assaming a det emcees Find the table oscillation amplitude exiting across L,. in fr this ampbtue. Find the changes inthis amplitude caused by 10% change in the +6 mupply. Fld or 1s olor288 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS av Figur. 5P-10 promis — 289 sma La 2M ~ S00,H Figure 6P-11 617 For the creit of Pig. 6P-1, find equeney and amplitude of assuming tat the os ia the 1 MO ret tor 6 negligible, that C, isan RF bypass and tha the grid od is eal as shown 4618 Forthecireitof Fig 6P-12,find the voltage magnitude and frequency aross Ry. (Nee fowler in coll) Repeat, recing Voto 12°. Ls auegging possible in the cit sown in Fie 6P-12! At waat fequency does it car? The ranistrisieon ne — i“ l i Figure 6.P-12290 619 620 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS yn toa bomignn Mado Flgue 62-13 For the crit shown in Fig. 6P-13, determine an expression fore [A sive-wave oscillator conseosted from a commercial dierent par-curent source ‘combination shown in Fig, 6P-H4 2) Find 1) Chore R, s0 a to make Hat) = DDK cos Ost Hy 6) Find the vohage across each tune ireland 4) Find the THD in (0) For the circuit of Fig 6P-15, R = 109, C = 200pF, L = 100 i, and yp = (1 ~ iy + 2ib-+ DV, whee vy is eased in volts and iis measured in mA. Find the frequency tnd the amplitude ofthe fundamental component of v(. What i the tote harmonic tortion n 7)? How much frequency depression is caused by this istotion? Assuine vp ~ Hi cory for the circuit shown in Fig. P16 '3) Pot Ip, v. Vor the devi shown, 1} Determine « numerical expression fr the steady state vale of wp Find the approximate amplitde of v0) ia the circuit shown In Fip. SPIT. Plot the phase plane characteristic forthe devie eharacteris'c and cceuit shown in Fig, GP-18. Start the plot ats, = QOY, Jy = 050A, and ltr = 1640, onL = 3240, and. Q=2 Pot the output waveshape for vl} in Fig. 6P-I8. Estimate the frequency depesion for the stl ouspt in comparison to oy = 1hV/EC. ev Figure 6P-14 pronins 291 ov tot iska ov22 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS tou ro ») (oat 0.78% 10-%,5)4 Figure 6-17 fi) wy} sv cial Ths a0 Tas CHAPTER 7 MIXERS; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS ‘74 THE SUPERHETERODYNE CONCEPT In designing a receives, one normally starts from the detector o lemosh circuitry and works in both directions, In this chapter we are interested in the tieuits that lie in Front ofthe demodulators. 'As we shall see in subsequent chapters, most detector circuits do not work well inthe presence of noise or interfering signals; and many of them do not work well, ita all, with input signal levels below several volts in amplitude. Since the desired signal may have a receiver input fcid strength in the mierovolimeter range while the total rms noise and interfering signal strengths available f0 the antenna may ‘measure in the volifmeter range, itis apparent that one needs both zain and veloc tivity infront of the demodulator. "The real problems in desigaing a carrier frequency or RF amplifier for a fixed- carrierfrequency receiver are the following. 2) to control its front-end noise so as to keep it an adequate distance below the incoming signal level: bb) to control the active device nonlinearities so a to prevent signal distortion or unwanted signal interactions [eross modulation, for example}: ©) to keep the resultant high-gain narrowband amplifier from becoming an ox lator [Ifthe amplier gain is 120dB (10* in voltage), then a feedback of 1/10° of the output, with the proper phase relationship, to the input will cause a loop fin of unity and hence wil produce an neillator) Unfortunately sor receiver designers, most receivers are not fixed-frequency units; hence one is fe oed to cope with the previously mentioned probiems while Simultaneously toning this high-gain monster over some wide frequeney range, In Addition, one must he able 1o solve the difficult problem of designing the demodulator to have adequate and reasonably constant performance over the frequeney bands) in question. (Normal AM broadeasting has a 3/1 band, normal VF television jn the United States has « 4/1 band, and a “good communications receiver may be expected to cover @ range of more than 100/1 in frequency.) ‘As we shall sce shorty cro modulation i the transfer ofthe modulating sigs = lstrted on of tho signal ess ane enmer (0a telghering eats, In onde for such w phenome Tobe posible, certiniyps of device nonlineaiis mast be presen294 angers; RF AND UF AMPLIFIERS a ‘Véry early in the development ofthe radio communications business some people {decided that this situation was ridiculous and that the way to simplify things was to coniinue to design both the detector and the bulk of the gain and selectivity on a fixed frequency basis and to shift or translate the modulation from all desired coming signals to this new, fixed, “intermediate frequency” or IF. As with most new ‘ideas, it took some time for this innovation 10 be accepted; however, it has since so completely dominated the field that “straight-through” reesivers are rarely seen except in muscums and un occasional very special situation. Figure 71-1 illustrates the block diagram of a “superheterodyne” resciver. Tis § the commen name forthe system containing an 1F empl and ed-equetey f ‘ Local oscillator Demodulator a a a Fig. 74-1. Supateterodynereeiver ‘The “mixer itilizes the trigonometric ident two cosine terms into sum and diference frequencies: that expands the product of fat) 0s Ar} b(9 08 Be} = “PM fcos(a — Be + cos(d + By). 4-1) ‘Thus if alt)eos Ar is the desired incoming signal while B(f)cos Br is a constant- amplitude cosine signal supplied by the local oscillator, and if the selective 1 amplifir is tuned to a radian frequency of A ~ B, then the IF output signal will be a frequency-translated version ofthe incoming signal. So long as everything is done properly, such a frequency wanslation is modulation insensitive, ‘That is, ti just, as ellective for AM, FM, SSB, or any other type of modulation, Like most innovations the superineterodyne concept does add some additional problems to those already listed for the case of the fixed-requency receiver. Some fof these additionat problems are as follows: 4) the mixer and local oscillator must be designed and the local oscillator must bbe made to track all tuned cireuits infront ofthe mixer; 72 saxen TECHNIQUES 29S ce} since mixers almost always generate more noise than amplifiers aud since by their very nature they must contain nonlinearities, one may find that ctteria (a) and (b) till require a stage (or stages) of RF amplification in frout of the mixer. ) Some new types of interference are generated by the local oscillator mixer ‘combination that are not present in a straight-through operation. The next section wil deal with several genera techniques for analyzing nonlinear circuits as mixers. Subsoquont sections will deal with specific miain verting” circuits (a SelCoscillating mixer is called w converter) and and analysis of RF and UF amplifier stages. 72 MIXER TECHNIQUES ‘As was pointed out in connection with Eq. (7-1-1) any multiplier followed hy a proper bandpass filter will funetion as a mixer. On the other hand, since the local oscillator input has a constai amplitude, itis not necessary to have wn ideal multiplier in order tormake a useful mise ‘Chapter 8 will consider several general multiplier cieuits. The emphasis in this section wll be on techniques applicable directly to spevfic mixer circuit “The two most common mixers in use today are the simple fel effect transistor and the bipolar transistor. In both cases one applis the incoming signal und the Tocal eseilltor voltages so that they effectively add to the de bias voltage to produce the total gate-source or base-emitter voltage. This signal is then passe through the device nonlinearity to creat the desired sum and difference frequencies FET Mixers Figure 72-1 illustra’ 4 several possible FET mixer cirevits, Tra junction or MOS FET is biased so that the total excursions around the (Q-point never cause it to eave the “constant current” (saturation reyion) or to tun On the gate-o-souree junction, then the drain current is always approximately elated to the gate-source voltage by a “squareaw” characteristic, and the drain cearrents are given by fom ln t= MOE ¥ | 2) tof + 1) + Yar~ Val a2 respectively. Where vas = 8) + ty + Vos, 9, and tare the local esillstor and RF input signals respectively, and Vas is the de gate-o-source bias vollags These ‘equations are illustrated in Fig, 72-2. If Eq, (72-2) for the MOS wnt is chosen fas an example and the voltage term is expanded, then foe? t fa Bfe lea + as ~ MeO) 940+296 Tone to MIXERS; RF AND HF AMPLIFIERS Tres RF signal 40 RE signal Oncittor Fig. 72-1 (@) PEP mir. rune ig. 72-1 () FET mise (both signs to gate eruit. 2 1 ouput Tuned ty te output 12 xen TecHMIQuIs 297 e-chamnel % ve Te Fig. 72-2 FET charsetisties I ex(0 = of) conc while 24) = V;c08 et, and if we assume IF filtering at the ‘output and consider only the frequency component ofthe output current inthe vicinity Of osu, we may define @ large-signal conversion transconductance, 6... as the avelope of the ouput current 2 the desired difference frequency dived by the fenvelope of the input signal voltage. ‘Equation (72-4) presents the conversion transconductance from «19 ~ @, ‘as wel asthe ordinary large-signal amplifier transconductance: Gu = Bi¥os ~ Ved 72-4) Hence GlGn = Vi/Vos ~ Ves) Now since vft) + % must be less than Vas — Vee ‘fone isnot to exceed the "square law” region, the conversion transconductance ca hot exceed one-half the transconductance of the device when it is employed ws an ‘rdinasy amplifier. Note that if ¥; 8 tuly constant, then as long as the previous Sssumptions are maintained, G, is independent ofa) and distortionless conversion results 'A similar expansion for the junction FET yields (72-5) 1 this device is biased midway between ¥, and zero and iV; > Jul. then the ‘maximum obtainable G, is one-quarter ofthe stnallsigtal evaluated at Yas = 0 Gr one-hal ofthe Gy, ~ Bq for the Kos = V2 bias point Dipolar Transistor Miners Figure 72-3 illustrates « possible bipolar transistor mixer ‘When two time-varying voltages, 9() and 0,(), are applied across as ideal bipolar transistor junction, then elt) = Lyge oT OM aM (12-6) If agrin. o3() = vftpeosea, and 0,() = Kieosent while i} = yuy/kT and x= MaihkT, then | i) = Base?) [isa + 2$ 4adcosnay | 10) + 25 0 ann298 nes; wu AND IF AMPLIFIERS 72 Tune 10 Tunes 15 ty 0p Ik ar inn Fig. 72-3 Bipolar wansivor me. RF Siena! ‘apt If we eross-multiply terms, we obtain fal) = Uese™” "IU Mols) + Bela Lu) 00s et + UoMsta)coseogt + 4 GV YIeoseo, 208 wot + 2-9 vic et“ Bde 02-9) 10) 169, a 2D, yw 21h n= HD hy 2th 2-10 109) 1 pee Ate a2 a) Tel) In order to have a “linear” mixer, one must have 1,» ., linearly proportional to 1y and in turn va. If ¥, and hence x are assumed to be tonstant and if ¥, > lo 50 that variations in v, do not effect Tye, hen lagu, Will vary with v, #8 F,QYF6O) varies with 8. FFrom the expansions forthe modified Bessel functions with small arguments, wwe may Write 10) ry moles) whichis within 2% for y ‘From Eq, (7.2-12) we see that for 1,(yYJo(y), and hence 1,,,—4,. 20 be linear with 72 one Targus 299 respect to y to within 2% the condition »#/8 < 002 or y < 04 and henee (vj S 104 mV applies; for linearity to within 0.3% the appropriate condition is y = 02 or ju] = S2mV. Therefore, when lo] < 104 mY we may replace 1y)/als) by y/ ony 4G ~ 312 VI ony where ga = glalk and vf) = ¥4 “Thus it) ths cose G, may Hever eaceed G, but may exesed Gy it > 2 Since I,CeV Leb) is within 70% ofits asymptotic value of unity when X= 2 and within 86% of this value when x = 4, not much is to be gained from using values of x ‘excoeding 65 “There are two useful ways to connect the signals to a diferetia-pair viseuit to ‘make 4 mixer. In one case the relatively large oscillator voltage is feu into one (or ‘cross both) of the diferential-pair bases, while the relatively small signal voltage i fed across the emitte-hase junction of the “constant current” transistor. Figure 7.P-3 illustrates simpitied version of such a circuit. In the second case the oscillator voltage is used to control the “constant current” transistor, while the signal is fed into (or across) the cilferentia-pair base circuits, Figure 7.4-4 provides an example ofa balanced version of such a circuit ‘As we shall seein Section 7.4, Une most desirable way (lrom the distortion view point} to operate a diflerential-pair mixer is so that both the oscillator and the PSignal” operate the mixer lineurly when they are considered as separate inputs Under these circumstances, the mixing aetion takes place because the “i” from the dliferental-pair base-base voltage to the output is direetly proportional to the ‘current from the “constant current” transistors collector. ‘Overall system considerations will decide which type of drive is most suitable for ‘particular ease. When the mixer generates its own oscillation (Serves asa converter, then one would tend 0 confine the oscillator to the differential pair and feed the signal nto the “constant current” transistor. "The results of Sections 46 and 48 are directly applicable to mixer calculations For example, Table 46-2 and Fig. 46-4 indicate the limits on the drive if linearity is to be maintained, and provide the value ofthe fandamental term for the casein which the diferential pair is driven dcectly by an oscillator signal that is large enough to 1 Since the result concuctanes ae independent of Vj, they may be ealevlaet with 2 constant for nt vather than the mare complicated funtion of time, {plreetrve tht g, may neease slowly with x sie nfsbo) ee (sce Fig. $44, for example, For x= 6 and 9 1 oF more de drop across a emir reson, this inerease wl bees than 10% ha300 MbxeRS: RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS 2 ‘cause the (1/1) relationship to becom nonlinear. From Table 4.6-2, we soe that an ‘oscillator drive of 78 mV between the bases leads to a fundamental term very close 0 4 the value of 1,. Hence the conversion transconductance from a signal that inti- ‘ences J, 0 the Output current of one side ofthe differential pair wll be j (another $ comes from the separation of the ossillatr-signal product into sum and difference terms) of the small-signal transconductance (from base-emitter signal voltuge (0 colleciorcutrents) ofthe “constant current” transistor. ‘The techniques of Section 48 may be used 10 linearize either the differental-pair characteristic othe characteristi of the “cons'ant current” transistor, Goneealired Mixers While the FET, bipolar transistor, and diferential pair account for most practical ‘mixers its useful to generalize the epprosch, both as means of dealing with other devices —vacuum tubes, for example—and 4s a means of examining the previous devices when their characteristics depart from the usual shapes. ‘One general approach isto consider the mixer asa gain-controlled amplifier in which the local oscillator voltage controls the gain while the signal voltageis amplified Figure 72-4 illustrates one extreme case, where the gain has only two values and Where the local essillator is biased so that the device spends hall the time in each region i Shtnl=h, yte>o siemind Ge wo 7 SwOl=0, Koso =H casa 1 AOGSTOAD) Fig. 72-4 On-offamplierorstched amplifier asa mixer Since the output current multiplier is controlled by 2(0), itis periodie and can be expunded in « Fourier series with fundamental og: cso = $+ Bacon Bada This technique of specifying the amplifier “gain” or transfer term with respect to the input signal and then expanding the controlled “gain” ina Fourier series isa ‘common one, Usually the gain or transfer function is a continuous function of the 72 xen tecuMnues 301 coscllatar voltage a! iis evaluated by taking the partial derivative of with cespect (0 the signal voltage. (This procedure is based on the assumption that the signal term is small enough that it does not influence the gain, In any particular ease the limits on 2, before intolerable distortion seis in must be determined.) For example, if we diferentiae the basic transistor junction equation, Eq, (0-2-6), wth respect to n, and assume that n, approaches r0, _nbneraronm, ons where Bele ithe pecans am i one ct The it if 1,9) alae _ Lo), "= To) RP Toe” In this example the initial approach is preferable, since an exact possible for log, hence the approximations are ade a he ls step Father tthe fest sip ‘As a second example consider the fld-ffest transistor for which the “gain term is shown in Fig. 44-2. Since this term varies linearly as long a the oveilltor voltage stays above ¥, and below the junction tura-on point, the eonversion trans- conductance is directly proportional 10 the oscillator voltage within ths region. When the signal extends outside the linear region, then the sine-wave tip functions of Fig. 42-3 or Fig 42-4 may be used to compute the fundamental term ofthe gin.” “This term is drec'y proportional tothe small-signal conversion transconductance. Figure 7.25 illysrates the seslls fora peak clamping rechannel HET eieuit similar to that used ¥9 Problem 7.3 {with the 100-0 soures-io-zround resistance set to 20). Toaccount forthe drive up 10 +017 Vlas eplaced bY Hy = Inst! = 7/7 and ¥, is replaced by V7 = {V4 + 07, and clamping is now presumed to ovcur at zero volts on the shifted curve. (As discussed in Chapter 5, the actual turvon voltage isa function ofthe gite-ground resistor. When this resistor is several megohms, the turn-on voltage may be only about 03 V.) [As we shall see when (7/7) exceeds 5, many ofthe desirable low distortion properties ofthe FET miter ae lst. One possible argument for operation above {his point is that th Se eurent reduced, which lead to ks dsspation snd usualy fess device noise. | Yer another appteach to this probs woul! be simply 1 expand eT and rtain only the Tse soveral tne snd then'toSupand the emaiing eapeesion #5 in the fs Iwo ttn OFF (2.2-Myand take the resultant pret302 MINERS; RF AND OF AMPLIFIERS 3 ON Ns wo imeon i = at oso ons ° as 10) a mae Figure 72-5 While we have done the two exampies, the usual difficulty with this approach is in evaluating the Fourier coeficients of the “pain” function. In the general case this ‘cannot be done in a simple analytic manner; it must be done graphically, by a com- puter analysis, or experimentally. Ofcourse, the problem isattacked experimentally ‘one will logically measure the conversion transconductance directly instead of fiddling around with intermediate steps, 73 SERIES RESISTANCE IN MIXERS. In order to operate, a mixer musthavea nonlinearity. As we might expect (see Section 448, for example}, adding a resistor in series with the emitter ofa bipolar transistor withthe source of an FET, or withthe emitters of a diferential par always tends to linearize the characteristic. Therefore, such a resistor will always reduce the con- version transconductance (if constant local oscillator voltage is assumed). Since All real devices have atleast @ minimum amount of inherent series resistance, to say nothing of generator output impedance, one will find that the calculations of the ‘previous section provide an upper limit on the expected performance of real mixers. “The elfect ofa series resistance in modifying the ineremental slope ofthe i v8.0, characteristics clearly indicated by Fig. 48-2. It isa straightforward matter to solve for diy, from the equations of Section 48: ai, Oly rcovoa Yas oe where gia = qladkT and iy i the current which flows with oy = V, cos aot + Vow When gg > 1, Eq, (73-1) reduces 0 1/R for 8, ~ Vy > and to zero for 2) — Mp 5.0. For gy ~ 0, Eq, (73-1) reduces 10 is ae settesttegomiait, 13 SERIES RESISTANCE IN seeks 303 which is of course identical with Eq, (72-15). For intermediate values of g,,R, no simplified form for the gain function i possible "A possible, and relatively simple, approach i first to find a reasonable relation- ship berween G, and G, forthe extreme eases of zero resistance and dominatt r= sistance, and then, using Fig 48-6, to determine G, vs. and extrapolate toapproxi= mate G, va Vj, ‘Phe results will not be exact, however, the series resistance is rarely Known exactly eithe= ‘The best that one ean do here is to get a fee for what is going fon. If “enact” results are desized, then measurements are so straightforward that pages of analytic manipulation are completely unjustified. ‘Whea the junction is domibiated by R, the slope of the overall characteristic is I/F vlaen oy o> Vp — (KP /g) ts Dud) (200 Fig. 18-3) and is zero otherwise This meats that the "guin” function ia rectangular wave of period T= 2g. as shown in Fig. 73-1. If ly, is assumed to be constant, then the conduction angle 0 = 2 i reltted 10 Vi/IadR by Table 48-1. The conduction angle then tells os the roitive hhonzaro width ofthe “gain” function from which the fundamental component ofthe Fourier series may be computed, The conversion transconduetanos is thea one-half ofthis fundamentai coefficient. Table 73-1 indicates zepresentative values Tale 734 Pulled ok 6G, ar 1.00 00 ou ar L083 auer au a" 1333 oir 028 210° tee a9 0% wo Aue air og 50° roo ‘305 0 on 20s 02 24 Figure 73-2 plots 66,18. Vilalt + RYfor the ewo cases R = Oanel R > Hf [the R= 0 expression comes from Eq. (72-14) ‘From this figure it is hypothesized that for values of plausible to relate Gy/Gq 0 the normalized value of ¥,/2 §. For values of, R between 0nd | this factor soul fie bet near unity it will be + R) by a factor of sn fund | sfor values yous ncen ak Te Fig. 73-1 6, for bipolar transistor minor with added seis resistance304 nana; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS 13 ital a) Fig. 73-2 Data for Bg (73-2, between | and infinity it should lie beween §.and §. Normally one would expect (0 ‘minimize the resistance, and hence the g,,R = 1 region would be expected to be the interesting one. For example, if Ia = 1mA, R= 260, and Vj = 6 x S2mV = 312 mV, then from Fig. 73-2 6, © 20, while from Fig. 48-6 G,, = 0.295(52 @) = 5700 mho. With R= 0, Jg,=1mA, and half the oscillator érive (that is, ¥j = 156 mV}, then x = 6and G, ~ 34,500 mo, or approximately three times as muchas inthe previous ‘case (a glance at Fig. 48-$ will indicate that maintaining the 312 mV dsive would not increase the G, appreciably for this second ease ‘A similar approich is possible for FET's and differential pairs. In either case, when R times the quiescent small-signal transconductance becomes appreciable, the ‘conversion transconductance will fll sharply. ‘Vogelt has considered the elleet of serious source resistance on the peak-clamping FET of pages 301 and 302 (Fig. 72-5). When certain of Vogel's result are simplified and translated into the peak clamping terms Vf and Ifgs of Fig. 72-5, then the (GV Vlg 8 Vy/V$ curve of Fig, 7.2-5 is found 10 be depressed by the addition ofa series source resistance, Ry ‘Asa reasonable ist approximation to the elect ofthe series resisanes, one takes the value of (6,3/tf rom Fig. 72-5, forthe particular value of V/V of interest, ‘and divides it by (1+ a), where q = 2ifssR2/V and zis a term that accounts for the sift in the de bias current with increasing drive; zis plotted vs. Fy/V in Fig 1333. ‘Suppose that Ulss/¥’}) = 2000 ako, that (M73) = 0.5,and that R, is 20 ohms. In this case 2 will be 05, q = O04, and (I + g) will be 1.125, Thecefore G, will be reduced from 1000 umho for R, = 0 to 889 umho for R, = 20.ims. (From 12-5,(G,V$llfs) = 05 when (¥,/V$) = 0.5.) 44,5, Vopel, “Noolinear Distortion and Mixing Provess in Fie Elect Transistors” Proc TEBE, 85, No. 12, pp 2108-2116 (Dee. 1967) 14 PRACTICAL maine CIRCUS — 305 Doubling the drive voltage so that (F;/¥S) = 1 wil reduce = 10 approximately 6032, q 0.00256, and (1 + q) to 1079 In this case G.P/Txs is again 05;hence now 6,18 927 mb instead of 1000 pho. TUR, istade much larger, 4) 200 ohms, then fr the (H/V9) = 0. ease, one wll find that = 05, q~ 04, and (1+ 4)? = 274,50 that now G, is reduced from 1000 abo for R, = Odowa to only 365 xo. 14 PRACTICAL MIXER CIRCUITS In tis scetion we shall discuss the interfering: signal problem encountered in bipolar ‘wansistor, dillerential-par, and FET miners. In the next section we will indicate hhow to combine the mixing und oscillating functions to produce “eonverter” from ‘each ofthese devices. ‘Before we proceed with particular cirvite itis desirable to reconsider the prob Jems that are likely to be encountered, both so that we ean avoid them or combat them and so that we can compare different circuits with respect to them. Mixer Problems 1) Output signals at the IF frequency arising from other than the desired input signal 2) Distortion ofthe modulation of the desired input signal. 3} Transmission of the loeal oscillator frequency to the input circuit. (A the focal oscillator signal reaches the antenna, it may be radiated and serve as ait inter- fering signal to other receivers) 44) Noise generated in the mixer sage. 5) Inadequate gain inthe mixer stage. Figure 74-1 illustrates a frequeney spectrum showing a number of possible signals that may cause unwanted components at the mixer output’ IF frequency. a) Wa signal at egqe = (09 + Ody Feaches the miner, the diffrence frequency will be uyp. The only remedy is adequate filtering infront of the mixer. In a new306 MINERS: RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS 4 Desired signa! Frequency ee SE ager a Fig 74-1, Desired and posible intesorence signals in» sopereterodyne receiver, system the choice of the highest possible IF frequency will ease the image-ejection problem b) A signal at 2/2 will cause trouble ifthe RF stage has enough distortion to pro: ‘duce a second-harmonic term from the signal or ifthe mixer provides a beat frequency between the dgeterm and the second harmonic of the incoming signal, From £4, (7.2-8) forthe Bipolar transistor, 09 12) 4 (0) 10) Tol) Jol) where + is the normalized envelope of the (n-term. When z is small, 14eV/Lol2) may be approximated as 2/2, so that fu) Pint ido ‘Adequate Otering to remove the hal-fequency terms must be provided in front of FET or square-law RF amplifiers: otherwise, these devices will double the input frequency and no later stage will remove it. With “linear” RF amplifiers all premixer filtecing is effective in reducing subharmonic terms, ©) The signal «is at oy + @,. It will cause trouble in any system where & beat frequency with 2oy is possible Hence it will cause trouble in transistor mixers but notin true squate-law FET circuits or in differental-pair circuits, provided that the oscillator driving vollage is free of second harnionis 4) The signal cy flls 8 jpug/25 Bence an FET RE amplifier will shift i 10 On ‘and, unless the filtering between this RF amplifier and the mixer removes ths distor- tion term, there will be an unwanted output term. A single-ended bipolar transistor ‘mixer will produce an output similar to the w,/2 case. Obviously there are many other potential sources of interference; however, the above terms suffice to illustrate the problem. As a numerical example, consider ACHE WHEE sssktte = 600 KH2, ap = LOSS Ha and hence (gq = WOKH2, 0, = TSSEH2, Giga = 1SIOKHZ, and, ~ 1655kH2, 14 PRACTICAL MIXER CiRCUITS 307 A single-tuned circuit in front of simple mixer that is supposed to hanelle SkFtz ‘iodulation should not have a @ much above 8 at 600 kHz; fit does, tracking prob- Jems will become diffcult and overall system sideband eutting will become excessive. Such a tuned cizeit will reduce @, by 8 factor of only 4 with respect to the transimise sion of w,. Since the signal at w, may be four or mote times as ig asa, start with the RF tuned circuit outputs may be equal. Iso, and ifboth signals have amplitudes, of 10 mY, then in a bipolar transistor mixer's output the unwanted term will be 28% of the desired signal term. In an FET mixer o a dilferential pair, the main distortion term from a 735 kH2 input would be ut 300 KHz and would be rejected by the I filter “To summarize: An FET os diflercatial-pair mixer should be superior os bipolar mixer from the viewpoint of unwanted signals. At leas two stages of filtering are desirable in front of 32 mixer. A linear, automatically gain-controlled RF ampli isdesirable in front oi she mixer. The gain reduces the importance of the mixer noise, while the gain control allows the circuit to keep excessive signals from reaching the Inixer, Encessive sigs inevitably lead to increased distortion. In spite of owe out- Tine of the ideal sation, many simple receivers have the mixer asthe fist stage and employ a bipolar transistor asthe active device in the circuit, Figure 7.4 2 illusiates, seh 2 circuit iis presumed that the impedance from the base 10 grounel is small st both cy and cand that th impedance from emitter to ground issmall ato, and oy. Valure to satisfy these assumptions leads to reduced conversion transcondutanes 3s well as the possibility of oseillation at the IF frequency. Iosilation occurs, it should be | Vir outpat +s Tuned 1 J ae ahor Say Fig 74-2 Bipolar wansstor mice.308 awxeRS; RP AND UF AMPLIFIERS 14 curable by a reduction ofthe base impedance at ne. Ifnecessary, a series tap tuned {o typ could be connected from the base to ground. Both input and output transformers are tapped down not ealy for the previous reasons, but also so thatthe transistor impedances will not cause excessive detuning of the cir ‘As has been pointed out, iti highly desirebleto prevent large signals of any kind (except those from the local oscillator) from reaching the mixer input. Hence it 8 not sufficient to control the mixer-stage gain or conversion transconductance, say, bby controlling Jgg- One should control an attenuator in the input cieuit Figure 743 illustrate the Key portions ofthe addition of such a circuit 0 Fig. 24-2 From the raculte of Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 we may write the impedance of the diode to the signal frequency as = gt) aay ES Ir me keep the input signa or tlow 26m ls fom Seton 12 we know we Ahi dea psn enenty way and Otay propel ofa Hens seceding shot he inutand edocs heer tinge ness Soaueech Mh he lata heme wi eine Gren bor AC cee eat dtu iris beceted fom one cbc ampltude deter Shs orchupe Tancce oe shut conden tne the fol 4 : tag ‘ruoed oT oe 7 r Re r Fig. 74-3. Input AVC ior miner 14 PRACTICAL mxsR CIRCUITS 309, ‘the input-tuned cirenits; however, it only does so when the IF output is large and hhonce when the desired signal is present, one hopes at reasonable strength, Diferential-Pair Mixers Figure 74-4 shows 2 possible circuit HF Qz and Qs are truly identical and if the input and output transformers are truly balanced, then no oscillator voltage will appear across cither the input or the output transformer, Removal of the oscillator voltage from the input semoves the nev ig. 74-4 lance miner with liferntal pair and “constant curret™ diver310 sarees; uF AND UF AMPLIFIERS 14 reraiaton problem: mation, removing the large osilstor current component from the eutpat reduces the sta onthe IF transformer, (Inthe singleended stage the st IF transformer most rede the lars oxlator component saintly that itdoes not cause nonlinear operation ofthe fst IF amplifier) In addition, because ofthe symmetrical characteristics of the diferent pair second-harmonic ross produce should not be generated by this cireult. To avoid even harmonts terms completely, the oilator voltage must be a tre sine wave ane the variation nthe collector erent of Q, most be kept smal enough tat no osc lator harmonies are generated. Measured data are quted by RCA for such diferent pair ict n whic, fr Fi ~ 146 mV and an untamed input (0 that no intreing signal reduction (rom input Bkering is preset) only three Interference terms except the ings frequency nd component atthe IF ise are within Toa of the desired signal ‘The fst of these intererece terms corresponds to in Fig 74-1 (ny ~ 0) = ey) the second two 10 «and twin oy — Or ~ oy y= oy) For ay = 2.5m al ofthese thre terms were reused by ator of fs or more below the level ofthe desir output term, ‘The removal ofthe ©, Interierence term requires exec symmetry in the dilerenti-pair characteristic whereas the removal of the cote requires an absolutely pure esilacor voltage Neither of these ideas wil ever be achicved in practice. The oer i the most troublesome, since Ics the closest one tothe desired signal ad hence the ost Aico fter ob ntl. The 6/1 reduction inthe cer tat obtained by sng a praca ferential pair ater than an ideal single-ended bipolar sage i impressive BET Mixers, Figure 7.4-5 shows another FET mixer circuit. In this case the high-impedance ‘gate con normally be connected directly across the inpul-tuned circuit, The oscillator voltage feedback will occur via the gate source capacitance, and heace will be min: sized ifthe minimum value of C, is much greater than Cas. Ifthe device is biased 0 that the peaks ofthe oscillator plus signal voltages never swing it out of the square- lar region and i the oscillator voltage is a pure'sine wave, then the only theoretical interference term (besides the image frequency and the IF frequency) will be at half the IF frequency. Again, i the second harmonic is present in the oscillator voltage, then the w- and «terms will come through with relative values proportional 16 the amount of this second harmonic, So long as the osillator voltige is restricted from swinging to V2 (this sacrifices some conversion transconductance) an increased signal level does not lead to distortion in the FET case; hence input AGC (or AVO)is fot necessary. Variation of the conversion transconductance is achieved by varying the oscillator voltage (see Eq, 12-4 or Eq. 72-5) Many other mixer possibilities exist, but they will not be examined in detail Most of them, be they multigrid vacuum tubes, beam-switching vacuum tubes, or aal-gate MOS transistors, can be analyzed in a straightforward fashion, using the gain-controlled amplifier approach of Section 7.2. 158 SEMICONDUCTOR CONVERTER C:RCUIIS 31 oe recon HF afmnan Tuned 1 Ar cos ns ig. 74-8 FET mis, 175. SEMICONDUCTOR CONVERTER CIRCUITS “Though a separate oslo and a separate incre can normally be designed {2 ta cack dct on Job bes it's posto combine th two fnstion 8 Sat uctve device "his combination known ae conver. High-quality te SERS NINS ep thee two fonctions separate, whereas most masrodued teeters combine igure 71 show atypia bipolar ans converte sage. (A to power. sapien chon to rduce te compen ofthe driving sigh. The reader FREE Yano ety invisalign cco nx singlepower-sappy frm) Imauc a duit we desig the onlatr et give the driving eve th vale efx ghjkT ted forte miner operation. In dengan the ober we would fk o be ate omelet he inp sgl and he otpat IF ict. Normally Se doce nee thom and than check op By sowing thatthe og ops rose those impedance eatsed byte calslte crrent a al eile ‘ssa ming sivivons one must wor about osiltor ants rons the band. gal ad oslo Get tacking, and miner nteserenc and “onion problems As usual, compromises wil be nessary. For extmp the sershde iy ofthe eneit may be amprosed fy ineeasing te sipitude of sition312 exeRS; ne AND UF AMPLIFIERS 18 1 J —4 7 em Gent RF signet here apa \ \ \E ai Fig, 75-1. Bipolar transistor converter. ‘he oscillations, while the interfering output terms ‘rom ossillator harmonics or the difficulties with excessive oscillator voltage in either the IF or the inpat circuit areal! minimized by decreasing the amplitudes ofthe oscillations to thei smallest possible values ‘Any of the previous mixer cireui it withthe appropriate oscillator ci ‘may be turned into a converter by combining from Chapter 6 Example 7.5-1 For the converter shown in Fig. 75-2, find an expression for 20. Solution. If at the oscilator frequency cy = 1//EsCy = 1.5 x 107 radjsce the Impedance of the inpat-uned circuit is an effective short circuit compared with the ‘base-emitter impedance of the transistor, then the oscillation amplitude and frequency forthe converter may be found by grounding the base ofthe transistor and employing, the reslts of Section 64. Specificaly, Gy = 15 x 10" rad/ses, 75 SMMICONDUCTOR CONVERTIR ciKCUEES 313 1 yA 6081040 cos 10% Figure 75-2 tnd from Fig. 45-6 x = 10(V; = 260 mV). In addition, since the loop fessthan unity at any other frequency, spurious oscillations the RF or IF frequencies are not possible I've also assume thatthe input RF:tuned cieuit isnot lode by the transistor, then the transistor base voltage is given by RyMya LST mV(t + 0s 10°s)c08 10%, oy = since the bandwidth of the input-tuned circuit (BMgy * 1/R,C, = 5 x 10% lee) is aulicient to pass iar undistorted ‘Now with the aid of Eq. (7.2-13), we‘obtain the IF component of collstor314 nxens; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS 16 ‘current in the form iygt) = 204106, = —a0glbau bool onent of collector current is extracted by the output-tuned circuit "5 = 5 x 10° radjscc, BWyp = 2.5 x 10° radjsec) to yield 20) = (~10V) ~ Rsigld, ‘which with x = 10 reduces to 2) = (~ 10 V) ~ 286 mV}(1 + cos 10°A) cos 5 x 10% To check the asumpions mode in ebtining we first obtain 2 ‘wore Zl isthe impedanc ofthe input crete atthe base othe aso Itous fis maybe neglected compared with, and Coed aaa = losin =H) of 2) [oe] ‘This IF low WV 48.0, which is indeed negligible compared with (1 + f/gjq = 52KO, which isthe transistor impedance at its base terminal, Hence our calculations ofthe oscillation frequency And amplitude neglecting the input circuit is justified. ‘With the techniques of Section 5.5, the equivalent “Tinear loading” of the tran sistor on the input-tuned circuit is readily shown to be ou all + Ver Gy. may be reflected to the input of the RF-tuned circuit as Gyy(Mya/Li) = 1/208 KO; hence as a first approximation the transistor loading may be neplected ‘Actually the transistor in this example does decrease the impedance ofthe input- tuned cireuit by $24, and thus the IF component of vl) will be 5% below the value previously calelated, 16 TUNED NARROWBAND SMALL-SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS, “The uzal snr reir sketvity ad gain bath ele and ater them aaeoa "Te sotonsin font ofthe minsarekrowa a RF sages Tea ages shou betincrapeent he oe lnc row molto orth gneton arom products ht wl int theme oc ale inthe Te bond. nthe re ferey bands whe restr noes ining ya ptt hes ges shoul ‘Exe adequate pin opovent he ight nse of tener stage om ing the tener pvforance in addon, hese RF sages shuld provide he esi ‘Best to povnt dase agels om reaching to Thee tuned tgs btwe teat and hedemodeltor cre known asthe sage in AMT oysoms ins tage met bine whem EM gos 16 “TUNED NARROWBAND SMALL-SIGNAL awPLitnORS 315 their amplitude characteristies may be markedly nonlinear. The IF stayes should hhave high selectivity withowt causing distortion inthe desired passband, In general these fixed tuned stages provide the bulk of the gain between the input and the demodulator. "Thus the RF stages are normally Tow-gain, relatively broadband tunable stages, while the 1F stages ave high-gain, relatively aarrowband, fixed tuned stuges, If one keeps these dilferences in mind, the samme general techniques may be wulzed for de- signing both circuits, Since one ofthe purposes ofthese stages is selectivity the design of their selective networks it important, However, such design is not the main focus ofthis book. ‘Tigure 26-1 ilusteates the selectivity obtainable with a commercial seven-pole mechanical filter and Fig. 76-2 llsteates a possible driving and isolating circuit ble, some Tora 435 kHz version of such a filter. A great variety of such filters is avai at relatively low prices. “The concentration of selectivity in one “box” and broadband gain in a different pox" is one reasonable way to design a receiver. The field adjustments required to place seven separate poles in a Butterworth or Tschebyachelf arrangement ave not Mlssrable under any excomstances; hence, even if the filter were 10 be built up of lumped elements, one might well choose to have the filter” ot designed” and placed inthe circuit 3s a unit ‘What we will point out here is the basic approuch to designing narrowband small-signal amplifers that work into single- oF double-tuned networks and are driven from single- or double-tuned cirevits.E Weshalluse the narrowband y-model forthe alive circuit to provi an analysis that willbe valid for single vacuum tubes, FETS of bipolar transistors. well as for differential pars, cascode, or other diserete of integrated cireat eombunations Figure 76-3 shows the basic arrangement fora single stage, ‘The y-parameters ‘at wsingle Q-point by the equations 110) = ynOM0) + yrs aon ‘ompu and 120) = yx (0Vi0) + Yes (76-2) [Although these parsmeters may be calculated from some other device modu they ‘Frtochanial ites ae mechanically resonant elements whose inputs ere driven hy. ad whose eevee picked p by, pease, magactostive, o the kstromeshanie sds Fara ae Eiual areca itr; however, a8 commonly wie, the tenn fe nll Teen (hence mulipole) ceramic clement wualy with fat passbands and shar flo in Seite outde tne pssband. Chaple 8 of Sai State Magetc anf Dickrc aver ied TW, ate John ey, New Yor, 159), cuss the physical and eerie properties of ner of och devies in some deta Tor thoweseader with no experience at all wih dovblestuned crus, Chapt 16 of E 3 Wacko Eecinmie Situs (wcGraw-Hif, New York, 1968, sesoad esiton) wil provide & ‘worthwhile backgroviasMe oute Me7skite a7 oa Fig. 16-1 The ample respons of sven poe commercial moshiicl Glo in ect slate that of ig 10-2 fa ig. 7.6-2 Overall IF stage with mechanical filter and preliminary bréadband fier 1 remove spurious response posses. (Overall gain canbe controled by varying Rand by cupacitively Shuating all or part ofthe 20082 ip the ist emit, As shown, wih X= 3080, the reat handle 1V peat input with aa overall gin 3) ce anh mph) Ch Gl [e] v™ native device Fig. 7463 Basic» parameter stage ‘ace normally measard, sine it is desirable that they ince all parasite r {ss well as such dficult-to-model parameters as exes phase shit in transistors The parameters are usually functions of both Q-poin and frequency. Since they ate Tunetions of frequency, one must exer some care when attempting to combine, sy, Yn ro the device and Yg fram the circuit In esents what one mast do is make 2 “zmal-band” approximation ina normal model (The “smat-signal” approximation usualy already implicit in the parameter value} Fer example at feguencies nar ey ne might approximate yz gaa + jC + 60Ch2, 6-3) Yan where 5 = w ~ wo, Now if Yp were'a single parallel RLC circuit that combined with ys 10 tune 10 1, one would have. ¥i= Ya + Yan = (Ga + B22) + folCaa + Cod L jp + i ) (26-4 Kap Fen, tC + Cod 06-4) However ifdu « ty, then [flop + du) © (fase) ~ (5/8) 0 that, inthe neighbor hood of ny, (Gy + ea) + 0) (16-5) Here, instead of just taking the value ofthe imaginary part of y23 al wo 8s veCaa> swe have also taken the slope term jdaC;. In general, there is no reason why Cys should equal Coo, just as there is no reason why the ineremental slope of the diode ‘equation should equal the ratio of the de junction voltage to the de junetion current When the slope of b, with respect to frequency is smal, then Cy © Cyx- Cases Jo arise where differences of tvo oF three times occur between the two terms. (One ould also take a slope term for the real part of yj however, since resonance Woes ho ence! ga3 oF Eva, this refinement is seldom necessary.) Figure 7.6-4 shows typical 107 MHz und 100 MHz. common emitsr »-pare meters vs eollector current for a good NPN silicon bipolar transistor, Figure 26-5318 mt ye MIXERS; Ri AND IF AMPLIFIERS f 107 mite mov (9) inp semitones (ouipat shot iri) env "fe =10V 0 2 > 10 mt 5 ol * os 0.0 av oot See ym (0) y,: reverse transfer somitiance(inur short cru) 16 SS 16 [TUNED NARROWBAND SMALL-SIONAL AMPLIFIERS 319 297 f= 10.7 mike nae o aie wv oo 2 (©) forward transfer admitnee (output shor cit) 0307 f= 107 me f= 100 He ¥o5Y, gow ons 16 vens¥ oa by yo g a wav Eos e ons} a os ot $7 kama ama (6) dn! outpot amare (input shor cet) Fig. 746-4 Common miter parameters vs collector current at two diferent INDIA. Reproduce by passion of Flrehil Semicondector, frequencies.320 MINERS; RF AND 1F AMPEETERS 16 3a = 50.mA 6p fe= Sma “hy 7 by asl FOV J 4 Ba 2 : 2 21 2 J o\ d My 1301003057500 To OD a 30 Teo 00300 1000 foots spore (6) yy lapel edmitance (0) yy crower transfer adminance < besoma 100) te », a » a 3} 24 2 BS Ba Bd 4 1 aah d eS) a semi smite (sy: forwud transfer sooiance (e) ys eutpu admitance Fig. 16-5 Common eniterypuamete wagon. 2NDL Reqvodsced by pumision o Fairchild Semiconductor, 7 ine Aa shows the common emitter y-parameters vs frequency for tne same transistor Uc= SmA, Veg = 10V}. 11 is apparent that these parameters do indeed vary wi both frequency and Q-point, but that one can make a reasonable mode! over at least some small range of both quantities, Consider the problem of finding ¥,, = ¥s‘pVF(p) in the neighborhood of wy when both the overall input and output circuits are tuned to oy and when both Y, and Yy are simple parallel RLC eicuits. 16 "TUNED NARROWBAND SMALL-SIGNAL ast Since Vip) = yo lp)pDVaslp) + Yell the effect ofthe fextback yenerator ‘Yaa is to place an impedance in parallel with'Y, and y4,.. Therefore, we first cal ulate this “rellected” impedance and then add the yj,-and Yaeterms: ada Zoe 6-6) Yiavan a+ Ya %, where Z, = 1/% Ifthe last tenth of ¥ has a large enough negative real par, then over some range of frequencies, ¥, may have a negative ceal part and the circuit will oseifiate im the ‘manner outlined in Section 6.10 ‘What se iste demonstrate isa simple graphical approach that aot only lets us evaluate ¥,Ljoos but also lets us see how ¥,(ja) varies near oy and exactly What Wwe should do to contro this variation. ‘Tn general, the practical possibilities in controling ¥, include: 14). -Reduction of y.2- This is slways desirable. With a single given MET, vacuum (ube, or transistor it can be accomplished by adding an additional ow-of-phase feedback to cancel some or all of the device feedback. Such a feedback circuit is known asa neutralizing network "An aliernative is t© combine several devices into 2 circuit such as a cascode ciccuit or a diflerential pair and thea to consider the y-parameters for the composite circuit. AS we shal se, ysq for such a circuit may be reduced by a faetor of several hhundred or more from 9, for 2 single stage. b) Increasing Gy. This corresponds to loading the output circuit 1¢ will reduce the voltage exin ofthe eieuit, Ifthe loading is done by the proper coupling of the Jmpedance from the next stage, thea it does not necessarily lead to exvessive power lose ) Increasing G4 This corresponds to loading the input circuit, Again one is trading gain for cireit stability and symmetry. Figure 26-6 plots Yo) from Eq, (76-S) vs. w in the neighborhood of ao Figure 76-1 plots Zo) = 1%) “The straight line in Fig. 7.6-6 is transformed into a circle when one takes its reciprocal to find Z, = 1/Y,- Ht willbe apparent thatthe larger Gis made, the smaller the circle of Fig, 7.6-7 wil become. In terms of a magnitude and an a Yat vam aM tana Ziloet 5)} Gri where a1 Fo 80) = ta 5S “The —34B pessband of the amplifier occupies one-alf of the ciel other frequencies fom minus infinity t pls infinity oseupy the other half, Actually when222 wns: RF AND FANS 16 f mceine Gottn Ongin’ “— Z opolemtGot ate) lian) Fig.76-6 Combined ciruitend deviceadmit- tance outa the output of Fy. 76-3. Purale fexonance ty sees. oe shown i the peighborRoed ef resonance. km Fig. 7.67 Reciprocal of the admitance shown in Fig. 26-6. 4a is larger, the approximations break down and yas Varies with frequency, so that the locus of Z, will probably cease to be exactly circular. Since the approximation is very good in the region of interest and is both adequate and convenient elsewhere, we assume that it holds forall values of ox ‘Since resonance is not involved with ether y,2 of yzu, We will approximate bot of them by “constant values across the frequency band in question, Further ‘more we will combine the real and imaginary parts of the curves of the type shown in Fig 76-4 and 7.6-S so as to represent yy3 and ya) as magnitudes and angles. With this representation the result of the multiplication shown in Eq, (76-6) will be to rotate the circle of Fig. 7.6-7by the sum ofthe angles of y, 2 and y2, and to.change the diameter of the citcle t0 [yra¥axlAGu + &12) For example, if yas = gu abd Yr = —feC,, then Yas _OeCiba n= Wo - LeGiba tent, 16-7 Yet ys. Gat Bar "h (er 16 TUNED NARKOWHAND SMALL-SIONAL AMPLINIIKS 323 ‘which iscitcle Lin Fig. 76-8. Now adding G, + 81, 10 the reflected admittance will, shit the ciele to the right by this amount, in addition, ifthe imaginary part of Y + yy, isequal to = jiesCite Ga ban” then the crcl will be shifted down into position 3 in Fig. 76-8 ‘Curve 3 is no longer quite a cree, sine its equation is 1 wfc, + Cs +t] (16-8) + soles + Ci + 7] f Fig. 76-8 Input admittance of Fig, 716-3 for specie yparameter and crit conitions particular For Sram hc, Yo ase to fexonate With 2, snd Y, ated to ‘esonate with joy andthe reese impedance “The magnitude and phase ofthe overall input impedance ae given by the moxnitude land angle of the vector from the origin {0 2 particular point on curve 3. (Usually Cele 3 isa suficiently good approximation for first-order design purposes) Tis apparent that, to avoid oscillations, curve 3 must lie completely within the right halfo' theadmittance plane. However, inorder to haveustage witha reasonably Symmetrical input impedance and with an input impedance that does not become badly mistuned whenever an adjustment is made in the output, its nevessry for the304 MUXERS; RF AND I AMPLIFIERS 16 radius ofvircle | tobesmall in comparison to the distance that circle 2s tothe right of the imaginary axis. ‘This ratio of the radius of circle 1 to G, + gy is called the alignability factor, k aye HG, gaa), Fad ae Iie general acepted that for welt designed cect k= 020. ‘Acually Ealone not really sulsen specication; fr circuits with ual values Tor those in which cc 1 is almost completely within the Iet-hal plane alee wars ya factorof} han hose circuitsin whicheirle | Kes almost completely inthe eral plane "To repeat ou ear conciusions, one can reduce kr cither by reducing by incresing Gp or Ga. (Reding Yo Fs nt reasonable since it eduses the tun diet.) One reduces 1 by switching devices or Q-points oF by aneviralicing fEeloach, or by combining devin Into «composite avice Whatever method is Cond, ne must check forthe worsi-oue condition, bosuse neutralization cto sortally be achieved only to within a cerian foltanc, while the yarameers ary wth temperature and ste Q-point is shied by AVE (or AGC) conto signals Tondo to neutalie a stage with a purely cpactve itera feedback, one requires purely capacitive fedback of opposite phase as ilustrated in Fig. 76-9 ‘Normally femal own exaey and varies rom unit unit wi temperature, and wit pin, Inadalion, one seldom wes better than a 15% lerance capacitor ror a ini maybe reasonable rede yal o perhaps ff is ial val, toes uniely that ins production run one wil atemp todo better than ths tin hig-power ample ene ofen dost attempt to make adjustments on each mpi so that [ais reduced bow this value) or the purpec of numerical comparison we shall consider an amplifier con siting ofa single biplar ansotor of the type illstated in Figs 26-4 and 76-5, SN as cavods end a diferetin-pair connection of «commercial integrated iad ch 2s the RCA.CA.3008 In each cave we arity Set Gy Bu.- The ‘Common properties ae liste in Table 16-L. Table 16-2 ists the parameters and Sarous devved quantities forall hres cass. “Table 7464 Common propentiss of three amplifies yg 25mmA, Vel» ed = 8 Singetuned dietly connected output cea ‘Outpat col with Ly ~ 8 iH, Q = 100 ‘Output cieit toad to obtain +400 He bandwidth at ag = 672 > 10" Has athe as = 14 ‘Total shunt lod from cil loses and device outpt loss 18 71222; that is, G+ tos = 139 peo foreach case ‘The tuning capaitor foreach casei = (28 PF) ~ Con 16 ‘TUNRD NARROWDAND SMALLSIONAL AMPLIFIERS 325 Table 16-2 Lis of ypurametes and various derived quantities for three amps (10.7 MH ‘rales, al adntances in po; 2A in single or eascodestayes; L25mA in cach hal cilleental pairs) 7 6 Pse | See | Pi 0 7 Be | ioe | Be 7 ee | ETM | BET ee ene eae ely wh TIPLPREE Mahia SRA Liser fotprie Creat Fncumentx™ Teena! Seis (C0, RCA, ovr, 303-986. “The last entry in Table 7.6-2is the alignability factor k forthe ease where Gu = ‘aus. Note that when G, = gu, the single-ended case is unstable, while both the other Slages have k < 0.146. ‘The actus difference between the cascode and dilferentia- pair circuits is not as greatas the value of k would indicate, sines cree I in the cascode fase is almost completely inthe lef-half plane while in the diflerential-pair case fis Stimost enttely in the righthalf plane, ‘To be specific, when G =, and both inputs are tuned to be resistive at a, the ast input conductance G,, is 3814 umho in the cascode ease and 1448 amo in the ifferental-pai ease, the diflerence being, only 265/ "To aid in secing “ne difference between the two caseS as well asin understanding the method. itis desirable that the reader trace out curve 3 for Both cases. From this fourve one can get aided of the input impedance symmetry for each circu. tis sometimes useful to compare amplifying stages in terms of their power gins, since power does not have the indefiniteness that is sometimes associated ‘with voltage or current gains. ‘A straightforward analysis of Fig. 76-3 will show that the resonant power tin defined as the load power divided by she power supplied by the I generator is326 MIKERS; RF AND UF AMPLIFIERS 1 Fig. 76-9 Possible neutralization cvcluy when yyy aC, siven by Eq, (76-10) dp = Pott Wyal?Ge Pom G+ Bis + Balltaa + Oa” ‘This equation presumes that the inpat and output are both tuned to resonance; ‘ans the resistive portion of the impedance reflected from the output through the ‘ra Benerator, and Gp is assumed to be the desired oad resistor. For the purpose of comparing stages, we consider a special Ym of Ap in which g» = Oand both the input and output are “matched!” resistively. For this case, ‘Ap becomes Ary, and Eq, (76-10) reduces to 76-10) bal? Bees Now we compare pq, for the thee stages and Ay for the lst two cases assuming gy, — Gy, but alowing 2, Gy, ad gf, 1 have their previous values. Adon (16-11) 16 {TUNED NARROWRAND SMALL-SIONAL anruvitis 327 (Since the single-ended transistor without neutralization will oscilate, a € for 4, is meaningless) culation Diferomial pir Se [Son aiiap | asa “ sui From these results we ste that, while neither of these composite sages yields its “maiched power gain, two stages of either composite type would yiels a theoretical ‘gain more than 70GB and a practical gain of atleast Oc. ‘We might attempt to salvage the single-ended stage by neutralizing it Hf we assume that we ean neutralize the reactive portion of y3 0 within 10% then we208 aus Bays) 10, $8 > Fualyya] 2-8. {rom wich, forthe two extreme cases, we obtain the following values: eee eee reece = oe yas 1048) aces 82-5 +] gm 10°" panto? £455" | 098 = 10°" pana? £205" yatenGs + ed | OL — 495" aL 4 fone constructs the type 1 circles indicated by the values ubove, one wil se thatthe p,, = — 10 + jb ease isthe worst case but thet, even here, adding 1109 jamho of real input conductance (via g,, and G,) will yield absolute stability; hence, if fis = Gy = 950 pmo, then the type 3 circles will ie completely within the right half plane. Thealignability velueswillnot be less than 0.20. However, sinosthecircles fre not rotated so fer from the real axis to begin wit, the variasion aeross the band fay not be excessive. If this variation still Seems too much, the nex! step would probally be to reduce the load seen at the output. This can bedone without changing the bandwidth by using a step-up transformer between the transistor outpat and the TTC cireuit. For example, with aa effective turns ratio of 1:2 we may increase Gy to 634 pmnho: this retuces the diameter of circle 1 to 1517 umbo and makes k = 00. “The result, with the small angle of rotation of cree 1, should be a wsuble stage. ‘Note that this deliberate mismatching at the output has decreased the power ‘ain while increasing the alignabilty. This trade is offen a rexsonsble one to mak. For this neutralized, heavily loaded stage, as speified forthe y,3 = ~10 + )8 yamho ‘cae, the actlal resonant power gan is 3100 or 249 dB; hence the single-ended case fe ill competitive with the cascode and differenial-pair cases sf guin alone is con- dered. Thus by partial neutralization and the use of sufficient input or output mnismatching we can obtoin reasonably. alignable single-unit stages with power gains ofthe order of 308 per stage.328 noxnns; AF AND HF AMPLIFIERS 1 “17. STAGES WITH DOUBLE-TUNED CIRCUITS Figure 77-1 illustrates three possible types of coupling between snalLsignal double tuned eieuts. Obviously a greet many variations are possible with such eiovits To illusrate the basic concepts we shall restrict ourselves to the specifi cases ou lined below: 4) cach halfireuit (uncoupled) identical and tured 10 29; 1) only a singe typeof coupling in a given circuit 6) overall bandwidths of 5% of less of For all such cases where Y, = Yt ep) ro) 71.0)” YORY@) + 4" Yi) __ Yi + Yl) 10)” WORK = YO “The wransfer impedance for such cases always has two sets of complex poles ‘One set is atthe 2ras of ¥p) and hence hat areal pat of ~ 1/2R,C, anda fesonan frequency of 1//LyCy.. The quadratic forthe other st of poles isthe one eslting from the [¥i(p) + 2¥_(p)}-terr ence it will vary with the type of coupling. Table 7T7-1 lists the resulis Tor the three cases under consideration, orn Table Comparison of three types of coupling Tedoctve Motul ining Capes | pagteotettl peg eccton | page try a PP iieeat eer et Tree | Pt REN Tw eee +i ‘ ball Mts cue, Seat tasoe | aie, ola) fat ae, Zeessteran | 1 1 3 Actually for mutual inductive coupling the convenient formulation puts the denominator in a form in which both sets of poles are functions of k. ‘The normal approximation for small values of ki to ignore the vetiations in Q caused by k (that is to neglect the horizontal motion ofthe pole inthe capacitive case) and to consider the vertical movement. For k « 1, L Jive FELT Angelo (Blerone Circus, MeGrew-Hil, Nw York, 1964, second edition) states the ‘trighforvard extension tothe case where Ys) = a9) xI-k Tok oe STAGES: ‘WITH DOURLE-TUNED CIRCUITS 329 wo Fig, 77-1 (a) Inductive coupling (0) Mutual inductive couping 6) Capacitive sewing “Te poe motion forthe upper st of complex ples for the thre cose sso in Fig D2. eis apparent that except fore skewness cased by the variations of (itn all hes cases may be used fo obtain manimaly ator other ¢wo-pole rk iusiment. ‘Though the inguste cases the easiest, he ster te sass tum ou te be much more practical Both of those casts are wily Use Por masta Rane the eapucivec6 gC = i tho mul Fle Cath og “ haestion that naturally aries is: How des the input immpodance of double tuned eu at she sabi and alga exettions of the previows sto From Fig, 76-Git ter tha te adtitance refed into the ip sle ofthe Framer model aays —aPaiZe where Zs the otal impedance scr the yoy generar. Tal eel vate330, axons; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS a4 i ; Le a7 Fe Ae wo Veo man © #4 rn cy FRG. Fig. 17-2 (a) Inductive coupling (b) Mutual ndvetive coupling (9) Capacive coupling If we assume that ys i8 absorbed into the primary tuned circuit, then Z; is the input impedance for the double-tuned circuit. Equations (7.7 3) and (77-3) list 2, forthe mutual inductive and capacitive eoupling cases: ‘Mutual inductive coupling oat ok aor + gh + a) Ze : 7-2 7, ps2 fr eae, +a) va, Copcitie coupling Lek { 073) Tal cles : xe lf Reem “Though these equations look rather formidable, both can be greatly simplified ‘tmeconsider only the egion neat os = 1h/L,C) and swe manian ou essupicn fk «I. Inthiscase both equations have'wo poles that are approximately equally Spaced about the zero. we sonsier the maximally ft tanser function ase, then Zac ine contr frequency [vg in the mutual inductive case and dtl ~ 1/2) in te apace coupling cate] 82/2, while the approximated normalized valves of the impedance in terms of «= 172R,C, = wo!2Or ate given by Table 27-2. The center-frequency transfer impedance for the same case is R/2[1 — k?), which is ‘pproximately R/2 and thus approximately the same as Figo 77-3 plots the normalied data of Table 77-2 and compares them wih cir ofradivs. Thats Fip 77-3 compares the data of Table 17-2 with theinpat impedance tobe expected froma singl-tuned cet having the same center fequensy andaloed R. However, thisisjust the ese of the single-tned ceut “The use of the sme graphical approach to caleulat the complete reflected impedence andthe resultant alignabiity isa perfectly straightforward procedure. However, iis apparent that ifthe singletuned case with load is stable, then because the mew impedance es within the cle ofthe single-toned case the double tuned, manimally fleas wth load of R per ide will alo se stable 18 COxIN conTROL CIRCUS — 33 “Table 1-2 Normalized input impedance for Wentaly twos coupled etcuits (kon each id) due ° | uo a | F020 2 040 i 7025 ee wo) meme N ae Viwte | A Normalized input impednos 7) ais See RES ig. 7.7-3 Plot ofthe normalized 2, for 8 maximally Hat doublesuned identical st of toned 18 GAINCONTROL CIRCUITS Since the level ofthe signals present atthe input of a receiver can vary by more than Tot) while the “near” range of operation of most amplifies is 10°/1 or lesan the practically useful range of many demodulation circuits is only about 10/1 its im erative that most reeivers have & built-in automatic gain control circu ‘Such a cituit should sense the long-term average (longeterm with respect to the lowest modulation frequency) value ofthe signal and adjust the amplifier gain in Such a manner that all sages operate within their optinnum signal level ranges. Tdealy, as the input signal level increases the gain should remain at its meximam vale uni the optitnum demodulator input level is reached, and then for furher in ‘reases in the input the win should decrease in such a fashion thatthe output eure level remains constant Figure 781 illustrates the ideat situation for the case where the optimum demodulator voltage input is 1 Vand the maximum amplifier gain is $0. PracticalS02 eas; AND Ls 18 00 ' \ 1009 | > ay 1 : i ¢ dal | Jeu | vt pete a 10d Tea T.000 0005“ 1665 16,000 Input. Ino © iy Fg, 7461 (6) a in vipat sia for AGC ample. (ea wf) vo) for AGC amples, amplifiers ususlly depart from the ideal situation both at low input levels, where the ‘gaia begins to decrease sooner thant should, and at high levels, where some amplifiers ‘become seriously overloaded. ‘Another practical problem with most gain control schemes is that they modify the active device’ input and output impedance and hence cause detuning and/or ‘bandwidth changes. In addition, many of the schemes modify the circuit's noise ane distortion properties in what may turn out to be an unsatisfactory manner. ‘Thus the best gain control circuit is usually a compromise among a number of conficting requirements. ‘Before we cam intelligently discuss overall systems, we need to outline the possible gain control mechanisms. As we shall 22, there may be several possible means of varying the gain ofa given device. These may vary with the frequency of operation. In some cases several identicablooking cireuits may in fact operate in somewhat iffrent manners, since they operate at widely dilferent center frequencies. ‘The most straightforward method of gain control is to Vary fy in the device sodel shown in Fig. 78-2. Such a simplified model can represent Yacuuin tube, junction FET, a MOSFET, or a bipolar transistor im the frequency range where ‘both the base spreading resisior ray andthe base recombination resistor ry OFF, ty be neglected as we have been doing in previous sections. ‘Vacinim tube pentodes exist in which g, varies smoothly (but not linearly) from, say, 5000 umho at 2ero rid-to-cathode valtage to zero micromhow at & Vox value of 30. Im other tubes the same g,, range may be covered in only a $V swing of the bias voltage, “The wide-range or “remote-cutof™ device is made by effectively paralleling in thesame envelope) several tube structures, One structure has high gy aero voltage but outs off at a relatively low grid-to-cathode voltage, while another has a low fm at 22r0 voltage and decreases only slowly with inereasing bias. The advantage ‘of such a control characteristic is that, at large biases and low x,’ and hence low ‘ean, the gy is nearly constant over a wide voltage range: hence the device will be ‘able to handle large signals without distortion, Figure 78-3 ilustates the gq vs. Vjx fora pentode vacuum tube, as well asthe sin for a two-stage tandem of such pentodes in which Ry = 10k is assumed for 18 (GAIN CONTROL ccUTIS 333 Fig.78-2 (a)=-modelfora device () Equivalent model for he dviceof hy cach stage. ‘The ample ilustrated does have range of contol gx of more than 1071, Whether this whole eng rustle esto we most ow chain ven gains! 20 the model of Fig. 78-2 the remaining vols ain” oa single sage hrs magnitude of A/T [lg = Glo wher G, isthe oud conductance, For age walues of o Yhs ter approaches unity Cy ~ 1, to = 60> 10% and gy-+ 6, = 100 mos, then the reall gi is OST rather than seo. Htve stages we sascadthen the oval gin depen not olson How thepsofcach stages controlled, bit aso on the eomposie made. Th overall rs istltheeapachiveeedthvough rm prevents on om seahing hs lower portions ofthe careleristicof ip 718-3a1 high frequencies, Thiscapalive fi eed inthe ame way that wi reuced in ection 7.6, that, by netaliaton Ta almost all AGC. cuit, proper neutralization wil extend the lower-guin nd ofthe carve bythe onder of 2048. The iio sh extensions the aecury the netalzation of particular stage. In adion tothe normal tlerane prob fem the AGC action Hel ovary the internal feedback prairie ow tins te large inpo signals poset may efectvely vary the "smasignal” model pavers Tn both jugetion and MOSFET, te is proportional to Ve: hanes ons ean btn gate foto Ver ~ Fc for MOS tusestors oF xa. Y ores forjuntion FETS) tn either ese is pone forthe munacrert bu emote cof” devices or forthe wert pill several uit oan th fet Inhconconoean obtain esl sina to those fr vacuum tes alhough pbbly334 neans; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS 78 104. => R, 19000 ‘Transconducance ofetandem ‘tte identi ‘Sontoled sages Ain 10 kOpuge = Geid.cathode de voliags, ¥ ig. 78-3 5, and two-stage gin va Vox (vacwum-tube ain-contells amplifies, With somewhat reduced gatesoure range. gun neutron willbe ncesay torachtelovergineste ent For bipolar ransos operated in the equ) range where Fig, 74-2 a vali representation (aCyrre 1) and wih» fow enough bas cent that the emer baceantlon ron pune dominates (C, = z= Cych dn proportion toy and ths thers at near rena btwecn gain and cnr curren. Fo tay highequency trantors wit small efectvediflusion capacitance, bis Currents Bion tm ld wo the ested operation {FFor higher careats Cy becomes a inaey increasing function of Ze: hence the eaeat gis becomes “sonar ashe decrein theinpotmpedanos end (0 compensa for thesneee nga Tradition, the aration of, wih Ig nay cause serious detuing problems 78 ‘enim conrnot cxxcumrs 335 ‘A number of other types of gain contro circuits are possible and ane in use ‘Alltcansistors Fave alphas and betas that are to some extent functions ofthe de bias current. Normally the transistor designer tries to minimize these changes; however, in an AGC situation he may try to utilize them. ‘One approach is represented by the “tetrode” transistors in which a sceond ‘base connection is added to the device. The second base current now controls the alpha or beta of the “normal” transistor. Beta variations of 20/1 or mote should be possible fora 10/1 variation of control current. “A second approach uses the fact that the gain of certain bipolar transistors falls off, aot only a J, increasts, But also a Vo, decreases, particularly when the absolute alu of Ver is siall. In such transistors (a 2N2415 at 70 MHz, for example), by ‘varying Vou ftom 12 V to 25 V (this is equivalent to a 1.3 mA change aerOss 4 1K82 fesistor) one ean change the gain by a factor of 100 (40). or farger values of Veq the gain will be reasonably independent of Vo (oF Veg) A circuit using this phenomenon for gain control purposes is known as a “forward-acting AGC" ciruit ‘ince variation of Voy, especially for small values of Veg, causes a large variation in Cpe it wll be difficult to achieve neutralization with “forward-seting" AGC of the variable-voliage (Pe ‘All bipolar gain control circuits in which fei varied actually operate by means cof combination of the mechanisms outlined previously plus mismatching elets a both the input and output of the device. Figure 7.6-4 clearly indicates such input ‘and output admittance variations a 107 MHz and 100 MHz. At lower Irequencies the vacations in ootput impedance may become fess important; however, the ‘variation of input impedance with {continues down t0 de. In the usual toned amplifier one does not want to depend on mismatching for ‘gain control, since mismatching elso causes detuning and selectivity changes hence ‘one deliberately taps the input and output transformers down to the point where the cireut not only i stable and alignable But is xls relatively inomune vo sity in tuning caused by AGC action. “The eains of exveode connections are varied as a commion emitter stags, while the g, ofthe differe-wial-peir configuration is controtied by varying fy ‘Roother approach to the AGC or AVC problem is to use a separate attentator section 07 to shunt one of the tuned eicuits by a variable attenuator, Possibilities include aa FET or light-controlled resistor as illustrated in Figs 69.3 and 69-4 of adiode attenuator as illustrated in Figs. 85-7, S3-9, or 74-3. ‘In any case, one must derive a feedback voltage (or current) t0 drive the AGC circuit from the geal itsll- Ths is normally done by means of one of the detector Grouits of Chapter 10. One should noté that the desired relationship between the ‘AGC voltage (or current) and an increase inthe signal amplitude depends on the tyPe GLAGC cimployer tt should also be apparent thatthe desirable feature of “detay™ in the start of gain reduction until a desired minimum ovtput is obtained nay be Tncorporated either in the detecior czcuit or inthe gain control cireuit. For example, bipolar cieuits that depend on a reduction of Vey do not produce lane changes in pain unt Fey falls Below about 25 to 3V, Hence if Voc #69 Vi there fs 1.5K336 MIXERS; RF ANO HF AMPLIFIORS 1 dropping resistor, if Vy = 0, and if Igg = 3mA, then the first 1 mA change in Ie will not cause much change in gain, while the second I mA change in J_ will cause & large change in the gain, Tt should also be apparent that, since the AGC system is a feedback system, the Joop filtering must be properly designed or oscillations might occur. In particu, excessive lowefiequency filtering must not be added 10 remove the modulator: Signal from the control signat path. 78 NOISE, DISTORTION, AND CROSS MODULATION ‘Noise and cross modulation are problems only in the early stages of a receiver A these problems are not solved there, no later stsge can correct them. Nonlinear distortion may occur in any stage, but once adequate filtering has removed an} interfering carriers, this type of distortion is most likely in the last stage of the Amplifier where th signal level is 2 maximum. ‘The techniques of Chapter 4 indicate, for various devices. what signal levels are possible without such nonlinear distorion and what form it will take when it occurs, ‘We shall not discus it further here Noise has several prime sources. One is the antenna; noise arriving from this source must be removed by adequate filtering. IP all the earlier stages operate Tinearly and if noise terms at all the potential interfering frequencies ure adequately removed, then the IF selectivity wll remove the out-of-band portions of such noise ‘The second component of noise is in-band noise generated in the recsiver itself Such noise is produced in the FET, the bipolar transistor, or the vacuum tube, While every device has its ovm peculiarities, the noise normally tas both an input circuit and an ouput cireit component and it normally increases with the bins current. In general, antenna noise dominates below about 30 MHz and front-end receiver noise dominates at higher frequencies." One way to compare amplifiers with respect to their noisiness is by the noise gure, F: Signsl/Noise Ratio at Input ‘Signal Noise Ratio ai Output For an ideal noiseless amplifir, Fis unity or zero dB, since the ampli noise ofits own, Practical amplifiers always have F > 1. (Obviously both input and ‘output signal/noise ratios need to be measured in the same bandwidth: otherwise, values of F apparently less than one can be obtained) In addition to the noise produced in the desired band itself, both antenna and receiver noise outside the hand may get translated into the band by dec modulation ‘of an amplifier, by cross modulation in an amplifer, or by being atthe appropriate ‘mixer interference point. Modulation by low-frequency noise (which is often an ‘order of magnitude larger than in-band noise) is avoided by providing adequate ow- frequency bypassing and by operating the initial amplifier in linear manner, 19 NOISE, DISTORTION, AND CROSS MODULATION 337 Since the amplifier noise figure is elated to the ampiiir’s power gain it will be 4 function of the source impedance seen by the device, Normally there fs level of Source impedance that is optimum from the viewpoint of the noise figure. Fortu- rately this minimum in F as the source impedance is varied is firly broud: henes 3/1 noise mismatching should cause less than a | dB increase in F. Fora junction or MOS transistor the optimum source impedance is of the order of 2kO, fr a bipolar transistor 2000 is apt to be much more reasonable. ince the erratie division of eurrent between the grids makes multigrid tubes ‘much noisier (perhaps five times noisier, one uses triode vacuum tubes as RF Amplifiers in frequency regions where receiver noise is important. Of course, a Ngood” pentode may still be better than a noisy triode, so discrimination must aiill be exercised here {A good RF pentode at 60 MHz might have an optimum source impedance of $3kStand a noise igure of4 dB, while the same tube connected ass triode might have ‘an optimum source impedance of 1.4 k9 and a noise figure of 2B ‘Cross modulation can oovur whenever the series expansion forthe output current tas function of the input voltage contains 2 eubie term. For example, i the output current of an amplifier bas the form fd) = Lag + gaol) + a0") + 030°. 19-2) where ( ¢ assumed to have the form. of) = Vy coscayt + Vall + mafi_l} 60s ost (79-3) [/0) <1 and the ‘ighest radian frequoncies ia J) are much less thar «ay oF wh tien there will be output terms with center frequency @, as shown in Ey. (79-4); BaD = (Sal + IK VEL + ma SOP} cos oy 79-4) “Thus even ifthe original signal at o, is unmodulated, an interfering si tansfer its modulation to the desired signal frequency. If fl) = 00s fst, then the transferred’ modulation will have sideband eom- ponents at both siz and 2s. If, is smal! enough, say 0.10, one might ignore the Second, harmonic term and ask for the sizeof Vy that would cause 1", sinusoidal modulation on the desired cartier. From Eq. (79-4 this value would be V3.2 = 001, (79-8) Ee which is independent of V; and of . Thus, unless ay can be made very small with respect 10 gq, adequate selectivity must be provided to keep ¥, at the devive input below the desired level For example, iflay/gql = 1 and my = 0.10, then Ys < 180m. "An ideal FET amplifier with no series resistance, has a, = O and hence no cross modulation problems. Ideal difereatal pair also have dy = 0 and again should fot cause cross modulation, Practical FET's and differential pairs will have non- oro but small values foray :henoe they should have only very small cross-moxtulation cflets.338 MIXERS; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS 7 19 ‘The cross-modulation term for the bipolar transistor can be calculated from g.(7.2-7) it we assign, to the desired signal and a to the interfering signal; then 5.0) = ese” Ll y)eoseng, 96) ‘where y = 4/kT's the normalized version ofthe desiced signe! and aol fey 7 is the normalized version of the undesired signal. For small values of x and y we can expand [90X) 88 Jobs) © 1 + (2/4) and 149) a8 14) © 9/2 sa that i,(f) becomes i= tert 7 (2) agen cones 9-9 a) 11 fe) = m 68 pt then for smal values of ms the vale of Vs hat will use 196 rass modulation of the desired carvers approximately ai)? ma (¢) 2 LEY, Evaluate the conversion and ampifer transconductance from the ge round terminals tothe drain current For an itp sinusoidal signal of I mV peak ample, ‘etermine the dain current components tthe input sigealfequency, st the osellstor feguansy, and at the eiferencefequency 12. athe miner of Problem 7.1, wht isthe limit on thesia ofan nteserng signal input before nonlinearities result inthe astro snpliude modulation om thissgnaltothedilerence ‘hequencies? Explain promis — 339 13 Consider bipolar mixerof the ype show in Fig 72-3, Assuming thatthe de component ‘ofthe emitter eurvent is | vA and fh the oaciltor drive voltage across the omer sie ‘ofthe diving transformer) is 10) mV peak, determine G,nd GAssming tht the inp ‘Sgn! his peak amplitde of? mY, evalute the collector eurrat compose tthe sighal, ‘he osiiator nd the dilerence equencis. 74 Estimate the allct on the result or the mixer of Problem 73 of uding an unbypsed 200 resistor in secs with the transistor’ cmiter while lsving all ther quanti wi) aVeos 91081 Figure 72-1 15 sine th cones ranscondus of th mit sown in Fly 72 1, Ute ane tansiceprumsrv.an in rola Ti Th ltr pe aa 16 Con ne icmp miner sowen ig 14 How hg cu Yb witout ‘racing more an 9 sont barmaid tings pore snes att onthe eau sano Why i it dnl Lap te sro -bamon SSuponcet nwa? Uy cit dese tat he vege crc a the Gifu pirbesymerc? 27 For the mer Suis shown in Fig 1P-2, Sow tht the equa ner haing te franitoephesraso ie npn ceo pen by wun fe [mld Ou eb Ta = Hag 18 Forte miner cre sova a Fig 7.P-, eerie a expression for war th se Shee 2 mL tm on=9 x 1 ade, ad he opt ci as winced Sauctntopne te malatin. (Aste D008 Q,tbednd a where Y= Woe = Vn x = gluo 19 n0 MoxERS; RP AND IF AMPLIFIERS Kayes a oy Figure 7P-2 For the convert shown in Fig. 2P-4 determine an expression for wi} iy asaumptions oy = 9» 10 For the “font end shown in Fig. 2-5, determine an expression for 8) Jey Eomptione sed do aor eget the lad ef Ly y Oy (Probie 77, Ase a “Tey poss the mdaltion. Atte feguencs of option ranssior reactance ae vege ‘nota device as a np votage-otput urea transfer character given by fam ag + 00, ast + at mpm afer + Yeoseg, whete ul «Ye stow shat she voltage contd Iransondctanceafeach a device fr, csc 5 given by sal 5080) ‘Aso show tat the onserson transconductance between 2nd ip ~ Ben by B= 04h 437 4 2ah cos.og + da 608 rows Ml wv mek Zee dou wy 90 mV 10 may -av Figure 72-3 7112 14s possible to choose an TF fequency atelier ap + Flay ~ oh Explain in vermin ‘ofthe local ostltor tuning complenty Why Jy ~ anf almost always chosen for the intermediate feguency “113 Show that forthe AVC cect of Fig. 7P-6 the envelope detector ovipat is given by hd Hea + mga) 1a ¥, ‘Ab show tha the envelope detector output approaches Yl + mg for gH, Hx ' thi cite the output level of the envelope deste ix insensiine to inpa variations 7214 With the assumption thatthe modulation i not fd around the AVC Toop of Probl “LA show th se poles of he cesedlonp sytem ae given bythe roo of Ya = YoAotteloi fo) = 0,3a MIXERS; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS ste Hyp ie the low-pas equivalent tanto uncon ofthe IF filter and Hp) she fer funtion ofthe low pass filer, Usings three pal IF fer, show by means ofa 191 loots plot how osilations ave posible as g¥/V increased to provide an output level wich i insensitive Lo inputlovel variations. Show also how increasing the RC tine Shstun of proce the poy felons the eee fa ae” AVC loop. sai a 145. A smplied version ofa 107 MHz IF amplifiers shown in Fig,7-7. The transistor a DNDIS biased ut 2A with Vp = IO. A the collector, the sntanc seen by the an sist consists ofa pualel combination of 8, 3H, ad C,, where C, ito be adjusts, in conineton with Cy of the transistor, rade 100 git 21a id= (1m }e052 10% Lar onl Sabha 1=00) ae ates axa. av Powis 343 qe My tbe eb ti abet ait Matai m0 p99 aka ska aKa ts Ry Figure 72P-S ‘Choose valucs of input conductance and vassepance (fo De presenta a (i bis ip 42 thor the overall base admittance wl be teal at c= 67 x 1° rade wns tha (he AMisblity actor at this point wil be 15. Do the numeri! values cst result seem reat? Explain, ‘116: Redisibue the lous between the input as output cris of Probe 7.15 so that the casitipar roughly equal and neither Qislager than 3, while tthe sure tine keeping cents. Sketch the shape ofthe Bandpass (fo the +3UB points) that youll see at tclnes cot under this new arrangement. (Assume curent sour: or the signal sepely atthe base terminals) “117 Reeuumine Problem 746 assming that 2 09 pF “neutralizing” capacitor i property otowted (ea miy voltage gain atangement) across the transistor +118 or te ect of Problemy 7.17, fin the fect om the ase eit passa of varying he ieomtter cee to 108 and then to 3A, while Ieaving a ie compos 3 the ‘les foun forte 2A ase344 smxens; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS vitemfon) To bastuns aaaye win, tems Negatine | aier ca Abhalo) ae conto apa a= Tow-pas fier remove modulation Figure 77-6 Figure 72-7 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 7 COMPARISONS OF y-PARAMETERS FOR BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS: SINGLE-ENDED, DIFFERENTIAL-PAIR, ‘AND CASCODE Ione assumes that identical transistors are used in all three contigurations, if one neglects various parasitic reactances and resistances, and if one asswines simpliied models for the transistors, then one can calculate tne y-parameters for each ease in 4 rolatively straightforward fashion. The purpose ofthis appendix is not to do this, ‘algebra, but merely to point out the approximate comparative values 1o be expected from the three eases, Since the y-parameters are a function of frequency and since wwe ate only trying to give order-of magnitude results, one must not attempt to apply ‘these results Lo precise comparisons between circuits I we assume eaual power-supply currents forall three configurations, then the differential transistors each have only half the de evrrent of all other tran- Sistors, hence their values for rg will be doubled and their values (orf willbe halved, In addition, though their values for alpha or beta may be changed, we shull ignore such changes ‘With these assumptions and the realization that from the small-signal viewpoint the dilferental pair consists of an emitter follower driving & common base stage, ‘while the eascode connection consists of a common emitter stage driving w common base stage, we ean mzke the comparisons shown in Table 7-1 Table TAT ] Diereniat pair compared to | common emit sage with twice the de Bis cutent of ‘rc tamsstor of the dee ‘eta pair yu va ya 130 100 yn 8 Jot Ho if (Cascodeconsecioncompurcd {e comnts stage with the same de bs cutout i yao vo 12000 i Lous {For wCyatan = byes = PCwal + ater wie forte wo contguraions i ‘se mp Rages i's approximately pe. hel the cascode ese sould hoe Siig ao prt, pera ems ond to erp a ee chs) Inspection of the results in Table 76-2 wil indicate that the results shown in “Table 7-1 are generally similar to those reported easier. The ys, results for the346 MIXERS; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS Airis pais and the eased conenton show the expected 4) fetta Pee ie eee Sfleoned empl “boer= high kequney wor than Vos sed te CASON nat thst wae tl npt epactanee (by oy fob eu) Snag ea yaa fab the) Thseconcuinsfotow om he at mega stains YX 8ectPCrc+ Cre) OF Yn Be + PCwe + Cah CHAPTER AMPLITUDE MODULATION 8.1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION SIGNALS If the amplitude, frequency, or phase ofa high-frequency sinusoid is forced to vary in proportion to desired low-frequency signal /(), a modulated signal is generated whose frequency spectrum is concentrated inthe vicinity ofthe frequency of the un- modulated high-requency sinusoid, The modulated signal, unlike the modulation Flo may be frequency-division multiplexed with other similarly modulated signals at diferent center freauencies (ef. Chapters Sand 7); ean also be transmitted efliciently by antennas not nly so large as those which would be required to transmit (0) Gurectly. Specifically, iff) werea single tone at a frequency of! kHz, a wavelength ‘antenna to transmit f(@) into the atmosphere would be 75km long, whereus if J) Inodulated 2 100 Midz sinusoid the corresponding antenna fength would be only In this chaptér we consider cireuits that can amplitude-modulate a sinusoidal catrier; in Chapter 11 we shall focus our attention on circuits which modulate the fequency and phase ofa similar carrier. Then in Chapters 10 and 12 respectively wwe eaarine the techniques by which amplitude- and frequency-modulated carriers are processed 10 recover f(t) at the reosiver. TA typical amaplitadesmodulated carrier has the form () = All + mfto} cos (wot +O) = a(ee0s (aot + Uo), 4-1) here isthe carier amplitude, ms the modulation index, f() is signal whichis proportional to the modulation information and which has the properties Lila =1 and 7H=9, 612) ‘os isthe cartier frequency, Oy isthe carrier phase angle (which is usually chosen us sed nout Toss of generality) and gl) = ALL + mf(0} 18 the envelope function of TReAM wave. For the ease where gf!) = O for alltime, or equivalently mt 1 (which sve tefer tas normal AM) (0) forms the upper envelope of 4) while ~ (forms the Tower envelope of i), a8 lusrated in Fig, 81-1. For normal AM the modulation inden can be obtained directly from the waveform of) by means ofthe relationship c-B cos er "ere ee where Cis the maximum peak-i:peak value of and B isthe minimum pe peak value of) On the other Band, if gl) does not remain postive for alts,348 AMPLITUDE MoDULATION 81 i o~ al +f Normal &M| 0) wnz0 ae o ven Tito (9 not always rete than 2er9 o Fig. 81-1 Typical AM signals for which (a) g() 2 O for all me and’) e) doesnot renin rete than 2%0 forall tine la(¢ll and ~Ig( form the upper and lower envelopes of et) respectively, as illustrated in Fig 8.1-1. For this case a-can no longer be obtained from Eq. (@.1-3}. As we shall seein Chapter 10, only nosmal AM can be demodulated by simple envelope demodu Jators (or detectors). In all other cases synchronous detection, which is much more ‘complicated to implement, must be employed. Consequently almost all commercial ‘AM siations transmit normal AM to keep the receiver as simple as possible. [As derived in Chapter 3, the Fourier transform V(q) of off] hs the form Ho) = H1Glo + @,) + Glw ~ a, Bra) where Glo) = AL2nd(o) + mF(a)] is the Fourier wansform of g(t) and Fw) isthe Fourier transform of f(). A sketch of |V(a)) vs. o fe again presented in Fig 8.1-2 or the cate where F() and in turn Gla) are band-Hmited to a, < wy. Asillutrated in ‘the figure, the portion of the spectrum lying shove wy is referred to as the upper Sideband of Vo), whereas the portion of the spectrum lying below ay (and above a = O)isreerred to as the lower sidebard of Mo) 81 AMPLITUDE MODULATION sionals 349) ‘6401 ede component ee Caner Ai apna am O4 Fan Upper sideband omer sideband Fig, 81-2 roqueney spectrum of ih 1a normal AM signal eis placed ncross 2 10 resistor, the power delivered 10 the resistor is given by Pro FeoF alt Fah + TO) = Heo ait + FO a = Pet Paw ars where P, = A?/2is the carrier power, Py = (42m? /2)7%0 is the modulation power, tind 7* denotes the time average of 2 of equivalently the mean square value of J) Since [/(0] < 1. then J) = 1s hence the carrier power iy greater than or equal 10 The meduluton owe! ate cbund power) ey wh n= 1100, noon For example, i /(0) = cos edyt and m= 1 then 77%) = PIT ‘cos wy and m= 4, the modulation power has decreased to one-ighth of the eurrier power, For efficient transmission of normal AM, itis clear that we want the modu Jation index to be as close to unity as possible, Because of the large amount of cartier power, which earries no information, that must be transnited in a normal AM signal, the eartier is sometimes removed {or not gonerated in ie fist place) before trarsmitting the AM signal. The result isa Suppressed cartier AM signal ofthe form Am f{0) 608 aot = s)cos oxtth 616) = AYJ(0) and I) = 0. Tw the time domain a suppressed carver signal has co} where 2) the form shown in Fig. §.1-1(0), whereas in the frequency domain the spect vse the celitionships ATH = A + B and AB fin culating Pho ily if 4 and Bare indepondent a and os fa Felaionshi vali350 awPLrTUDE MODULATION a1 identical with that shovin in Fig, 81-2 except thatthe impulses at tw are abseni ‘The price that must be paid for the reduced power at the transmitter is increased receiver complexity Stil a further saving in transmitted power, s well asa eduction in the fequency spectrum, can be achieved by removing the upper or loner sideband of a suppressed cartier AM signal to form a single-sideband AM signal. A filtering technique, to form a single-sideband signal, illustrated in Fig, 81-3, is justified by the fact that all the ‘information necessary to reconstruct g(t i completely contained in the positive (or negative) portion of Glo). If g() is real (which it always is), then Gio) = G*{—< Siftana wo tld 03) = wom Pen , | r- valk | Me | ne a | agama | 1 | hs pty | Ta ararf ma Fig. 84-3. Generation of upper and lower single-sidebend signal 81 AMPLITUDE MODULATION SIGNALS 3ST “Therefore, the positive and negative portions of G(w) contain identical information; ile, the negative spectrum ean be completely constructed ifthe positive spectrum is known, “To evaluate an expression forthe single-sdeband signal assy inthe time domain, ‘ve obtas the inverse Fourier tanstorm of Fl) which for appe-sidcban! SSB & tiven by Goro), 0-0) sg, Voxalto) =) 2 Fs ee e1-y a, teal S wo. Assuming that gis bandied 10 ty < 2, we obtain 1 (GW 4 00 rg g (7 = Hs yy sald) 55 [OE does se croaf L f° GO) se wf 1° Hsu gus wom [gf Stent] +e [Ef Se costes 1 (Guat dul sett [owe eet =F on-ssenex do] 0 cos wt wi) z where £0) = F°'{Olw)(—Jsen w)) is refereed to as the Hilbert translorm of gt) and sgn ois given > ay tas sina ihin.loversideend SSB can be shown have te fom sort) = Heres + Wana ae) ‘Not i sain by placing gf) hough ine erasing evan facon Hr) =) he toy ih ee os Hie : transformer, as the magnitude and phase characteristic shown in Clearly by shifting all the positive Frequency components of gl) by ~n/2 we obtain a0, ‘In addition to characterizing SSB in the time domain, Eqs. (81-8) snd (8.1-10), suggest an alternative method of generating SSB which is shown in block diagram352 AMPLITUDE MopULATION 81 ets ao #0 Hl) 218 Hd ibe ansformer + Fig. 81-4 Plot of magnitude and pause ofthe Hilbert transormer form in Fig, &1-5. Here g() is suppressed-cerrie- modulated (or multiplied) by 08 wot while is suppressed-carriet-modulated by ~sin gt, The resultant sum (or diference) yields Eg. (8.1-8) or Eg. (1-10). ‘Although the block diagram of Fig 8.1~5 appears to bea very reasonable method of generating SSB, it encounters the vere practical problem thatthe Hilbert trans former is a nontealizabe filter (its impulse response Fini) = I/nt is noncauss), Consequently its response may at best be approximated only over a reasonably narrow band of frequencies. In addition, such approximations usually produce a phase ofthe form 5 + Me, arg Hyn(jo) © hich must be compensated for by placing gt through a fer with constant magni tude and with a phase of (a) before multiplying it by cos at. In general, no really Satisfactory SSB modulators of the form shown in Fig. 815 have been produce. Matter si osu b real) \ \ \ voSShtt os 3 go-afo 40 > =tosinuns Fe Alternative method of seneating a single sl bund 82 Aupuerupe MopULATION TECHNIQUES 353 Even direct sideband filtering of suppressed earrier AM to produce SSB has its practical limitations. It is a dificult matter to design a sideband filler which cuts ‘if sulliciently rapidly to attenuate one sideband while not distorting the other Sldeband either in magnitude or in phase. For SSB voice modulation, mechanics “rystal, oF ceramic bandpass filters are usually employed to remove the undesired Sidebune (See Fip. 26-1 for an example). Even though these filters have considerable ripple in magnitude as well as significant nonlinearity in phase inthe passband, their ‘fll on the intigility of average speech is negligible. For ether forms of modult~ ion the sideband fer usually has to be hand-isilored tothe modulation to minimize Ustortion, Inall eases, however, the sharp cutoff required ofthe bandpass sideband fitter is possible -nty ifthe filter center frequency is not too high (ie required Q of the tuned eireuits in the filter to maintain a fixed BW is diroctly proportional t0 a) ‘Consequently, in almost all SSB transmitters, the information js supprosseearret~ tnodulated a 2 reasonably low carrer frequency (50 kHz to 500 kif for voice modu, lution) where sideband filtering i accomplished, and then the resultant SSW signal is heterodyned to the desired cartier freguency wy in addition to tse complications that SSB ereates atthe transmitter, its demodu tation is possible oy by syneheonous detection, which requires a reference oscillator atthe ravian Sequency tog. Since itis impossible to derive this frequency from the ‘SSB signal itself, a small pilot carrier is usually transmitted along with the SSB ‘Signal to provide the reference atthe receiver. The demodulation of SSH will be pur= sued in more detail in Chapter 10. In the subsequent sections of this chapter we shall consider the theoretical snethods by which amplitude modulation (or multiplication of two signals) may be evomplished. We shall then examine some practical cieuits which impliment the theoretical methods. 82 AMPLITUDE MODULATION TECHNIQUES {In this section we investigate the theoretical methods by wich we can multiply oF modulate cos it by ge) to obtain the AM signal 1) = e608 9! = ACI + my(o eos oot (62-1) In general, there are four basic methods by which amplitude modulation can be accomplished! 8) analog multiplication, 1) chopper modulation, ©) nonlinear device modulation, and direct tuned-creuit modulation ‘see all these methods can be employed to generate normal AM, whereas ‘aly direct analog multiplication and chopper modulation can be employed (0 gea- rate suppressed carrier AM, In addition, with the exception of the direct tuned: irenit modulator, modulation is accompshed at low power levels anc amplified Aswe:354 AMPLITUDE MODULATION © 82 {class B—tee Section 4.2 and 9.2)t0 the desired output level. The direct tuned-cireuit ‘modulator diretly modulates the amplitude of a high-power carrier which has been amplified by more eficent class C amplifiers to the desired level. ‘Analog Modulation Analog modulation (or multiplication) is accomplished in any device whose output {40} is directly proportional to two inputs [o> and v,(], that i, 00) = Koy(00,00. 22) Clearly, if e() = cos wpe and v4(e) = gf0, then uff) = Kelt)e0s at, which is the ‘sired AM wave. In such devices no theoretical limitations exist; however, practical ‘device limitations usually impose limits on oth the amplitude and frequency of 9\(,valt, 80d v0) in order to maintain the validity of Ex, (82-2). ‘Anialog modulation can also be accomplished with two square-law devices as Squaeaw device “ ] go Fig, 82-1 Analog modblator constructed with two squarew devices. shown in Fig. B2-1, In this system the output of the top squarelaw device, v3, is Biven by ny = Kalet + 203 + Ds 62-9) the output of the boitom square-law device, ng is given by by = Kglot — 2002 + vB 24) ‘The system output vj = 25 ~ ny is thus given by vt) = AK 000, (2-9) ‘whieh isthe form of the outpet of an analog modulator. ‘the square-law devices are “half square law” rather than full square law, ie, if wef ket 20 on rs then oy + vy and nj ~ my must be constrained to be greater than zero to produce the (62-6) 82 AMPLITUDE MODULATION TEcIMNiONES 355, desiced output. Thus if vy = ALI + m/(A and v2 = ¥; coset, where fi) is the ‘modulation information (ct Eq. 81-2), then lt) = ARGViALl + myftel} cos cot, 29 provided that 4(I = mi) ~ Vy 2 Oor equivalently ers) ‘since ¥, > 0, we observe that, with halEaquare law dovieos in the circuit of Fig. 32-1 the modulation index is constrained to be less than unity and thus the circuit clearly canot be used to generate suppressed cartier AM. Even though the cituit does aot produce a 100% modulated AM wave (which fs desirable for efficient transmission), the modulation index at the output can be increased by subtracting some of the excess carrier from the undermodulated signal. ‘This technaque is relerred to 4s carrier cancellation. Fot example, if we subtract Deosan! rom ot) = ALL + my] eos aot, we obtain ein the form woh. 7 iy T Of Aoains wn from which it is apparent that we cin inerease the cesultant modulation index m to unity by choosing D such that (A= DyA = m or DjA = 1 ~ (Chopper Modulation Chopper modulation is accomplished by chopping gl atthe earrer frequency nite ‘and placing the resultant signal through a bandpass filter centered at the euerier frequency. The basic skeleton citcuit of the chopper modulator is shown in Pig 22-2, in which the switch, which is controlled by cos.egf, remains open for coset %0 and closed for Acosiet <0. To demonstrate that this circuit ‘accomplishes amplitude modulation, we fist write af) in the form ft) = 10510, (8210) where Sis a switching function having the properties fe mown aw ios 0, cos wyt <0 Cleary, then, Si) is a square wave with unity amplitude which may be expanded in a Fourier series ofthe form 0) =} + Zeosagt ~ Zeon Sust + 7 2-2)356 AMPLITUDE MODULATION. 82 La wae ww atl — Fig. 82-2 Chopper modu to yield vl From Bq, (82-13) we note that 2) isthe superposition of AM waves centered at tin, Hp Sey... If the bandpass filter Hj) attenuates the low-frequency com= ponents of tf) as well asthe AM components ofa) in the vieinity of 349, Si, then the oviputv,() is given by 20 5 cay WDewdog tm OR - 2 [Bnafowtaredon ea ‘where f(t) isthe impulee response ofthe low-pass equivalent ofthe bandpass filter ‘and O(a) is the plane angle of HU) at «= oy. ATthe low-pass equivalent filter is 82 AMPLITUDE MODULATION THCUNIQUIS 397 fat over the band of fequencies oscupied by a), then) simplifies to the desired form os = 78 Hi J0)608 lwo! + (eo), wars) where Hin) isthe Fourier transform of (0) ‘Note that chopper modulation is possible only ifthe spectrum of the desired 'AM wave doct nol overlap the spectra of any of the other components of 140). A {ypieal sketch of oy where Fo) isthe Fourier transform of v0) is presented in Weal 1 Acturtwm) [ous an! jen 5 ieee late tt ep, Ont date Mayra ig. 82-3 Spectrum of eh ig: 82-3 for the case where gis band-limited 10 q. It is apparent from the figure that, unless iq < Wal (82-16) then the spectra overlap and chopper modulation is impossible, In audition, the ‘loser ig if 10 cn/?, the more complex ‘se bandpass filter must be to efect the frequenc) separatior 'Note that no restriction has been placed on the modulation index of xt); there fore, nernl AM with a moduiation index of unity as well as suppress carrier AM. may be generated with the chopper modulator. tn order to relax the inequality of Eq. (82-16) and in turn make the design of the filter Ho) simpler, the single-pole voltage-controled switch of Figg 82-2 may be replaced by the double-pole voltage-controlied reversing switch shown in Fig R24) The reversing switch has the effect of making o,) symmetrical wbout 2210, ane) staf | win | ies wo Fig. 82-4 Balanced chopper modulator.358 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 82 thus eliminating the low-frequency component of v0} Consequently, with the chopper modulator of Fig, 82-4, modulation is possibe it tg < Oy 62-17) Equation (82-17) ensures that the spectra ofthe desired AML wave centered at cy and the AM wave centered at 3a» do not overlap. ‘Ona rigorous basis we observe that for the bs'anced chopper modulator of Fig, 24 20) = a0) 6218) where 1, coset 2 0, <1 coset <0. Since Si) is @ square wave with a peak-to-peak amplitude of 2 and zero average value, (2) may be expanded in a Fourier series ofthe form a2) so. 4 4 eos gt — Foon dat + (82-20) Hence 240 = #8 cosa — Pos sagt + which, as expected, has no lowfrenvency component. Equation (82-21) also Indias thatthe reversing swith permis uso obtain tice a8 much output om the modulator of Fig 82-4 as fom the modulator of Fig, 82-2 Tm many practical cases the switch S() i the chopper modulator of Fig, 82-2 has resistance rin sents with t which prevents complet attenuation of) whem Su) is closed Consequently ns switched between) and rl Ra ou tg and 0. This may be expressed mathematically as i ~ Sr 7 40 = ae) + = 32-2) Iris apparent that he fandamentalcomponeat of 0s give by 2, ag = 2 A, 22) and in turn as given by v4 = [22 n gR stat + eit 2-24 “Thus we see that the only effect of the series resistance ris to attenuate the output by the actor RAR +r). Ifr = R, the output level isreduced bya factor of2, {UDE MODULATION THCMNIOUES. 359° 82 Nonlinear Device Modulation ‘Nonlinear device adulation is aocomplished by summing the modulation and the cartier, applying them to a noslinear device, and then passing the deviee output through a bandpas: filter centered at ay to extract the desired AM sigaal. A block Giagram of nonlinesr device modulator is shove in Fig. 82-5. As we shall se, the ponlinear device modulator bas more restrictions for its proper operation Uhan any a) {mm _ mi) Sa cont Fig, 82-5 Block dageam of nonlinear modulator. of the previously‘considered modulators. First ofall the nonlinear deview most have ho greater than a second-order (quare-law) nonlinearity. Second, the maximum modulation frequency 4 must be les than o/3; and thitd, i the nonlinear device Contsins a “hal-square-faw” term, 1007% modulation or suppressed eacrier modu- lation is not possible. “To determine the reason for these restrictions as well as an expression for the ‘output signal nf), et us first express the output of the nonlinear device o,¢) inthe form of a Maclauren series, ng + ayo, + ay0h + aged to With », = 6) + 99, 0, reduces to wm dg + asl, + 09)-+ lol + 202 + aslo} + Sofey + 3003 + 0 + ‘A fttle thought indicates that, if x() = Vj coseoé and r,(?) = g(0. the following components of, (as well as a number of other components) have frequeney spect360 AuPurupe wopuLaTion 82 inthe vicinity of coy 1402 = 4; F608 29's 2agnsb = 2agVig(t)00s wet, Sa,oivs = 3a,¥ig%() C08 wet, nasty = nag¥g 40) €08 ot 229) It is apparent that any filter which extracts the desired term 22,7) cos wot from tuft also extracts the remaining terms of Ea, (82-27); however, the terms with the coefficient a, for n = 3,4, 5,... possess envelopes which are nonlinear functions of (0. Consequently for proper operation the MacLavren expansion of the non- Unearity mast have a, = 0 for n 2 3. ‘With this restriction, of) simplifies to tongs deintuen a ai 240) = 00 + SEF + aya) + ans) +H covet, + 2a + BV; costing (3228 Since ¢20) has a spectrum which is band-limited 10 2a if gl) 1s band-limited to vit becomes apparent that the spectra ofthe desired component of v,() and the frequency component of »,() overlap unless 2 > oy (82-29) However, if Eq, (62-29) i satisfied and the nonlinearity is “square aw" (a, for n # 2) then ni) reduoes (© fo} = 2asVi lat) * hy} 208 fot + Olea), (82-30) ‘or, forthe case where H,( Ja) i it over the band of frequencies ocoupied by s(t) = All + mf(o). oft) = WH OazAl) + mfieoos wot + Hoa} 2) Which isthe desired AM wave. the nonlinear device is “half square law” rather than fll square law, which és almost always the ease in practice, then the arguments leading (0 Eq. (8.2-8) apply jn this ease and the modulation index is Iimited to m<1~ Vi/A. Hence again {AM modulation nor suppressed carrier modulation is possible 82 AMPLITUDE MODULATION TECHNIQUES — 36 « Tuned-Circuit Modulation Direct tuned-cireuit modulation is effected by employing 4) ALI + mf(O] to directly conirol the voltage across a parallel resonant cirewit tuned to the sarrier Frequency and driven by a periodic current source. Figure 82-6 ilasicates such a ‘modulator, Hthe loaded Q, of the tuned circuit is sufcientlybigh, it isappaven that ‘olf contains only « fundamental term. In addition, from Example 5.5 3 we recall that the peak value or envelope of a) must be gi); consequently the high-level modulator produces the desired AM signal. 0 se Fig. 82-6 Direct tuned-cirevit modulator, Like all the other modulators previously considered, the high-levet modulator has a limit on the maximom modulation rate a. Hf g() inereases too rapidly, the ‘normal increase in the envelope of vt) cannot Keep pass the diode remains open, and the envelope of ei independent of g() The resultant distortion is called “Tailure-tojollow distortion. An exact relationship specifying the maximuas permis sible wy fo prevent failureto-ollow distortion is obtained in Section 8, Tn the dicectcireuit modulator (is constrained to be greater than or equal 10 zero [a negative value of s() would resuli in an infinite de current through the diode]; therefore, suppressed carrier modulation is not possible even though normal AM. ‘with a modulat!cr “ndex of unity may be obtained. Since an exact expresion for tnt) a8 well as all the properties of the circuit of Fig, 82-6 are obtained in Section £6 and in Chapter 9, no further general analysis is attempted at this point Measurement of Envelope Distortion When any of the modulators discussed in this section are implemented by practical cirenits, the possibility exists that the circuits will introduce envelope distortion. For example, i f(0) is the modulation information, then the modulator output ‘might have the distorted form 0) = ALT + nfo] 605362 AMPLITUDE MopULATION 83 where fit) is a nonlinear function of f(). In general, from direct observation of ot) the distortion is not apparent however, ifa Lissajous pattem of (2) ws. fis formed fon the face ofan oscileseope a trapezoids! pattern results which makes any envelope ‘nonlinearity clearly evident. A typical trapezoidal pattern is shown in Fig, 82-7, no envelope distortion exists, then fe) = f()) and the upper and lower edges of the trapezoid are straight lines. Any departure of these edges from straight lines Quickly makes evident the natureand magnitude of the nonlinear envelope distortion yo ~ Asma a A+ mp0) ig, 82-7 Trapezoldal pater for determining envelope nonlinear, 83 PRACTICAL ANALOG MODULATORS AND MULTIPLIERS. Although the need for analog multipliers seems to be universal, the existing circuits that are capable of accomplishing the task are few and far between. In addition, ‘most practical multipliers sulle from ether significant distortion in one or both input channels, which limits the dynamie range, of a poor frequency response in one oF both channels, For example, a Hall multiplier, which is shown in Fig. 83-1, pro- duces a transverse voltage F which s directly proportional tothe longitudinal current : els i Satin LEN Fig. 83-1 HE multiple. 83 PRACTICAL ANALOG MODULATORS AND MULTIPLICRS {,ané he megide ofthe rma mage into el ya ‘ittoug pret maison sxms possible, the moma Bll ‘items query This tation dato the et tha he volgende seid to proguse the necssory B hele shereases lineal wih frequen): hs Tae pec higher lage eur i employed, B, must be limited in taueney to under IOLHz for normal Hall multiplier. iit second exantean N-channel juston FET with a small drain-tosource cottage nay be closely modskd ss vollgecontrled condustanc ofthe fr Doss kes ‘esl Se], iad <100mVeor = My IN Ve where gayi the dtain-to-source conductance, Ips isthe drain current with tos wed Org a Veyand Vis the pinch-off voltage. If this FET is placed inthe input of ‘Viral foun eH 7 i ve wn mn L Fig, 83-2 FET multplis. | high-uin operational ample as shown in Fig. 83-2, then the outp ohage | ful) may be writen a8 | v= ~EosRnl = ao R32)364 ssepLiTubE MODULATION ka HeoV) fe Riad ld nao Fig. 83-3. FETaransitor mulpie, ‘which is proportional to the product of v,(*) and o,(0). However, this FET mult- plier is restricted in dynamic range. The voltage [o,(0 = [os| musi be kept less than 100 mV to limit distortion, and o,() is restricted to positive values less than [Vj] + O7V. Negative values of 9; would cut off the FET, while positive values in excess ‘of Fj + 07 V would turn om the gate-to-source diode. ‘An even simpler version of the multiplier of Fig 83-2 may be obtained by replacing the operational ampliier by a single transistor, as shown in Fig. 83-3. In this ciccuit C; is chosen sufficiently large to be a short circuit for the frequency ‘components of (0), and I, ischosen sufficiently large s0 that Be = dla/k 2 Eom’ thence v\0)appears ditectly across the FET. In addition, no de voltage appears across the FET because of Cy; thus Yas = wild, nk) = soso) ied) = alle + i 83 PRACTICAL ANALOG MODULATOHS AND MULTLILKS 365 and finally, Pt) = Hee ~ alasR, ~ ates) Rts, 9 P i @r9 = Voc = ahs Ra ~ tis apparent that ot) contains a term whichis directly proportional to ths product, of) and 0,(); however, as in the case ofthe operational amplifcr-TET multiplier, Iv, = fap must be kept less than 100 mV while e,() is restricted to positive values less than 4) + 07 V. Multipliers which employ mechanical shaft rotation ofa linear potentiometer to produce multiplication, as shown in Fig. 83-4, ae also limited by the maximum, frequency at which the shaft can r positive 40) ado bet “wo UD nt. AyD Fig. 83-4 Potetiometer multiplier “The advent of integrated circuits, however, has now made possible an analog nukiplier in which both inputs have a linear range which is a good Ircetton of the supply voltage and also have @ frequeney characteristic which extends into the siganertz region. A typical integrated multiplier, imtroducce by Gilbert} and making tse of the diflrential pair as its basic building block, is showa in skeleton form in Fig 83-5. For this circuit, Tz51 = Jes and fysp = Sys (@ condition which requires the transistors to be integrated on the same chip and to have the same yeoretries) then from Eg, (46-3) ey where 2 = ofoy ~ ek and Kf = fy + iy. In addition, since fy = iy + (I~ ise 4 EGS 635) 4B Gilters “A Prose Four Quadrant Muller with Subnanosecond Response” JERE ‘ournal of Sli Sate Circ, S°3, No.4, pp. 35-373 (Dec. 1968,368 AuMLTuDEMopuLATION —* 83 plier can be extended to a “two-quadran* multiplier” by taking advantage ofthe bal- need nature of the diferent pi we define in() = 2% — =~ 2h, 639) or equivalently, i he Ht wd ge DEE rere ree then iy) has a dynamic range between +1; and therefore occupies two quadrants. (This definition merely implies ade shift in which occurs naturally if diferential pair develops f; and f) tn terms of ja(th Eas. (83-6) and (83-7) (OF Eg. 83-8) Fedvce 0 f Aafia = welfiees) we ue by snag i fom ih rey op ae lt {e+} an eon Which is @two-quadsant multiplication of 14) and jg(th A voltage v = i, ean be {developed differentially by placing resistors of value R in the collectors of @, and Oy in fashion similar to that shown in Fig. 83-8 or using the scheme illusrated im Problem 813. In general, two-quadrant multiplication ig sufficient for generating normal AM since sis always greater than zero and can be applied tothe I, input. However, for suppressed carrier AM, 2 “four-quadrant multiplier" is requires ‘A four-quadrant multiplier can be constructed from two (wo-quadrant multipliers by connecting them as shown in Fig. 837. A corresponding fous-quadrant difer- cential-pair multiplier is shown in Fig, 83-8. For the multiplier of Fig, £3-8, both the Qs-Qs pair and the Qs-Os pair share common base voltages with the Qy-s paic; hence if Ps high both fy and i, are proportional tof, as well as their respective Emitter bias suppliers, and i, and fg ate proportional to fy as wel as ter respective bias supplies. Therelore, from Eq, (83-8) we obtain ig ols — 12) 83. PRACTICAL ANA SG MODULATORS AND ML-TINLIP RS 4 ; 7] to-gadrant Toler 2 bs | seat vale pols shih ig. 83-7 Synthesis of four quadrant multiple. Fig, 83-8 Four-quadrant diferenta-pur maps, 369366 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 83 (Qcand Q, are active. Since =H >0 att Kene-aby Fig. 83-5 Difleretilpair mule. where fy = If + (1 = ly =f + 6. Therefore, combining Eqs. (83-4) and (83-5), we observe that aso and in a similar fashion aan js apparent that, when the two diferental pairs are combined as shown in Fig &3-5,/, variesin proportion to, while i, varies in proportion to 3. Inadition, both is and ig vary dicectly with Jy; thus if we constrain J, to be a constant (we can accomplish this by developing i and £ from the collectors of another differential pairbiased with a current source f/a), then i is proportional tothe product of 7, and ‘while igi the proportional tothe product of fy and Jy ‘An alternative, but somewhat more practical, form of the dilferential-pair ‘multiplier is shown in skeleton form in Fig. 3-6, As can readily be seen from the figure, and f are outward-owing carrent sources which, unlike the corresponding sources of Fig 83-4, may be developed from an NPN differential pair. ‘The ability 83 367 Fig. 83-6 Altemative form of diferemial-par uli to employ all NPN transistors in a circuit greatly simplifies the mass integration process. The penalty which must be paid for this advantage is that the multiplier requireslarge yaluesoff = a/(1 — «usually in excess of 150,fr its proper operation. For the differentil-pair multiplier of Fig. 83-6 itis again readily demonstrated that Fags Fase ANd Fosy ™ Hesay then where z © fey — #3V/KT. Io this configuration it isthe currents in the diagonally Dpposite transistors which are proportional, Now if(1 ~ og «iy and (I ~ atiy ts {ais is the high- requirement), then “These equations ar¢ identical to Eqs. (83:6) and (83-7). Here agin, i, Fi; + fj is constrained to be a constant, sis proportional to the product off, and f. Since in both aiflecentia-pair multiplies fF, and 1, must be positive (10 prevent any transistor from being cut offf), the multipliers in their present form produce outputs iying within only one quadrant of a cartesian coordinate plane and fre therefore referred to a8 a “one-quadrant multipliers." However either multi Fin addin, both F and iy mst be las han Jt prevent ether Q, oF Qs fro being eu of370 AmpLrTupe wopuLATION 83 and in turn baa ay +t Sea a), tami) = es ~ Ht), ws Finally, provided that aR < Voc ~ Von + 2¥o_and iaR < Vee ~ Var + 2¥o to keep the differential pairs Irom saturating (Vj © 3 V for integrated silicon) a, 25 Rly = had = Pies sy where —Ih 5 ian SJ and ho Sha rn = 2kT/ale ‘which is usually the case, then (s #2] and e319 jeg = ain for In addition, if Qs. Qe. and Qs are identical in geometry, then Tz3 = gg = Tes Ip and hence a ast current of @ — 2a) flows through Rp. Thus euin Figure 83-10 illustrates a complete integrated ‘multiplier which includes the diferental current source drives. In tis circuit (Re > r,) we can identify Tian alternative cleut form would have two sresemiter resistors of value Rf? witha singe “utent soutee driving ther common nods. This approach sles from two disadvantages ‘Stnpurson wih the ecu of Fig, 83-8 Firs, an adauonal resistor i needed which equies thove arco on an inegeted chip than the tranitor it eplaces; seond, the bits CHE 1.2 ows trough th eistor, making he O-point a funetion of Rp. 83. PRACTICAL ANALOG MODULATORS AND MULTTPLABAS 371 eoalh-z) | ies poh hala tee hte Ba Ws VO ine Va fe $° Gomme Fig. 83-9 Current rive for diferetial pair mall. hence, provided that all transistors remain in their active region, from Eq, 83-18) the four-quadrant multiplier outpat becomes 42k aaah 6318) of) = Wich isthe desired product of the two input voltages 4 (0) and vit. "Toensure the validity of Eq (83-18), the following restrictions on the magnitudes fof elt tal) and Tac must be observed: 1) Veet Yo

al) 2M een for all tis also apparent that F; must be sufficiently large when v, = + ¥; to keep all the diodes forward-biased 50 that the bridge presents a low impedanee to grounds thats »@)should bee smal voltage with 9, = Y;. Todetermine te required magni tude of F ia this case, we define the current leaving the , source as Jp and the current leaving the a) source as it) Since, in general, the four bridge diodes exe integrated ‘on a single chip with ieatical geometries, the bridge is balanced and i(0) ane 15 split equally between the two bridge arms; thus hth. 0. (42) PRACTICAL CHOPPHR MODULATORS 377 ie =n L Fig. 84-1 Chopper movlator employing diode bide If we assume that each diode is characterized by the voltampere nationship y= 1era® = 1) yee, ee) then AT, dat lO _ yal vor on) =n ae orci a \F= h/t] By expanding 0) in a MacLaren sere in yf, we obtain “40 afi egies get | 4-5) heer = (7/1) the smalsignal diode resistance with [2 ea bison tis apparent that. if we wish to keep noalnear components of i {which is propor tional {0 the modviation gi] out of the ouipu to avoid envelope distortion ino), then R/SHE « I. With this restriction ogi) = r(t) and the forward-bissed diode378 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 84 bridge may be modeled as a single resistor of value 7, shunting 2; hence the diode bridge takes the form of an ideal voltage-controlled switch in series with a resistance p= O WO" Rr > Se a, a6 forall, The inequalities of Bas. (84-1) and (8-4-6) may be satisfied simultaneously by choosing /; > g() ~ 2% and choosing R, of the order of ypR,.. For example, if lala = 10, then the bridge remains open with oy = Fy for ¥j > 85V (y= 2) Mi we select V; = 9Y, then if Rtn. Ry eae the bridge appears asa resistor r, with 0, = Vi, ‘A complete diode-bridge modulator which incorporates the floating source ‘,(0 as well as the output filter is shown in Fig. 84-2. In tis circuit the transformer Fle. 842 Practical balanosd modulator. 84 PRACTICAL eHOPFER MODULAYONS 379 is a closely coupled transformer operating in its midband range, and therefore functions as an deal transforms. In addition, (1+ fiReis larg in eompacvon with 2, so thatthe transistor does not load the bride. Consequently, ithe ou put-uned Giruitis broad ex>ugh to pass the modulation and ye now enough te semove the lowirequeney ara 3 ghes-harmonic components of oj then trom Ea (6219) qt emsyt + Ve eo) et) = Equation (84-7) assumes, of course, that Eqs. (84-1) andl (84-6) have ben satisfied and hat the transistor remains in is ative region, ‘The control voltage vy(f) may be supplied by a sulfiiently lange sine wave of radian frequency wp instead of a square wave. I as shown in Fig. 3, Mi large in comparison with Y, and ¥, (Eqs. 84-1 and 84-6), then the sine wave functions in essentially the same fashion as the square wave in controlling the states ofthe bridge 0) ae ke raul 12M Switch & Fig. 84-3 Sinusoidal contol voltage. (One main advantage ofa sine-wave drive is that the transformer coupling #0) to the diode bridge need not be nearly us broadband. On the other hand, the larger value of H, with a sine-wave drive requires a much higher breakdown voltage for the bridge diodes Whether oy(f isa sine wave or @ square wave, in practical diode brid uration transient “spikes” appear on v,() in the vicinity of the bridge i {com open to closed because of parasitic capacitance and diode charge storage. These spikes are, in general, of litle consequence, since they contain sulfiiitly high frequency components so that they are not transmitted to the output through the bandpass filter H(i). FET Modulator A junction or an ins.ited-gate FET may be employed insted of the dime bridge as the voltage-controtied switch ina chopper modulator. Figure &4 4 illustrates a380 aMpurrupe MopuLaTiON 84 an) ILIEE + ‘ apa R x Fig, 84-4 N-channel jnetion FET chopper modlator. typical Nechannel junction FET shopper modulator. to this cei, wih 90) = MV; (gb the prof oligo he FET the FET opeay porting 0) toleliow On the other hand, with 9() = 0, then the FET ston as an oie conductance fan oF vale esl ses) 2, eos) VAN" Volace=0 — Yr provided that ltng) = oJ < 100 mV. Consequently the FET may be modeled as an deal voltage-controlled switch in sores with a resistance rpes = Vgpss- For typical junction and insulated-pate FETS, rags Varies froxs several ohms to several thousand. ohms With 46) 2 thus to ensure that jog) remains less than 100 mV for all ¢ we require Ry to be sufficiently large so that n> ro Slee — 1. ee) For example, if Iga =-5V and rogs = SODQ, then Ry >24.5k2 To avoid Toading by the output transistor when the FET is reverse bitsed, the resistor Ry 84 PRACTICAL CHOPPER MODULATIRS 381 should not be chosen too much greater than this value. If, on the other hund, Ry is chosen to be less than 24.50, then 2) exceeds 100 mV, rags becomes nonlinear, and », is no longer a linear Fction of g(); consequently nonlincar envelope diss tortion begins to uppear on the ousput AM wave. UU Ry sufficiently large so that transistor loading ean be neglected, then o,) siven by (ef Eq. 84-7) 2a) Re oa = cos nyt) + Keo (84-10) However if Reis not sufficiently large, then the loading must be incorporated with the g(-R, network as shown in Fig. 84-5 by forming a Thévenin equivalent nel- work. Clearly gt) is decreased by a facior of n because of tne loading; however, in addition, « de bias V"is added in series with g(). If g() = 0, us itis for suppressed farrier medulation, then the presence of V produces an average component in the ‘modulation voltage being chopped and thus a nonzero carrier at the output. To eliminate this undesired caerier component, either Ry must be increasod relative to FR, oF an isolation stage such as a source follower must be inserted between the chopper stage and the output transistor. A, ie Valk Timer Ry TTR, RI RHC Fig. 84-5 Bec of wamsisorlouding In adition to iv diode bridge or the PET chopper, a bipolar transistor being switched between saturation and cutoff may be employed as the voltage-controlled switch, Honever, when saturated, the transistor may be modeled as resistor in series with a de voltage source of approximately 100 mv (fr silicon} This voltage source his the effect of iniroducing a carrier component at the modulator output, ‘which i quite undesirable if suppressed carrier AM is being generated. Thissaturation voltage may be largely balanced out by placing two transistors in series (emilter to ‘emitter and placing the switching voltage between their buses.382 awpuTupe wovuLATION Ba Balanced Chopper Modulator Figure &4-6 indicates how two diode bridges ean be employed to alternately apply “+a() and —a(0) across R, and thus produce the effect of a reversing switch. Note thatthe bridges are arranged so that one bridge is open when the other is closed. It is apparent that the closed bridge is unaffected by the open bridge and thus Bq (G46) sill determines the value of V, required to ensure that the bridge remains “4 Fig. 8446 Reversing evitch fr balanced chopper modulator cose for all On the other hand, the closed bridge does affect the open bridge in that it increases the voltage across the open bridge 10 fk soli gta) sence with he arguments employed to obtain Eg (64-1) we require vir a(t gt] - 2% een {oral to ensure that all the diodes in the open bridge remain reverse biased. "Figure 84-7 illustrates a practical chopper modulator in which both g(t) and v(t) ate supplied from grounded sources. The transformer 7, isa closely coupled. ‘centertapped audio transformer with a midband frequency rang> sufficient to pass the frequency components of gi (ee Section 22), while the transformer Ty uses & 8a PRACTICAL CHOPPER NODULATIKS 383 he ig, 84-7. Practical balanced chopper modultor closely coupled transformer with a midband capable of passing the main frequency components of (1). 1°), is large-amplitude sine wave, then the restrictions on ‘Tare nominal. [Although unity turns ratios are indicated forthe two transformers, other tums ratios merely introduce a scale-factor change in g(t) and ey(] If we assume that R, i not loaded by the transistor and that Eqs. (84-6) and [S-11) are satisfied, then 1(¢) may be expressed as oR, fos wary where SQ) is given by Eq, (82-19) And if we assume that the transistor does not saturate, we may write ma ie ov )Re384 aMPUTUDE MopULATION 8s ‘and io torn 12f0) Yoo [#2 7 where 214,() is the low-pass equivslont impulse response ofthe output parallel RLC Circuit Ifthe ovtput filter pases g) undistorted while removing the 3 component of jt, then 0) reduces to the desired form dak, _ Ry 2A = Vee — lt) 008 06 aria aR, B+ 85 SQUARELAW MODULATOR “The square-law device, although quite attractive asa mixer finds very little application as an amplitude modulator. The basie reason for this is that most pnysical devices have half squarelaw characteristics rather than fullsquare-law characteristics. AS ‘we saw in Section 82, unless a fullsquare-law characteristic exists, not only is sup- Dressed carrier modulation impossible but also normal AM with 100% modulation fs impossible Consequently, unless a “quick and dirty” low-index modulator will satiny the requirements of the situation, the other modulators discussed in this chapter are usually employed. Therefore, we shall look only briefly at one suuare- Jaw modulator constructed witha junction FET operating within its saturation region, ‘A typical square-law FET modultor is shown in Fig. 85-1. 1f for this circuit wwe assume that the FET operates within its saturation (square-aw) region and that IR, is much less than the output impedance of the FET, then we may approximate the drain current as nt) we where Vp is the pinch-off voltage and Ips is the drain current with vge = 0 and tas = ~'¥p. For the bss arrangement shown in Fig, 85-1, ip reduces to [tacos + ALT + mst? mid Y esa) Since the component of iy) centered about ais DUngstid, ve then with the assumption tha the output filter removes the low-frequency and second hharmonie components of i, 240) is given by {1 + mf cos et, Masti 5 mfil}e t1xgt)008 oot 653) Bs SQUARE-LAW MODULATOR — 385 he vee at en rH sobe on vie Fig. 85-1 FET squaretaw modulator. 1f, in addition, the output iter is Nat over the band of frequencies occupisd by the [AM signal, o,(@ simplifies to the desired form 2 elt) = Von - —* e ARS mf} e080 ws) ‘To realize n(n the form of Eq (83-4) we mus restrict ve) > —|¥ for alltime to ensure that operation remains within the saturation region. This may be accom plished for any FET parameters by choosing a suficent small vilue of In addition, Py) + 930 2 0 {or all time to keep the FET from being cut off and ul) + Bat) SV + Vo = Vir for alltime to keep the gate-to-source diode from turning on. ‘These two restrictions386 awpLsruDe MoDULATION as imply that A, ¥, and mi must satisfy the following. inequalities: AG =m) ~ Ve 20, A+ mK SV 5) we desire the largest possible output with the smallest value 9 Ry (fo ensure Ry sr.) then we satisly Eq. (8.5-5) with an equality to obtain Ys Vay m =z and ha sno wh “The output voltage given hy a (@S- then rodues to Joss R|IVol + Val? - =o missle apoponon — 858 a er rasan fe Whew thn saree ceeding, and ayn 25 othe: tanith mina teancy component ff). Let ocho ene ra a etetas sees Ban reso hoe wl be y= 2640, 1 ee 565pF C= Be RANT x TOF adres ~ °°? and in turn L = 1faC = 18 gH. Finally, A = 235, ¥, = L175 and 4.96 VIL + f(A} 208 co. (es) “The square-law modulator with the above parimeter values is shown in Fiz. 5-2, ‘The gate bias circuitry is obiained by first noting from Fig, 5-1 that ge = Ve + ALL + 5/0) + ¥; 08107 (£165 V) + (L175 V9/0 + (L175 Vpcos 10" (85-8) and then applying the — 1.65 Vto the gate by bleeding down the ~}2V supply and Coupling the ae sources to the gate through 2 capacitor. 86 TUNED-CIRCUIT MODULATORS 387 Ry S66 nF ous Fig, 85.2 FET modulator 86 TUNED-CIRCUIT MODULATORS [As we shall en Chapter 9, generally ifcu o prove linear, high-power outpat amples for AM sgl; therfore one wuts to sesomplih ths modulation a as ih power kevel as posible. In vctum be nmr such tmedulationw snos inevitably performed in the hist sage Toth exten hat he transistor havens a curentsoirce, the tne vacnume-tjpe odlatorannot ‘imply bearanitoroed™ As we shal sein Section 99, pos sonst cficent rinsor power apie iene both drives thm with a modulo gal tnd simultaneously moduli the collster supply: Is the purport hs aon to prosnt am Weald version of ite that canbe used to perform the nial troton ofthe carer sia ha this premade here used ea powerpig ng, Av at ign eh mech tnd the powerapliving sages lok ident but they do nica operate in sme what different fashions. nf eee "he bic modulating cet beng considered is shown in Fig. 6-1. The onertton thsi requires thecolestor bs junction ofthe rans come ‘strated (orto rm oa) tthe peak of every diving caer ele The curem pulse that fowsas esa of ts saturation has two eects, The ditt efit nthe pa Ciel sv cae the output unedeco volgeampltade foo he aatons388 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 86 ee cosa ig. 86-1 Satarating collector AM modslator inf, The indict or eeected ft nrease the lang in he bse cel ae apcncig the nut criving vole ao to llow he vans in a a re orton Om elem a Ue We ase ft an oar vllage suppl by avoage source That we neg a cane pa ving sia loin oder 10 Be al 10 WaAE aa rue, we make the fhe assumption tat te volge dive eo a jaa ht the rani color current mty Be assumed {otto asain of impules of eng Mo pe dnabtor tr nodled as current source in parallel with an Meal diode nd a amor siting the crn sure no wo pat [and chen i a pra! wth he Voe> Yl vogegneratr] nd retain L € ot [ m4 es i . Qe i fees an fe r a Oe ili He o Fig. 6-2 Two equivalent forms forth model of the cet of Fig 6-1 86 ‘TuNED-eIRCUrT MODULATORS — 389) the eireui, one can reduce the circuit from the form of Fig 6-2) co the form of Fig, 86-2(0) Im is defined as Tem Ve and gis defined as a a+ mg. then this ciruit reduces to the form shown previously in Fig, 82-6. “Thc initial beildup of the wned-cireuit voltage in such a circuit is shown in Fig, 86-3. This buildup continues unl the step on the tip of one ofthe carrier cycles exceeds g(t) and the tuned-cirevit voltage is eaught at this value. Thereafter, solo fs gl?) does no! vary too rapidly, the diode will conduct on every peal und the circuit, will “ring” between the peaks a its natural frequency, = Wee ~ Ye Suenstnof@ 3 a ar = 8 fia, Ptah Fig. 26.3 Tanti bin ofthe an volgen a uncut radar IF the tuned-citeuit Qy is high enough (say more than 30) so cst the energy decay between resetings can be considered linear, then for any constant vale of g() the size of the step at each peak will be approximately gl)x/Q;. ‘Therefore, the higher the value of Q, the smaller the distortion at each cycle peak. In a practical cireuit we da not drive with impulses; hence the output voltage does no have steps. For example, with current pulses that are 90° wide the voltage transient in the uned- circuit voltage will be nearly imperceptible, even though the fundamental current into the tuned cireuit i essentially the same inthe ease of impulse, and in the ease of Wider current pulses. Failure-te Fallow Distortion If g() increases too rapidly in cycle, then the maximum step in the tuned-cireit voltage, AV = iC, willbe insufficient to cause the diode 10 conduct and the tuned- circuit voltage will not track the modutating signal390 AMPLITUDE MoDULATION 86 Ian be shown forthe impulse drive case that the necessary condition to prevent upward-going falure-to-ollow distortion is the satisfaction of the condition ita] alte) $41 en) ‘whore «isthe real part ofthe tuned-cireuit pole, f 18 the time at any eyele peak, and 1, = 2g/Tis the fundamental component of the collector impulse train. A simple proof of Eq, (86-1) requires only (I) the assumption of «high enough valve for Or {hat the envelope decay during a cycle is linear and (2) the assumption of a slow rate ‘of change fora). Further investigation indicates that the results valié for al values of Or and of Eltok. Tntuitively tis obvious that the spat drive must always be such that 1 Ra the peak value of g(), otherwise, falure-to-follow distortion will certainly Equation (86-1) establishes a farther relationship among the drive signa, the circ, fand the rate of change of the modulation. Phase Distortion 1 gl) decreases more rapidly than the natural envelope decay’ of the tuned-circuit vollage between current pulses then the period between diode conductions will fall below T= 2n/g and phase modulation of the cicrier component of the tuned- circuit voltage will result. To prevent such distortion, alto + TYE ae 62 isa necessary and sufficient condition. When Q, ishigh and the rateof change of gt) islow, this equation may be approxi mated by (BUaVe) + afta) = 0- 5-3) [As in the case of failureto-ollow distortion, « more involved analysis shows that Eo, (86-3) is infact valid without restrictions on either £0) or Oy. ‘To prevent either type of distortion from occurring, the two previous restrictions may be combined to yield LPC = Blt + eat) 2 Boa where excessive positive values for &() lead to the violation ofthe left-hand inequality Unnd excessive negative values of (¢) lea (othe violation of the right-hand insquaity. ‘Simisoidal Modulation For the specific case of sinusoidal modulation where A) = Wee ~ Very} $ M608 On ‘one may evaluate Eg (8.6-4 in orderto show the restrictions necessary on m to avoid sither type of distortion, For downward-going modulation the restriction is 1 Sei ees) 86 “runep-ciecurr wopuiaroes 391 for upward-poing modulation the restriction is my 3g WaRuWec — Vez) — 86-6) Ji nla? Henoe if 1,R,, is greater than (Ve ~ Vey), then the downward-going restriction governs in all cases. For 100% modulation this restriction on the minimum size for 1 is imposed at any rate: hence no wdditional hardship is ulded by the rate of vazi= ation ofthe modulation ‘One way to ensure that m always satisfies the necestary restrictions isto place ‘the modulating signal through a low-pass filter with a ~3dB bandwidth lower than ‘eand to obtain gl) atthe filter output, Specifically, if the filter transfer fanetion Is Uo, ten Lien aon ee ee Since the resultant vale of rom Ea. (86-7 5/0) the. if i faction is lvays equal to ores than 1/1 (ag 6-5) wil slays be sai. Figure Bors asrates ti situa mor i Ta we) ano > irae NP 0; ee Fig. 86-4 Prefitering of the modulation co tare o distortion ithe modulated output URL= ee Vel For practic cireit the phaso-distortion restriction should be reduced, since witha spread-out current pulse an ealice conduction time forthe diode conduction Should lead to less abrupt phase shift inthe outpat. Certainly, iF (86 5) satis fed, then distortion should be avoided "To summariee: We have seen that, if the collector-base diode ofa transistor conduets on crery eel, then the circuit of Fig 861 performs as an AM nodular ‘As was pointed out in& previous section, it is possible to obtain 100", modulation from such a cireuit without the strain of driving the tune circuit hetween Zero and Wee ~ Ve.) one merely modulates tou peak value of say, 70%, snd then sub- teacis a eartize component sufcient to bring the valleys down to zero392, awpLsTuDe MODULATION 86 eats ‘Once again we shell point out that, though the modulator of this section Tooks Ne tke the modulated power amplifier of Section 9.9 tv. operation of the two devices i fot identical The modulated power amplifer ean operate perfectly sutuctorly tren if the eollestor base diode never goes into conduction, whereas the whole basis [ Stoperation for the modulator ofthis section isthe conduction ofthis diode. (soy) he va PROBLEMS ns (Joou tor = our Akt Find the amplitude and frequency of the spectral components of) xtheos yf for cach ofthe following cast: a) i) = (Seas a te ay s b) Al) = BV) + BV)COS yi. 0. vst vjando,arin volts. Cae the maximam output modulation index which can be Tchisved witout causing envelope distortion in 50 189 For the cout shown in Fig, SP, find nf Whats the modulation index? Skotch of) flo) = 08 10. t394 AMPLITUDE MODULATION {810 Forte cceit shown in Fig. 8P-2, calla iff) = c08 1.66 « 10%, Repeat ass ing that /() a squace wave with ranstons between +1 and —1 and with 100 jee period. su11 a) For thecireit shown in Fig. &P-3, determine an expression fo 2 assuming hat none ‘tthe wansiors saturate, tha al the wansistors are identical and that Je $ 100mV and O-< Ht) SHY ) vatuate efor the ease where Ing AMA, Vem -2V, Rem PED, Meo HOV, y= 29H oy = 10D MVene 10%, and ye) = (LVI + 06 05 10%. Does any transistor saturate? 2, whe Figere8P-3 Promans — 395 na = aK [R12 For the mo-guadrant multiplier shown in Fig, &P-4, show that i pou, prove at 1 oy and teeth ish ra fs sent Dye nt mrane 9 hi > ont ho -ca1< 16 Gren Rath r=100, R= 2kO, Kew IOV, a)= 1Ve08 10%, andl) = SAK + mf} Sind sn expesion for nth. Ate the assumptions justified? 13. Figure BPS illustrates cic for unbalancing a dieresial output Show (fare identical rasstors = 12, wth high values ff then and tes Re (This the same voltage that would be obtained dicey berween Osan O. 1, were paced i the callectrs ofboth Q; and Qu) ‘Show ow this unbalacng nctwork may be used a comjoeton wih the circuits of Figs 43-10, 4P-3,and 8-4, Write an expression fro foreach case. collstors of396 aie a6 aur ry a9 AMPLITUDE MODULATION a es L. Los lis Figure 8P-S For the crcit shown in Fig. 8.P-6, determine an expression for ve) as well as «0 an Sols Assume tht al trasistors are intial with f > 200 andy, = OV. Determine an expression fro) inthe crit shown in Fig. 8-7. Assume tht 99, Ve 07 Vand that the tuned eet passes the modblatio. For the zeit shown in Fig 84-1, HD = COV) C010, wy = Wades, Ry = 1D, Ry~ 140, C= 100DpF, La 10pM, amd 54 = 100000, Determine the minimom vile of Vand the maximum value of Ry which permit proper ‘revit operation. With these valves write an expression for w). For the circuit shown a Fig. 8P-S, calle af Tag ~ 4A ad, = ~4'. Derive Ege. (86-1) and @6-3) FF the circuit shown in Fit 2P-9, om oxen, hese T'= 26 x 10-7 see and @ = 30x pC. Make an accurate sketch of 40) Indicate Fetions where failure to-follow distortion occas PRomens 397 4620 For heciveit of Problem 819, i) = HOVE + mca I, Find he inn Ya tnbelore iter phase cstonon or flues follow dstotoa occurs {821 For the circuit of Problem £19, ft) = {10 ~9p4¢~ 4}. Asin tht ous ot nepaive pak of th weitean expresion foro plo fortwo carer cy yon Istheeeny phase dsortion? : ee sv = @Vicoe 0% PignreP-6398 AMPUTUDE MopULATION v=o mvy cos 104 wy ska: Pique 8P-7 wy 2010. 10 son a, (1 Vyeos 10% (V)e08 10% sun Ma. Promens 399 sy, | sv ov mit {sae ——CHAPTER 9 POWER AMPLIFIERS In previous chapters we hve been concemed with performing ome operation ypona gna rhe then with the efficient convertion a supply power into signal Dower. Ih chaper we shall eoncenrate upon this power conversion problem. Again We Shall opt oy considering the ase problem ins devices contest, and then we Shall modiy thee general results by aking inka account the addtional lniations imposed by spent typen af devices Tomi) we sc that the ccent conversion of supply poner int signal power requires that te loses n the conversion devie be mninized If we consider the truancy ranges and ict adjustments where device voiage drops and device uments ave in phase, thn i follows that device power is minimied if maximum Current flows doing minimum yliage drops wile maximum voltage Grops are fecompanied by minimum eutent Now Thadion ifthe signal tobe amped isciher absent o pul for a substi para he time (pech or musi for example) hen i clea that he fonpaern erage dc dispetion wl be mniniand ty minimizing the"wandby" 0° pont mer though the deve ms Power amplifier output for a given device is normally timited by one of two factors 1) excessive distortion or 2) some device andor circuit Limitation (other than distortion} Examples of the device limitations include: (a) voltage breaksowa, (b) current handling limit, and (e) maximum allowable device temperature. Examples of ‘combined circuit and device limitations include: (a) operating path limitations {eg violation ofthe "safe operating region" or SOARS} and (b) thermal runway} {TA device manutactree oy spesiy regions fhe characteristics of cen device im whic tis ee Sopa These epione maybe anton ol he Spe ont eit andthe sae ad eqns af the dong wavesape. Most highponcr wanes have Su eins 8 = foron a ie petenton. Pat ofthe Sgn procera) pons amples toca TRartne operating path se ig 24-3 fo enbmp) Hes completly iin he "ae opesing tegen Bee naway isa phenomeacn wherin device sltheatng eases more de cunt te fw: ae de ing te ona comin he ie oe “Ts pose featbuc problem ie peular to tasorer (or cok) coupled cei ice st dere lads the ncpease dese curren must eeseate the device de voltage a ‘Metal he cee wench eqilbo. The probe courted bya eombmation of 400 94 “IDEAL POWER AMPLIFIERS —CLASE 4, SIMGLE-INDED 40 9.1 “IDEAL” POWER AMPLIFIERS—CLASS A, SINGLE-ENDED Initially we shall concentrate on the limitations imposed by distortion caused by the drive waveshape and the citcuit configuration. That is, we neglect yradual internal device distortions by assuring that ail the device reaches eataf or saturation the ‘output parameter (current or voltage ia fathfal copy ofan inpat parameter (current or voltage) We further simplify the situation by assuming that our devices ase “eurrent= source-tike” or “voltugesourcedxe.” For example, with a “current-sourcestike”™ device the output current depends only on the input parameters and ix indapendent of the output voltage. Figure 9.1-1 shows a broadband version of such an idealized device together with « possible circuit for its use as 8 power amplifier, Ifsuch «circuit is operated in such a way that i, always exceeds, zero Le, the device never reaches cull, i is called 4 Class A ampliir-t o % Fe. 811 Devices and posible Cat A power ale ie 0) a «pram reduced thermal resistances, increased bias stability and the vo of external temperature com prnstion elements. For detail see Chapter 3 of Trans Ciel Anal by MLV. Joye and KCK. Chae (dion Wesley, easing, Mas, 1961) + Power ampli clsss are define in terms ofthe deve conduction angle anor the type of Gevise operation (Cust A: “Linear” operation, 360" conduction angle (Gus: “Line” operation, 180" conduction angle (Gis C: Fined drive ies hin 180" conduction angle (Gus D: Switched operation condecionanglemay vary with imefrom0" (03 oe may be sed (Cass AB: "Lincar” operation, edaducton angles than 360° bu mere than 180" In centin cases particular ret may be viewed as belonging simultaneously tosewra diftent clases,402 rowan awpuiris ou itis apparent that among the variables to be chosen in this circuit are Veosm, Ru» the Q-point, the waveshapes of i, and the peak value ofthe driving waveshape. The choice of these variables indicated in Fig. 9.1! isthe optimum one assuming a given Veewa given 1,,_.,and the desire to operate in a Class A fashion with the maximum possible elficiengy iy = Vain = Vax Whe iy = Tyan fi, is symmetrical about I, ,,/2nd never passes cutol or J, then the output current will be symmetrical abOut Jo, which will be equal t0 fy," AL the same time, ‘ince we are assuming midband operation where the transformer resetances may be neglected and the upper and lower breakpoints are widely separated, the device voltage will be swinging symmetrically about Vee. Tr some cases, certainly with very low-frequency signals or with devices that have ‘very short thermal time constants, one wishes to consider instantaneous rather than average device power. However, it normally suis to average the power over a ‘cle of the lowestfrequeney signal to be amplified. To locate the eiccuit of Fig. 9:1-1 in the power amplifier hierarchy, let us begin by calculating its power output, power input, power dissipation, and power conversion efficiency mall sa funtion of input waveshape. felt heoset, Ig tly Slee Tg star RE MR, ty Vee + AR, c080h, Ry Veo ~ Vow ey BR, PRP, Pea talecr Ben wea y= Be and Presee = Pac ~ Pa 1) Where Py isthe power supplied by the battery and P,, i the power consumed by the Toad. (Actuelly Ps the power available at the input terminals ofthe transformer Some small-ottput power transformers have transier efficiencies as low as 0.60; hence all of P,, may not actually reach the load) ‘When thi circuit has no sinusoidal drive, all the power supplied by the battery cor by the power supply must be dissipated by the device. As the drive increases, sO ‘does n, and the device dissipation falls, With the maximum drive allowable before cutoff or saturation occurs and gross distortion results, one finds ey 2 Wee t Vader _ Suppose that Vay ~ 008V1B60 Figg = 0475 where 1.Ry, on DEAL” POWER AMPLIERS—CLASS A, SINGLE-ENDED 403 While Paine falls from Veelae With no sinusoidal drive to 0.525¥ecls, wit fll sinu- tidal drive and P, climbs from ero with no drive 10 047SVcly, at fll drive Figure 9.1-2 indicates the relative values of Py, Pes Pepees ats funetion of Ila 2 Vl(Wec ~ Vas In all eases the normalization is with respect to P,, From Fig. 9.1-2 it obvious tha, if the drive signal varies in amplitud® and is ‘ccasionally ero, then the device must be capable of dissipating [Ve wattsand the ‘overall longe-term efficiency may be 10% or less. 10 APP Pa Ie os| Nail, 030 Mle Fig, 91-2. Normalized powers and efficiency for a sinusoidally driven Clas A ampliier (= aasre ‘Square-Wave Drive—Broadband Load 1 we assume that the device and the output transformer will both handle square waves without distortion, then if the peak-to-peak value of the square-wave current is I, where , $ 2gqit follows that 14) lac) Vee In this €48€ Mau, = 1 — Va/Vocs While Panice deereases from P, with no drive to Tagg, 8 maxim dive Figure 9.1-3 indicates the normalized variation as a function of 14/214, oF Vallee — Vash Ifthe drive ever drops to half its maximum valu, the efficiency will oy ~ Pal, os} as 8 wpe Fig. 91-3. Normalictd powers and elicioney for a squareavedsven Class A amplifier Uy = €05%ec404 vowsR AuPLiriRs on drop from 95% to 24%, while the device dissipation will rise from 30% ofthe de {point powerto 76% ofthis power. Hence, except for the special ease of continuous Cmum drive, the device must be prepared to dissipate JagVoe and the average aaaaiciency, while higher than inthe sine-wave cas, may easily be 207% oF les ‘Class A Narrowband Operation ‘As we have seen, a power amplifier consists of a controlling device, a load, a basi rower source, and driving waveform. We have aso seen tha the results obtinee Whuh poner amplifies are quite sensitive to the type of driving waveshape, The Meuttearealso funetion of theload circuit, In general, there are two useful types of Tes Inthe broadband ease one wishes the load to look *resiative™” and “constant” Pict a frequency range of at least 10/1 and more normally 106/i or even 10001 o- eee In the natrowband oF high-Q case one is often saisfiee‘f the 707% variation points of the load impedance are within several peréent of the center Trequensy [Kgsin one would normaly ike the impedance tobe resistive atthe center frequency ‘One basic difference between the two types of loads is that in the broadband case the load caninot be counted on to emove signal distortion, whit inthe narrow- sased ease the filtering properties of the load may lead to output voltages or currents that are quite eiflerent from the driving waveshapes. wyatt Fig, 01-4 Cass A narrowband amplifier 1 we replace the broadband transformer and load combination ty @ high’O parallel REG circuit then the circuit of Fig. 9.1-4 will esa. In onde to see the piterentafectsof driving waveshapes and tocomparethe broadband and narrowband are tec us eateulate the results for this circuit with sine- and square-wave outFut See Slstents (Again we assume that contains a de component of bl its max trun values ay Roe wane = 20ce = Von WHE Rar wn eas (Wee = Vo! sem We als assume that the driving waveshape has & fundamental radian Fe- {Quengy of ey) The results are shown in Table 9..-1. ye tie for tne caseofsinasoidal drive are identical o those forthe broadband ‘case ae summarized in Fig 911-2. On the other hand, the case of the square-wave 92 Cass # LINEAR RE AMIERS 405 Table 91-1 ‘Square wave ba lat co 92 CLASS B LINEAR RF AMPLIFIERS ‘When the signal to be power-amplified is amplitude-modulated in one of the forms discussed in Chapter 8 there must be a linear relationship between the envelope of the power amplifier output and the envelope of the input driving signal "This desited linsarity of the envelope transfer function does not preclude the proper piecewise-inear operation ofthe device and does not require “undistorted™ Current or voltage wavesbapes throughout the system. What is required ix nat chere bev lineur relationship between the amplitude ofthe fundamental component of the device output current pulses and the input envelope. With such x relationship and ‘with & narrowband ovtput filter, one can obtain a useful power amplifier for SSB, Suppressed carrier oF novmal AM signals, By using a current pulse train instead of Keeping the device current always on, ‘one expects to reduce device dissipation and increase conversion efiieney. This increase in ecioncy should occur because current flow will be stopped! during the406 PoweR AMPLIFIERS 92 part ofthe period when the device voltage is high andfor the device voltage wil be Feduced during the part of the eyele when the current is high. 7wo possible curseat pulde shapes are half sine waves and a train of rectangular pelses of width ste < 7. where «oy = 28/7) Figure 9.2-1 indicates two idealized poss characteristic and driving waveshape that, when followed b band filter, wll allow “linear” RF power arsplifcation. “The fundamental component of the half-sine-wave tips is equal to 1/2; henee, Ll output ics for a combination of device 1y an appropriate narrow Device characteris Bam S + Tint wavesape oe « ” Fig. 92-1 Two possiblies for device characterises and duiviag waveshapes that wil aw ‘neat" RF ampliiaton. sue device characteristic i straight all the way down tothe origin, one may “linear” ‘imply a 100% modulated AM wave ina single-ended Class B amplifier with asi- ainda driving waveshape. For any particular value of J, for which and K=LR, Ty < Faas: sothat 1k wt BE and since Ry = 2{Fec ~ Yllau 10 achieve optimum efficiency oe li oan wich has 8 maximum value of (2/4)(Vee ~ KaVee when Ty = Inoy» Figure 92-2 ihaicates the operating path for this case and compares it with the Class A case [shown dashed}. 92 (CLASS LINEAR RE auePuitnns 407 11 is apparent from this Sgure why the Class B device dissipation should be reduced with respect to te Class A dissipation, For the high-voltage hal of the device atres nocuirentatall. This crowding ofthe current into thslow-vollage half eft yes inurl ext what ove wantin oder telus ths per sin 11s abo apparent that maximum devise dissipation will no longer occur atthe rmaximum drive point but at some intermediate point where the product of the device crrent and voltage drop goes through a maximum. To find this maximam dsipation point, one difereniates Page = Puc ~ Pre with respect t0 I, and sets the rest equal 10 zero : 02-2) Tow ® Vee Won ‘Thus or equal values of Vee and Jy, the Class B stage hasa maximum device dissipa- tion of approximately $ that of a Class A stage. ut another way, the ratio of the maximum load power, P.t0 the maximum evice dissipation is [Veo — Voo\* a te 1 Yeo Vo for Class 8, 023) for Class A, \ eat opting ph Cass operating path acs operating rt408 POWER aNPLIFiERS. 93 of, when Vy, = 005 Ve, the ratio for the sinusoidally driven Class B stage is 22 ‘compared t0 0475 for the Clase A stage, ‘Thus to supply a maximum load power of TOO'W via a Class A stage requires a device capable of dissipating 210 W, while a Class B stage tequires only a 45 W device 93 CLASS € “LINEAR” AMPLIFIERS ‘With a sinusoidal driving signal, when one attempts to increase the conversion eflisi= ‘ency beyond n/4 by reducing the conduction angle of the current pulses 10 less than. 180°, one loses the linear relationship between the fundamental component of the ple and their peak value. ‘The reason is that in this ease the conduction angle, and Fence the rato othe fundamental current tothe peak current, becomes funcrion of the amplitude. (On the other hand, fora rectangular pulse train of any finite width the fundamen- tal amplitude is related to the peak amplitude by 2p ag BE 2 3-0 y= Sfsin 03) 0 that a linearly modulated pulse AM signal atthe input of a 2ero-hinsed piecewise Tinear stage would yield a linearly modulated AM signal across its output tank circuit eyed I one considers the case ofa fixed-amplitede pulse train into an output-tured circuit as shown in Fig. 93-1, then, for 1... Ru = Voo™ Yass o29 and INEAR” AMPGITIERS 409 93 cuss c* For a given value of L/lian the available output power increases as a sinusoidal function as «/T increases from zero to 4. At the same time, the eicuit conversion clicency decreases as a sin.x/x function, Table 93-1 indicates the relative Pay efficiency, and in| — (sin x/x) the lative device dissipation fora pulse-deiven Class amplifier with the conductionangle asa variable. Notetbat increasing the conduction angle from 120° to 180° increases the output power by only 15%, but increuses the ‘device dissipation 1.6 times. Prom these data one would normally expect lo operate ‘with ¢/Pin the range from {10 $120" 2 0 > 60°) Table 9.341 : Ts worl 26s or] | ar soft 10 ow} od 085 Note that these data are perfectly valid ifthe bias point chosen anywhere to the lettof the breakpoint in Fig, 92-16) The only time that breakpoint bias operation is necessary is whch “linear” envelope amplification is required [Asin the Class Beas of sine-wave drive with constant supply volte, when the device operates in an on-off fashion the maximum device dissipation does not occur ft the maximum drive but at some intermediate level. Again this maxinian level i found by writing Pyoie = Pas ~ Pdilferentiating wth respect to ,.andsetting the result equal to zee,” When this done for the eae of rectangular pulses the point of ‘maximum device dissipation, 1,8 found as Fossa 1 Vee Sines) a ae pane? yo ey, oe whieh for Veo)20 is down from 0385 at maximum drive 1 only (0.405 ofthe maxisnana device dissipation point of Fy 4/fam = 9475. igure 93-2 incicates the operating paths for no modulation and for 100% positive peak modulation for 290° rectangular pulse drive Cisss Cine” amplifer. Ttwill be demonstrated in Section 9.9 that the overall effcieney an be increased ‘the output voltge is varied in step with the input. ‘The general results of chat setion ‘an also be applied to the pulse-driven linear Class C amplifiers ofthis section, For ordinary power amplification of unmodulated signals, Class C is preferred over Class B. At higher frequencies the pulse-ike drive ignalsare difficult vo peoduce 0-5)410, power autrtitens 94 Modulation pea ig. 93-2 Operating paths for 90° “linear” Cass C amplifier nd one tends 1 ws sinusoidally driven Chas C amples Such amples ae Sicused ia Seton 94 Wh toe vacum tbe the output crest ple it a funtion ofthe tpt sestge: hence dest outpet indalation of seh ages possible, Forthermere, tho ate sated for eaoraly ear operation up oar 100% modulation ‘fitors vacoum tbe ampere modtstesn the Stal power arplier when De poste, Normally saglesidsband and suppresed caver operations ae pe fares at ow powe rls ‘These nals do equ near power ampli fo subseuent eraeetory woul! sem to lend themssves quite rei to the modulated Clas B aril theme of Socton 99. Since the bestmodulated Class C ampli doin an overal eiensy of ore than 8% one ely seifcingsimos othing i this eae ‘our FM, PM, binary AM, andthe ations industri uss of CW are om plein tothe “iti of he power ampli employed 94 RF CLASS © AMPLIFIERS ‘Thenormal RF power amplifier does not havea piecowise-linear device characteristic, ‘nor is it driven by a “square” pulse. Itis normally operated into tuned-circuit load, fo that no matter what the shape ofthe input current pulse one can bey! by assuming thatthe output voltages sinusoidal, [fone knows the actual input db wing wavesbape, ifone knows that the output voltage is sinusoidal, and if one las the proper devi characteristic, then one can always calculate the output current waveshape, in some caacs this carrent pulse will have a kzown analytic form, and the de and fundamental terms may be written by inspection. Even if the analytic form is not known, one can normally approximate any symmetrical pulse by one of several forms Such as rectangular, trapezoidal, criangular, cosine, cosine squared, or sinewave tp. {ifthe output iret is tuned to be resistive, then a symmetrical input pulse will yield a symmetrical output pulse) 94 RP CLASS © AMC 411 ‘To ad inthe analysis of the current pulses, the appendix to this chaptcetabulates the equations for various pulse forms and presents normalized curves Tor fy... J, ¥5, the pulse width or conduction angie. As these carves indicate, the variations: among the diferen‘ial waveshapes are not large: consequently a exact lil is not necessary in order to abtain a reasonable estimate of the fundamental and de values. Hosdaey | eee ee He Fig. 941. Trode Cast C amples, ‘The circuit of Fig. 941 provides an example of the use ofthese curves as wel as of the determination of the current waveshape for an idealized triode vacuum tube in which the plate current is function of both tpy and Ye, In order to simplify our ‘example slightly, let us assume that the device characteristics are as shown in Fig. 94-2. (As shown in Fig. 9.4, this tube has a constant x = 10 and « constant p= LBKQ Ina real tube the curves would be neither straight nor equally paced) ‘The bias has been chosen so that with a sine-wave drive of S4KV peak sad with a aig = + 2KV for the plate-cathode voltage, the conduction angle will be 120"f For comparison purposes let us assume three diflrent driving waveshapes. {In each case the bias and supply voltages are constant but Ris changed, so that we always drive up 10 oo, = Op, = 2KV in the upper left-hand eomer 1. Sinusoidal: 54 V,0, = 120° 2 Pulse: S44V, J, = 120" 3 Composite: (64k) (U1 cos at ~ 0.1 cos 3a), 0 140 ‘The operating paths for the thrce cases ate shown in Fig, 94-3, ‘These paths wre constructed by drawing the driving volage along the verticalaxiscentered1t ~ 244, “For eid tes the relation among Vg, Vee And the conduction angk may be writen soso) we] ety 20% 1 Glows dat Vo 4 [ese + Penna)412 Rowen anoLirens oa ig. 94-2 Mythical iode characterises 1 = 10,1, = 1800 around (244 an drawing 4 1OKV sine wave along the Roiontl ans centered around 1 craving Oey ne Lajos ptm, Al the ed poms im any vera ae Pig ree uaglar dtamce measured rm the peak ofthe een pe Tepe ee ouput ance voltage). Nota in previous ease te Co tee fhe operating path on te ving WES: Ss ab setced, te cuten pose fs drawn elmost by eae ere See cats the pat ot wri curent fr i particu leptin Thereapaivecocent pues re shown Fig 94-4. Me caine cscs approximate he ios cen as lows 1 Sinusoidal dive eSASNe ps 120 dt, = 3.8, fy = 2-Rs I Sfangaar peo 102 wh Zo) = O88 Aon asa. 9a 2. Pulse drive sy-square pulse of 120° width minus 2 triangular pulse of 120° width and 02.A Height, 1) = $5 ~06 = 49, Jy, = 333 ~ 033 = 2DA: fg-square pulse of 120° width sind 22 A height plus a triangular pulse of 120° Width and 1A height ley = 12 + 030 = LSA, log = 0.733 + 0.167 = 099, 3. Composite drive: iy—symmetrical trapezoid of 140" width, 1) = 5A, la = 20. ig—cosine pulse of 120" width, Joy = 1.14 A, Jo = O42 A, Ig = 0.63 A. Fig. 94-3 Operating paths for three diferent diving wavestapes sod Saud resiors| 100, Vag = 12KVE414 FOWsR AMPLIFIERS bd » vig. 944 Plateand gid corrnt pulse forthe tose operating paths fF. 943.0) Sinusoidal (tive ("Pulse drve (2) Composite dive ‘From these current waveshapes and their harmonic analyses in addition t0 the ‘sumption of a known driving waveshape and a known output waveshape 1OKY jerk snusoid) we ean derive valves of i and for the necessary value of Ras well 2s the various powers listed in Tables 94-1 and 94-2. "The grid circuit calculations are explained in Section 9.8 Wid desing waveshape is allowable will depend on the device limitations For example, ithe peak allowable currentt i 10, then the pulse drive would not be Eitsitory although the other two would be, (Actually the peak cathode currents Jo not iter too drastcaly, since for the pulse ase the valley in ig corresponds to the teak in fg) Ite peak pate dissipation fs 7 KW of the peak ri issipation is 300 W, Fran only the sinusoidal case would be allowed. The composite drive does veld the cress uaput power as the “pulse” drive, but does it ata higher elicioney, with 207 Jeu penk curren, with 76% ofthe grid cssipation, and with a waveshape thal wees easier to generate than i the pulse waveshape. The last column of Table 942 [Five animum cathode correntshouk! besupliedby the manufacture of thedeve:Hitis ao A an pnabl procedure isto find the pea allowable cathode curves in miliamnsres then man power another tobe ving the same pect aent stil a cous Ferre ee Te seonstant= can ten be used 10 dcr TOF he tube 0g unpatenflaments una thir rated power ipa thi al it mally aout mtn Aa iy lament power dereacs, the cision per wat falls bul the he increas Fatt Ath fament power 10907 ofits rated value (aormaly tht means ceding ne Thus racing euro as ated vale) will approxima double he Ue of ie Blment at pasta eso pox wall 0 perhaps 757 of sora vals ee nd tangrcn loments cant be extended by low-power, operation Non lator neltage or thes tabes shoul be elated 1 within 574 af he nonin Norma annie are mack more fin emiters than pur tungsten, However, they Soul Tal, Sec tamara factor of 2 oF 3 of the temperate stration CATES HERES One ao oe Ara ure in theron of 15x 1 fo his type of ae «namin odes are peace fo0 dlicate1o wisi the fon borsbarsments of sighing operon, Wal sal tubes tht have oxi cuted ates one an asm Pe cathode sreents of 40 mA/oatt will nok cause damage 9s NARROWRAND CLASS B POWER AMPLIVIORS — 415 indicts the power gin ofthe sage From hit and f : rom thi from the driver power gure it is apparent that a power amplifier will be needed to drive this stage. ie : Table 94-1 Pate cet values ee Swoisi | aa || ase 2 ie | me | xs | wt ats | ates “Table 94-2. Grid circuit vals Driving aaa waveshape Poamonr | Pareraedanicts W ‘Sinaoidal 2300 0 | i Pale ‘380 3050 _ Compose 3400 2253 nay | 1 is apparent hat one coud generate a seis of eres of P ' tea serie of cu of Pa a PY conduction angle for ciferen assumed devie caret waveshapes. In general the ‘Souls wi abe simlar to thos of Table 98-1 forthe resunglar ue Ta ‘Swear athens ange ere er dation wi een mre rp oe oma thcendton nem hh how inorder te increase the elceney while main iency while mining the power op, one wants toopuate he devs completely ss ich sa the deve Vag doy fonts or ear the mintnum valu over a halt ef erent fw The mew scion ‘sami such gwiched devs of Clas D cess 95. NARROWDAND CLASS D POWER AMPLIFIERS “The tno ase forms of the RF Class D sD power ampli are shown in Fi 95-1 In bth ass th swith ediven back and forth atthe reson equeny 0 the Inia the time when nthe oot pe ase ober. ing Cet (10% ny) Save chumps 3 This quae waveea be expend by means of Uy (22-4416 wo & Fig. 95-1 (a) Volage-switehing Clase D circuit (6) Constant current witching Clas D circuit switch isa half'sine wave, However, once the current through the battery is knowe, then P,, can be caleulated and the analysis problem is solved. ‘Voltage-Switching Case—Practical ‘The efficiency ofthis cireuit departs from 100% because of losses in the switches and in the inductor and/or capacitor. Since the device is assumed slways to be saturated when on, the closed switches may be modeled as shown in Fig 95-2. hoon o—f--w— ip 952 Deve moc! in urate reson Now ifr is the combined effective series loss clement of the inductor and the capacitor and if Ry =r, +7, + R, then the effective peak-to-peak input voltage Saqnare wave is reduced in magnitude to (Ve ~ Ya. from which yoo, ot, ant ‘Obviously the devices must not break dow at a voltage 02/307 the ther hand, Gineparetobe ved to thelimitsof their current, then the peak current, willbeset at Fogan (oertainly Hy = Tugs) ‘With these assumptions, Pag = Weelegy Poe = 5" es) 9s NARROWBAND CLASS D POWER AMPLIFIRS 417 and ih 95-3 and cat 054) For example, if Igae ™ 2A, Voc = 20V, Vo 2, = 100, then R, 10. Thus AV, 1, = 0250, r, = 01250, and ~ 1212 Qand the loaded @ ofthe series circuit isapproximately 254W, Pac raid = 24W, = 095, and Pawige = 0255 + 0.25 = 055 W. Hence the ratio of ac load power to total device dissipation (two devices is nearly 22/1; this value should be compared tothe ratio of 22/l for the Class B sinusoidally riven stage. Figure 9:5-3 illustrates two transistor arrangements that would be possible as switches, ‘As we shall se in a subsequent section, it isa straightforward mater (o build a transformerles driver for the complementary symmetry version ofthe switch. The driving circuit must supply enough turn-on current to keep the on transistor saturated during its conducting hall-eyele, and then enough turn-off current to get it ‘oat of saturation rapidly. If the base current is sinusoidal and fis constants the ‘current varies, then Ty, > y/f 0 that if Jy = 2A and f= 10, then fy, > 200mA. ‘The turmolf problem is important because if one unit stays saturated while the second unit comes on, the result i almost a dead short from 2Vac-t0 ground. Unless the power supply has a current-limiting feature, the transistors may be destroyed by these repeated surses. a square-wave drive is employed, then a “speed-up” capacitor might be added in parallel withthe base resisiors to increase the turn-off and turn-on tines ‘As the cartier frequency increases, the assumption of negligible ranstion times fortheswitch will no longer be valid, Since a heavy current flows during this interval ‘while the snitch is pong of, the rise time does not have to become upprectable before the transition-region losses are equal to the saturation-region terms and the very418 powEn awPLtrits 9s oe Me ce OW | poeta —w—| ® 7 Fig. 95.3 Two poeblevoltage-swtching circuits low calculated values for Paqazy ate doubled or tripled, tn estimating the transition losses, we ean assume linear rise and fall mes, each of duration ¢,. Then the total ttanstion-region power loss will be approximately (i/T)Paq. Thus if the device power for our previous example isnot fo be more than doubled, we need ¢/T = 0.02 ‘This means that for operation at SOO kHz, 1, < 40/nsec, and for operation at 1 MHZ, 4, 20nsec. ‘ince these numbers represent appreximately the limits of present-day power ‘transistors, ne can hope to achieve ratios of load power to total device loss of bout 10/1 only up to center frequencies of about 1 MHz. For lower frequencies the gains ver the Class B or Class C stage can be impressive. (Current-Switehing Case—Ideal For the circuit of Fig 9.5-1(b) the current through each of the two switches has the form of a square wave of amplitude 2/,. These square waves may be expanded t0 provide a de value of , through each Switch and a fundamental component 41 jx which, because ofthe phase reversal between the two switch currents, may be viewed 2s flowing out of the bottom of the tank circuit and into the top. That i, from the ‘viewpoint of cartents, the ciedit of Fig. 9.5-1(b) may be replaced by that of Fig. 95-4 ‘Since te tuned circuit is presumed to have a reasonable Q, we neglst the har- ators; and since the switeh is presumed to spend equal times on each 95 NARKOWRAND CLASS D POWEL aMPLIFNS 419 Fig. 95-8 Device curent and voltage in the current switching cru, half wecombine the fundamental generators. Now ¥; = 41,R/cad the ak circuit voltage is sinusoidal. The voltage across each device not simsoial ut tke the foxm ofa train of halfsine-vave pues as shown in Fig, 85-5. Current-Switching Case—Practical tna real circuit the constant curtent supply must be able to adjust isefo the needs ofthe cireuit; hence it would be mechanized! by an inductance. Le, hi st east five times as great a in sevies witha supply voltage Vee- Then, since I= 2 Ke hile the ae power removed i 8/28 i follows tha, for theideal ease whore heres no device loss, Pye = Py ad lee 2, 5-5) ve wish to set 21, at fan foreach switch, then we must set R at particular value (Once & is st, all the powers and efiiencis can be calculated immedi Tn this ease the current during conduction is constant; henee for any particular ‘one can simplify the model of Fig. 25-2 back to @ single battery of value M, Again the L and C losses could be represented as an equivalent loss Ry: thus the tank circuit efficiency is Ry(R, +R) and the power into the tank fs 2k420 PoweR aupuiniens 95 where Ry = RRUR +R) A ess Poo UyYorr Pastas = (2) Loa ; z) 2 Pracnarice 1 pVoaus (95-7) and Ris chosen tithe vale of 2 04 vale hat the devise an ane 2 Meet (05-8) Raising Ry tbove this value will reduce the power available to the load. ‘In order to compare the voliage-and currentswitching cases we might calculate numerical values fora set of parameters similar to those used inthe voltage-switching ‘ease. Such values are shown in Table 9.5-1, Table 954 Current sues Yee = 20V sha oaV,r, = 0250. Yay = 890 7. = 0125%0,0, = 109 R= 4940.0, 100 oat Q = 10 R= 4ksa Fy OW Pras = EW Prntecr = 09 W Twat = 095 DA ‘The current switch ie not subject to the problem of excess current when both switches are closed simultaneously, but it does suller from excess device voltage if both switches ry 1 open at once. It also suffers from the practical difficulty that the turn-off switching starts from the full on cucrent rather than from he theoretical vale of zero device current that should be present in the voltage switch atthe instant of switching I the peak current of the devices is limited, thea the square current pulse ofthe ceurent switch will provide more load power than the half sine pulse of the votage- switching ease. On the other hand, ifthe cizcuit is device dissipation limited, then in ‘theory the circuits ean yield exactly equal outputs, In practice, the ncwal efficiency of the current switching ciruit tends to be lower than the efficiency of the voltages ‘Switching circuit; consequently, ifthe device dissipation is limited, the voltage switch is the better choice. 96 AROADHAND CLASS W AMPLIENXS 421 (Other factors to consider when making a choice between the circuits have to do with the potential device filure mechanisms and whether excess current or excess Voltage se2ms more dangerous. More details on breakdown and losses in this ype of cireuit ean be found in a paper by Chudobiak and Page.t 196 BROADBAND CLASS B AMPLIFIERS “To supply the baseband power necessary to drive a modulated Css #80” Class © sage oF 10 drive the loudspeakers of a public address system or to drive the loud. ‘speaker of radio oF television set, one would ikea broadband, high-aauin, distortion less mplifier built ofthe least expensive possible devices. In Section .1 we investigated! Class A amplifiers and found that, though their distortion could be low, their overall average efficiency was very fow and, in general, their required device dissipation was more than twice thei peak ac toad power: ‘In Section 9.2 we combined a device having half-sine-wave output pulses of ceurrent with a filter to obtain a “linear” amplifier forthe “envelope” of narrowband Signals. With broadband signals we cannot use a filter however, we exn combine two devices so that they alternately force hal-sine-wave pulses through the load in ‘opposite directions, Such a scheme will give us the advantages of Class B over wide frequency ranges. Figure 96-1 illustrates one of the base forms of Class B broud- ea ny Fig. 96-1 Class B amplier coniguration. Ir the current waveshapes of generators 1 und 2 are as shown in Fig. 96-2, where Yeo — Kou an = isthe maximum vale for fy and Js then for this maximum drive Meem tal 54) Puc Fea, Chodobiak and D. F, Page, “Frequency and Power Limitations of Cass Transistor ‘Rmpliers” TERE Joural of Stl State Creuits, SC, pp. 28-37 (Fe, 1969)422 rowER AwpuiFERs. 96 AY : sinusnial rv ig. 96-2 Cortent waveshapor for Cass B amplifier wi and 1 Veoo'= Vas aos (06-2) ‘The maximum drive efcieney in this case is 507% higher than it wasin the case of Class A sinusoidal drive, As was true for narrowband operation, such a comparison ‘snot safcient to givea good indication ofthe relative deviee dissipation possiblities in the two cases. As before, the peak device dissipation does not occur at peak drive but, fora sinusoidal signal, occurs when ji _ ecb Yo rt tottnne = Sa Tag = Veg (96-3) To” Yoo = Vou’ Again we find tha for Clas 8 the dovice(therearetwo devices now) must dissipate ‘only about }as much power in the worst case as does a Class A stage that provides thesame useful peak power tothe load. With vasiable signals such as speech or music, the ratio of necessary deviee dissipation is more nearly 20/1 between Class B and Class stages Because ofthis enormous differential in device dissipation, e!most no Class A stages are used as power amplifiers, Even in small transistor radios where the peak ‘output power may be only of the order of SOmW, the low average dissipation and low average power supply current dictate the use of Class B stages. ‘One base dificulty with the current-source Class B stages ix source matching. Forexample, we may look on the load current as being made up of 9 trains of hal sine waves as shown in Fig. 9.3-2. Each ofthese trains has ade and an infinity of even harmonic values, as well ¢ a fundamental value of 1/2 IF Ip) = Iya, then the de tnd all the hermonics except the fundamental cancel each other and we obtain pure sine-wave output. I, # Jj, then this cancellation fais and distortion results. ‘From Eq, (42-1) the resultant second- and fourth-harmonie distortions are seen tobe fourth harmonic 4 ys ~Jyo Fandamental~ 15e Ip + Tyo second harmonic 4 Ips ~ Fundamental" 32 7,, Iya 06-4) 96 RROADRAND CLASS H AMPLIFLIRS 423 ‘Thus if the cursent sources are transistors with & 2/1 mismatch of fs (not at all Unlikely with unselected units, one will have 14% second-harmonic distortion and 29% fourth-hurmonic distortion fFom this eause alone. To keep the second-har- ionidtenton rm om mismatch beow 7 ouch sme to ‘Many smaller (less than 1 W) transistors from the same bateh (cortinly from the ‘same chip) will meet this matching criterion without undue seletion Figure 9.6-3 shows four possible broadband Class B stages. The two emitter~ follower stages avoid the f-matching problem at the expense of providing only unity voltage gain, (We assume that the sage driving the stages shown has an ouput iinpedance that is small in comparison to BR. Another emilter follower can usually provide such a driven stage) If reasonably symmetrical PNP and NPN transistors ten be found-t then, at the expense of two separate power supplis, the eireut of Fig 96-2) avoids all transformers and coupling capacitors, a @ Figure 96-3 {The problem here is that high-power NPN transstors tnd 10 be ssn, while hihpowee BNP dass tnd tobe germaniom, ven with ferent turn-on biases its normally die 10 re such vets rack outpcurent over a wie range. The emitefallowerwoniguration ‘ses these dics by miniming the effet ofthe trans,424 PowaR aMPLirins ae He Ry [ Re © Figure 96-3 ae 96 | | | | 96 BROADBAND CLASS # AMPLIFIIRS 425 “ Fig. 96-3, Complementary symmetry Chis 8 emiter flower. (b) Transformer couphed Chess ames follower) Feanatormerless corretcdriven Class B stage. (8) "Clssi™ Class Sorentarven tage Except for the basing arrangement and impodsace levels, vac abs ould be subitated coy i hs eu ‘The other three circuits of Fig. 9.6-3 slfer from poor bias stability unless some emitter resistance is included, In Fig. 96-3b) the winding resistance of the trans former may serve thie purpose] The problem is that, unless Ry is small with respect to the load (or the reflected load) it both consumes power and reduces the avaible output voltage swings. With a A peak current, 02 resistor consumes 1 Vof the available swing as well as 1.25 W of the output power Al four eirevts indicate a “turn-on” bias forthe transistors. This bias is neces: sary to avoid a dead zone or cross-over zone where with small input sas both “units would be off or so nearly off hat the gain would be reduced. The tick here is to just minimize this distortion without causing excessive standby power dissipation. “The circuit of Fig. 96-3) avoids an output transformer by using largs coupling capacitor. (The lower 34B point is at 1/RC; hence if = 4 and iffy, = 20 M2 is desired, then C = 2000.) The capacitor charges up to Vee (we assume matched transistors) and the eircuit is similar to the basic model of Fig. 9.6-1. Even though the top transistor has its emitier connected 10 the load, itis the collector current that Rows through the load; hence f-matching is vital for this cireuit. (The transistor operates as. current source, not as an emitter follower) The circuit of Fig. 96-3(é) shows a clasic transformer-coupled Class B sage. Its low-frequency response is governed by the transformer-load combination, while its high-frequency limits may be set by transistor phase-shift mismatch or by tans former reuctances426 rowan awpLiriens 97 9:7 BROADBAND CLASS D POWER AMPLIFIERS ‘Though most present-day power amplifiers are Class B double-ended units it is tempting to examine the possibilities of extending the switching mode of operation to the broadband case. Tn the narrowband Class D case, the output circuit was tuned to the fundamental ‘of the switching frequency. For broadband operation we must switch at a frequency ‘much higher than the Lop of oar desired frequency band. The switehing must be done in such a fashion that the lowroquency average value isthe desired output signa ‘An output wideband bandpass filter will then remove the unwanted high-frequency cartier terms (and their sidebands) and the de component Moduiation, Ht) fait nse are e _ 21, Naor mpl mer “ not 0% Fig. 97-1 Generation of “naturally sampled” puissowidth modulation (ailing edge module Thea). Tine ongin at aero costing ofthe sawtoot’s downgoing emo. Fortunately, «switching signal ofthe proper type does exist. Its known as & “naturally sampled” pulseewidth-modulated Sigal. As developed in Fig, 4-12 (p. 260) and Ba, 220 (p. 284) of Rowe: the signal illustrated in Fig. 9:7-1) has the following frequency components Vasgy —2le rane = fy + Loge) sin ast ing + es}. 7-11 I also has higher harmonics of wy and sidebands around them where Yet oe oy =, aa “Thus if's()is band-limited and if is suficently larger than the highest Frequency in Io <1, and Ftarivon E Rowe, Signals and Nolee in Communications Systems. Van Nostrand, New York (965. 97 [BROADBAND CLASS D ROWER AMPLsHERS 427 s(0, then it will be possible to separate out an amplified signal proportional to se) with after that rejects both de and the “earrier” and its harmonies I {¢) = c08, then the sin waft + r3()] term will expand into a carver at and sidebands with amplitudes proportional to J,(at) spaced ate around ‘@4{J{oyt) is an ordinary Bessel function. Since V, < Y, has been imposed as a restriction, it follows that aye < wand hence the values of J,(r) wil give an indication of the maximum amplitude to be expected from the extreme sidebandst Ifa) = 0285, Jyfn) OAKS, Sulu) 034, Jaln) = 0016, sla) = 0056, Jeon) = O16, Iy(n} = OER Thos if i atthe top of the allowable "modulation" band and wy is equal to oF sreater than 8, then the seventh sideband wil interfere directly with the low-pass signal but the relative distortion wll be only Zepto) = 2u,(0) = 0.0024, cor one-quarter of one percent ‘Actually, if the circuit's low-pass fiter does not falloff rapidly enough, dhe lower-order harmonics may be the limiting factor. For example, Jy(e) © 100/-(n); hhenee with fe = 84 the low-pass filter must provide an attenbaiion of 1/100 oF 404B only two decades above the maximum modulation frequency. ‘To de this and Simultaneously avoid attenuating the desired signal will require a very sophisticated low-pass filter. The problem is eased by raising the carrier frequency. The limits fon such increases are device frequency limitations that prevent square-cornered ‘operation and hence increase device dissipation and the difficulty of containing the RF interference eaused by the harmonie-rch modulated carrer. (Por example, one should avoid submultiples of the common IF frequency of 455kHz) A 120kHz cartier should be satisfactory for ordinary nothigh-fdelity amplification with s() normally below 6 xz ‘A.complete Class D audio amplifier is illustrated in Fig 9.7-2. As in the narrow= band case we may consider constructing a switching circuit to switch a constant current between two ends of our fer, or we may consider a switehing cireuit (0 celectively switch the input of the filter hetween two different voluages Iindiestes the basic vollage-switching case. AC frst glisce this eieuit atic tothe narrowband circuit of Fig. 95-I(a). Ths isa case where Tooks are deceiving: since this fer us: function as a broadband bandpass filter, rot as a narrowband filter, the switch is no longer driven in u square-wave fashion, land, as we shall see, the turn-on requirements forthe switch in the broadband case fare much more striayent than they are in the narrowband case ‘When R/L » I/RC, the pole in the input admittance of the fer are widely separated and ils asymptotic magnitude-vs-frequency plot is as showa in Fig. ona, ‘For smaller values of wor the hghstordor Bestel fonctions day much moe rp than tinearly hence the maximum percentage tortion wil our at masimuin modulstion, See (Chapter U1 ordeal428 PowER awPLirens on Santoote Pose | Sceched peat om aii I Le oe Compara i oo oad Fig. 97-2 Class D PWM broadband power amplifies © x pee ar im 2 “0 a Fig. 97-3 Basic voltageswitching broadband Class D power ampli | toe xcat URE mf ig. 97-4 Magnitude df he admittance of Ye fitar of Fig 8.7-3 (RIL > YRC). 97 BROADBAND CLASS D POWER auras 429 1 the switch is driven back and forth between the two terminals by a signa of the form show in Eq. (927-1) then we may write vctil awe Wee Hebb) — Minne in 0) 02-2 3) is restricted to lie between 1/RC and R/L- snd i wy > RIL, then the eapacitor will charge to Vee and the network euttent will be (7-3) where hy « ¥ iean additonal restriction, For enauiple i Vy = Fe and 9) 08h, then ‘As shown in Fig. 9.7-3, te switch has no dissipation hence allthe input power is converted into se output power . the device (switch) hasa peak current limitation Iggy then R> Vecllaan UR = VeeHaaye then Pye = Keelgy/2and Pye = Weclyes hence Nac = Tals If the switeh losses can be modeled completely as resistors R,, then the ef becomes Ry “RIE In this case the previous R is now R, + R,, where Ris the wetual load wsistor igure 9.7-5 indicates the filter input voluge and the curvent through Fc for the ‘se wheres} isa sine wave that lies between I/RC and K/L. As the igure clearly indicates, the switch must carry current in both diretions; hence for ellcient opera- sion without excessively large driving signals the switches should be symmetrical devices (not vacuum tubes) capable of carrying current in Uke reverse virection, a ee signal is sinusoidal and driven so that the peak curvent throu the stch 3s Iya then For the case where the switch i replaced by a battery V, Pe Presenen™ Yale (827-4) Since Pag Pas + Wiese and (7-3) A battery isnot ey a good an approximation othe sich as fessor i sine the switch herent snot conse bat wars over the akeoimines we OO” Fig. 97-5 Bauery and upper switch current and fier input voltage sae sf) sine wave me ‘This eficency is, of course, exactly the value we achieved previously for a maximam- amplitude square-wave drive. Thedilference is that now we have s sinusoidal output Even thouyl our baseband may only extend to SKkHz, we shall want a switching frequency of 100 kHz or more and hence the problem of transition-time dissipation as discussed in Section 9.5 is stil present. “Actually the situation is considerably worse in this ease, sine now the swite> must be turned on and off while the current is at nearly its maximum value, while i the narrowband case theoretically the current was going through 2210 at every voltage-switching interval Figure 91-6 shows a possible mechanization of Fig. 97-3. When Q, issaturated, then Oz ib on and Q,'s olf. With Q; saturated, Q3 is turned on with (fr the resistive values shown) 1, = Ween Mend = Yaw ls 7s : fof with Voc = 1OV and Vig = OSV foreach of Qy and 172 Ig fg = 260mA Mag = 08, then the transistor Q, can be kept on for reverse currents of 13.4, since I, > (1 ~ agMfex marks the edge of reverse saturation ‘When Q; goes oft Oy and Q5 go off ans Q, is driven on with essentially the same base current as Q, had on the other portion ofthe eyele. With the values shown in Fig 9.1-6the load resistor should be 1/13 = 7.72 For a smaller toad the wrn-on trive or the switching transistor reverse alphas would need to be increased. ‘Since the circuit always requires 260mA of base current, it really would seem fairto charge it with 2Vcol = 5W of additional power drain, Its tue that the Class BROADBAND CLASS D POWER AMHLIVIERS 431 4. ume e o + sient fae Fle. 7-6 Practical Class D pule-widihamodulated power amie B stage also draws base current; however, in that case the busec rT 7 in that case the base current is smaller and ‘racks the signal in amplitude instead of being constant Caren Svithing Cris Toul peat on¢ ould consist breadbandcetshing cet ostheduaoft huge jn dicased. Tae poral ALC ern hb tou Mirco = AlLand ogg = IRE Fora sno oups om a coniguation Sinrio ie 98-46-95. the heaton "carentsweal ve the hape Simintig91-Sandapet vast! cstuming cae! source?) Tevet ‘Ste Seid nts ssl fee bat wow er wheste te Shas! an ono Tseon wn on oe Ore in wolge su of eng iy coe many oe tes, has he Shanna saving ote wang fas everest votapeca to the peak output voltage. i na Tn pra cil ith uch cat that here da oe not yet been invented. Thus one i forced Toute a battery Veen seis wil a i= ici Lacan appovination ora corse482 POWER AMPLIFIERS 7 One now has difficulty properly relating Lee, carrier frequencies switching rates), ‘and allowable modulation frequencies. Now, in addition to having the problem of Separating the cari frequency Fipple from the modulation frequency inthe output parallel RLC filter, one must separate these frequencies so that Le eu be chosen fo Bevan “open eireut™ at the carrier frequency and a "short cieuit” atthe highest roulation frequency, ‘This additional restriction tends to demand that theswitching frequency be raised 1o be at least 100 times the highest modulation Frequency, thus Trceasing te dificulty of obtaining a reasonable :pproximation toun deal switching dovice Fucept in special cases in which one wants a constant-amplitude, high-efficiency variable-nequency power arsplifer, the current-switching Droadbwial or Class D type of eixcuit would seem to be primarily of seademic interes 98 PRACTICAL POWER AMPLIFIERS ‘A number of practical problems arise when one attempts to construct a power ‘uplflen, These probiems include the provision of driving signals, the provision of| prope bas, the design of czcuts shat protect themseives against accidental destruc For and the “matching” ofthe actuel loads to the optimum impedance required by the device for efficient operation. ‘or usconsider festa fxed-amplitude Class C vacuum-tube pe wer amplifier ofthe type considered in Section 9:4 and illastrated generally in Fig. 94-1. ta his case we Greume a bias and @ drive and calculate the desired high-frequency resistiveoad ‘fapodence, Inthe proces of tase calculations wealso calculate the waveshape of the Jil circuit current waveshape. From these waveshapes we can ealeviste the fundie aesntal and de values of earrent, Now with the assumed value of driving voltage We rae calculate the effective input impedance ofthe circuits well as bits resistor that $eeSaunction with Zo wil supply the desired bins, Ifthe bias is supplied completely Dy al Tae, combination, then when the drive ecu js turned off the bias 5 fst Pct tase of Fig, 24-3 the tube dissnation at Vag = 12KY and Veo = Ois 66 kW. cetnove that six times the “normal” operating dissipation, Such a dissipation will or rbtely Toad to damage or destruction. One might choose to obtain enough of the bins froma fixed supply to preven: sevice destruction and the vest [rom a “grid leak” combination. “Phivsel basing atrangement has the advantage that the bins adjusts itself to the viving signal in such a fashion a to tend to keep the omput constant. ‘hati ifthe Grive gna dzvreases, then so does the bias or vice versa; hence the output current fpulse shape changes much less than it would have ifthe bias were fxed and the Sime change in input level occurred, Figure 98-1 illustrates two possible bias arrangements, In either case Co should have an impedance at the operating freqzency that is small enough so that sr Rowing through it wil cause a voltage drop of 17% or less of the desired di cehiage, Alo. in either C856, Vouun + FooRe Should equal the desited bias voltage Notnatly the sicuit of Fig. 98-1) is to be prefered, since the other arrangeme 98 [PRACTICAL POWER AMULINERS 433 pe ® ip. 98-1 Clas C bas arrangements has an a¢ power los n Re thai a el bean aro Roth ible and which must be supplied bythe ft an example, forthe snusial inasoidal drive puss ile in Fig 94-48 i Yee TlbVihen = 28045 = OUR Thedepoer an thinset 285550600 coat atngenen of la 98-10) hr woe seal sof 00 Win The we snap ee or Fig 98 (00 083)2 ©2300 Wy of nih 80 W gos “ugg Vans and 240 ~SH0-- 1000 7601 is diated in hat st th gi eco, Slice diver mus siply 23 BW into «SUD = 6350 od, nosso bea power amplifier. . Drive Signals Sine ig owsin ples it wil contain a hint armons component; hoes one ould tenerateihereuutednonsinsoial driving avehareto supply the proposdeurent Smcshopest ig by ltogs ond tan hein sees wi ioeshow Inthe pd cous of Fig 98-1. Ith second tank suf tuned the ard Ma Imani fay and oad that ly cate a 50 V drop aco then the Gest {pid wavshepe wl esl (Jaman oppeite ireton othe pu ongamenta Sco gt) one es he rer fe i by the driving stage is at the fundamental frequency. aieiailads re IA *Chass Cnn stige sally rn with ro Bias wih st all reser; hence the ipa leation are much spr than hos of the vacuum tbe case to genial with tasitor its the fundasotal pat impedance fa power ample wl be ey smal perhaps only a ew os hs an impedance slepdown ceil or transfer wll be nessa between the Grier andthe power ample, ‘Coupling Networks nis rela rely simple to say what the coupling network should do. bu etwork should do, bul somewhat ‘more cumbersome o explain how to make it dowhat isrequired. Ldcally,thecoupling434 POWER AMPLIFIERS 98. network should “transform” the aetnal load to the desired resistive value at the ‘Operating frequency while presenting zero input impedance at all harmonic fre~ Quencies. At the same time the network should have & transfer function that passes the desired modulation passband without eausing amplitude or plese distortion while Dffering infinite attenuation to all harmonic frequencies, Tc some extent these ‘Seauiremente may be contradictory. Certainly they must all be checked individually Since satisfying one of them does not guarantee the satisaction ofthe others no +7 fi o: | I. Insno dea oa sane “ oer tala = Lon a » @ 1g. 98-2 Ousput courng circuit (a Coupling circuit. (b)Posibie circuit mode, ‘The classic coupling network for vacuum-tube power amplifiers provides an ‘example ofan almost ideal coupling situation. The cieuit and a useful model for it Srarthown in Fig, 98-2. This particular mode is chosen from the multitude of fonsible models because it leads 10a simple presentation of oth Z,, and the transfer impedance. the admittance to the left ofthe transformer in Fig. 98-216) is i Same gt iscaled Eph oe ts appre tha He, _ mio Tp) ~ Yio) + ota called Yr) =yaem 8-1 2 = Fiore a VD eee Both the input and the transfer impedapce have identical poles, The transer im panes has two zeros atthe origin and a sale factor of 504 Ra/L. while the ip apedance kes complies zoros at the oots ofp? + ARa/L) + HLsC2 and singe ero atthe origin. The sal ctor fr this casei U/C "Te poles for either function may be found by the root locus technique. Frow (88-1 the poes of either funtion area the root oF 08) 98 PRACTICAL POWER AMPLIEUS — 435. In ode Yo concentrate onthe important agpect ofthe cot, we ma folowing very eaonablesaimptions or approximations fer 2) ‘Stes lot Qf rina lone lb ao oc mor we asnume for the urpone of loan theft pole prin the denominator 8s sha Ry approaches inl. (To evel the network sone the oy myo imrtiny wem teth aa) Wt es he es Eomnepot pit went hess om he vie poles nl er I yy wi hela Qo the myth sctondary exceeds 2 andi eae interned i the lo rom nd fete poles ces hn he mime ec oP om ch sok ruin nail consierton ts set jis ens of conga simpler explanation 7 Pit With these assumption, ithe upber comple ples ate nial ns zontally, that is, if a ee fmt it Fa “LG 08-3) aw oift (ste) oes inc tensoninasthyviloeovardenth oh neen at R,/4L, from the jouxis; they will then move apart along a line salle 10 the janis Figure 9.8-3 illustrates the simplified locus, * = oe nea |— pais Fig. 98-3 Simplified locas of upper poe psc, we restrict ourselves to values of» that r erica at cause coalescence or vertical spliting, then from the root locus magnitude condition and from Ey, (9.8-2) : 8-5) sere ds the ance tom he orignal ight pol ately rom tir rin pole) to the desire;: coupled pole positions. A 7436 Power AMPLIFIERS 98 the poles have “Two postions would appear to be of primary interest. In one the poles hi just conlewced In the second significant postion, the poles have moved apart ver tally by 43° s0 as to yield a maximally flat transfer function. ‘The results for these two uses are summarized in Table 98-1, where R,, is the desired input impedance at 0 abie981 : Cosisemce Maximal at - Ril RRS Rahs | atu, ase ait JT. 4 woes 4 ty ML, G ‘ JRE “Table 9.6-2 indicates the relative magnitudes of Z,, and Z, a8 a function of 0, where ntsured fom og = Mi LyCs. Note th by the ssond harmonic we scoming that the responses for the two cases are identical This is not an exact esol, Dut sa very good intial approximation, {ti apparent that che maximally fat case is to be prefered whenever itis posible, since it gives a better “in-ban ‘Chuvacterstie without causing any appreciable difference in is response to harmonics “To place thse resulis in perspective let us consider anumericalexample, Assume that Ry = 20000, Ry = 502, y= 10", and Qs = Qs = 100 Now to keep the primary circuit losses down to 5% ofthe power passing through i Bi 2998 or Ry = 20R, = 40kOY Rk, FewallyR, should inode R,. $0 ong as Ry > Re the separation shown seasonal 98 PRACTICAL POWER AMPLIFIERS 437 Table98-2 Cealesence Mainly eta) | Waly | Wee 00 00 100 1 10 205 oxo 102 0 $10 0% 00 os $15 ant oss ow 420 020 oss ou ‘armel le) 160, = 100 and Ry 2 40, Ly 2 40H Wve choose Ly = 40 aH, then Cy = VodLy = 280 pF for wy = 10° and Mm Li lB = J ult = 638 ut From Table 981 (he second line) we se that the difeence betwen the 190 pole postions rests in Ly (and also hefefore, in Ly and C,) The results fo te to ses are shown in Table 98-3 “Tne maximally 4F1 cate has a alighlly lower ciruit efficiency (Raaai = tath however, i also has a lower cocfcient of coupling, k, and a smallotvaluc fr C. ‘A pratial problem reins as vo whether the desired col combination is physically posible In this eat, Le placed aver theend of Ly, then the reqited mount of coupling should be posible. Tab 983 Maximaly at 125 ut ast 170 9F oars ars srs458 yowan aru sa We may now ezine the relative input and transfer ipedance atthe second harmoniet sc how eleive the natwork iin supeesing harmon VzQjo)_21, 2 WenQiol 44 16 RT 3ST IS Tegan "928 ~ 5 ‘These els indict hatin ease similato the on shown in Fi, 84-a whee ann the seconé-harmonts vlage aos the input ofthe tank rut wll te spproninatly 10%, of the fanamenal volgg, while the second-harmonic Supa volage wl be 97 ofthe fundamental volage ° ance the input harvoni volge shifted fn phase By nary 90 wth eet cot andere one cn appronnat he puta otage (Os oltge wa to Ve tomate the deve lag) by V cos + 01% 2 “The effect of such a tank voltage on the operating path, with a pure sinusoidal driving ‘waveshape, is shown in Fig 98-4 Operating path —~ stoned ace votag Vicar! (611) sin 2a ig. 98-4 fst of 90" shied second harmonic on the operating path 0 ye is thatthe output current Several things are apparent from this new path. Or rent pulse shapes diferent foe hat found previouy and is nongmmetncel_ Because the pulse shape is éiflerent, the previous caeulations willbe somewhat in ero Bests the curent pulse na symmetrical, there wil bea phase diferenes between the assumed tank voltage and the resultant fundamental from the current pels ‘Normally one does not want to pursve this calculation any furthearound the loop. What one does want to do is restric the principal input harmonic voltage tothe order of 10% ofthe fundamental 98 PRACTICAL POWER AMPLIEUKS 439 one wants fo reduce the harmones, one should increase Cy: however, for a fixed wo. increasing C, will reduce 1, and cause the primary citevit eliiency to suffer, For the case shown, we have presented a reasonable compromise between the two positions The key term in harmonic reduction is c»gC.Rq, which i the “loaded” Q of the primary cirevit, We have used a value of 5A value of 10 would reduce the output harmonic volyge bys factorof4, but would da so at theexpense of network elfeiency. For low-power cizcuis one often does sacrifice the output power for the sake of Improved filtering. Ifa push-pull output stage is employed, the second-harmonic terns should ideally cancel” Uer these circumstances one might halve C', without making the harmonic spreading of the operation path much worse. This would allow one 10 double L, and, if), can be maintained, to halve the primary losses. (In a megawatt i 50kW; hence reducing the primary loses from 5°, 10 2.5%, is & worthwhile endeavor.) In closing the discussion of this network, it should be pointed out tht the values for the midband Z,, and transfer impedance can be obsained almost by inspection ifboth sides of the transformer aresssumed to be tuned to resonane Thisapproach, combined with the idea that the harmonic content of both the input voltage and the ‘output voltage depends essentially on the fouded Q of the primary cicull, ie, on (oC Ria, hs been in use for perhaps Mfly years. What has not besa widely appreci- sted is that a technique like the root locus method lets one shape the “ie-band™ respons in a relatively simple fashion. Pi Network Another network that is widely used in the output of power amplifier sigs is the pinetwork of Fig 98-5. Inthis figure Rey, Rea, nd e are all loss elements that must be considered in calculating network efficiency but that may, one hopes, be neglected Inestimating the network (requency response Unfortunately, the pi network is not as amenable to a general teatinent as isthe coupled coil cireuit just considered. The basic conceptual problem is thatthe input impedance ofthe pi network has a pair of complex zeros and & pur of compicx poles rather than the two sets of complex poles found inthe coupled col case. As we shall ig. 98-5 Pi coupling network40 rower auruinens os se, the upper ple and zero are usualy ote enough together and ow enh a Pe ths ampeominded approximations normally se Seating a a te a a baeak down In adeitonthe presence bth comps pole With apraingeueny ale thepassband nonsymmeti 1 redone reaming such conezps a “bandwith” eto anor mpedanoe haste same poles a he pti en Ting he comps ro, However ser te cent ofthe pasband ee oe ee Sandee te poe te anal ipedaney 23) a0 rar ail about te center eqns. mymmetical abot th eat us examine an approach 10 calling ee are Pg 5S n mich we anu hat al the com ae her The meiod cones of combing impedes in 2 Foren a sere ahon tc one start th te Toad and work ack aerating are otwork That one combines Rey and, too Ry and toward te put of he prong the pre CR, combinations io an halen snes Rye fon" c-Si te, R Maik, — OF6 For example, if ayCaRs = 3. then and 6,= HOPICS Ry. ‘One then combines R, end rand joL and 1/jaC,. Ifthe input impedance is to be Jesstive, then wL-> WoC, is necessary 90 that the result of the combination is a ‘TGunatent seres L-R combination. This combination is then converted back inte ‘pale! form and the induetive partis resonated out, with C, Feaving the parallel Combination of Rey and Ry a8 Ra ob, : 08-7) 14D beh where nen by, [From this approach we see thatthe network power transfer eficency wil be Re Re Res os Nees = Rey Ry Ry +7 Rea + Rr Hence, for high efficiency, Rey = 100R,, R, = 100", and Re, = 1OOR, are sll desirable relationships. ‘Nog that the lose termes have been considered, let us neglect them in ordet simply the alabra while we examine the network frequency response, Consist os PRACTICAL POWER AMPLILIERS — 481 al examples in both cases C = C3): MeCRa = 3, CRs = 3, aad @ =3, R10 R= Ry, oLiR, = 6/10 woL/Ry = 13, a= Ry = Ra, eRe = iA cnet eaves impedance tplao, We aa uh. dene sop cs el al ia ir jover si weal sory by nosing reali ; . revo apie nd oychansi yinanappopatelishon we cols avodart Sep tao inary coe ob inners ow ch ie ng of ge pat inptanesiposk wl toteinto naan he ery pone lt mort rth oe Sone 2 nd 2, niyo Seen boln ens 08-9) ou rare 20) = 1) = same poles as Za) 08-10) Ive define } = MMLC) C, = NC, and Qs = 9CSRs then Zp) may be P+ posiQs + oF aud ne osay WD" + PragiOy + Al + Nuk F OFNO yO) where 2g the desited operating frequenes—that Isreal and has the desired magnitude if one knows the circuit elements, then the calculation of J is straight Cornu altough tes if Gone by hand rather than by stored program 8 4 minicomputer. ‘The problem is that-rather than knowing the creitwlements— fone knows the frequency andthe impedanoe—transformation tatio, and wishes to the frequency at whieh wlio) hoagie ements tops the antrmatio in ome opium mane Fo get some further feling for the problem, we might let Q, approach infinity (that is, It the effective loud resistance R; approach intiity) in Fy. (28-1). The442 powex ampuirens os resultant equation would have complex zeros at tio, and complex poles 10Disdesirabe), then these new pclrs will be close enough to the 2, $0 that they will not eause problems atthe third harmonic, while thir effect at the operating frequency witl be only second order. “The problem remains of obtaining enough of a handle on the “bandwidth” ofthe circuit to be able to speciy it in an intelligent manner. ‘To sce theellect of variations in frequency, we plotied the magnitude and phase of Yau) vs. eng for the case in which Qy = 3, N = 0.60, and hence (ipl /R3) = 04, ‘That is or the limiting 5/1 step-down case of Tabla 8-4. With these values a S0-ohin load is transformed into @ 10-0 load when w = wy, into T4SQL. ~ 6° when vo 095ci, and into 138QZ — 25° when w = L.05a,. Thus a 5% shift in frequency causes roughly a 33% shift im the magnitude of the input impedsnee, and only ‘relatively small shift inthe phase angle. Higher values of will move the complex zeros closer to the nusis, and hence will allow larger step-down ratios, while keeping the impedance at 20 fom becoming444 rowan ampLimens 98 ‘excessive, For a given value of Q3, reducing «9l/R; from the values in Table 98-4 sul increase the step-down ratio at the expense ofan inerease in the reative second= harmonic component. Ifa very large step-down is required, then conflict may arise between bandwidth and step-down ratio, Two cascaded pi sections may provide & Solution to this problem, However, theextra reactancesin the circuit will also provide cxira poles that must be steered clear of the harmonies ofthe operating frequency. ‘Smith Chart ‘A practical device that yields some insight into this matching problem isa mod- fied version ofthe transmission linechart known asthe Smith chert. [fone normalizes Aireactances (or conductances) with respect to the load, wihich in our ease is Ray then the chart lustrated in Fig. 9.8-6, allows one to see by inspection what com ponent ratios are allowable, It also allows the simple inelusion of losses from the Pecvork's inductances and capacitances, as well as allowing one to calculate the fice of variations in feequency on the impedancs. “The mechanism ofthe chart that i useful is that a “reflection” of @ normalized point through the ceater of the chart performs the parallesefics and seriesparalle conversions of Bgs. 0-8-6) and (8-7). "The usual version ofthe Smith chart has resistive (or conductive) circles centered ona vertical bisector ofthe chart and reactive circies centered off to the sides of the Chart. To be useful for our purposes the chart needs several “reflection” circles addea, Gs shown in Fig. 9.8-6. The crcl labeled 1 isa reflection into the upper half of the hart ofthe (2/2) = | circle from the lower half ofthe chart, Since we have normale {ged wyC, with eespect to G; the frst point on the chart always les inthe Tower right. hand quedrant at the intersection of the 10 “resistive” circle and the “reactive” ciecle equal in numerical value 10 Q, = (9C2/G;). The left-hand hal of the reflected (R/Ze) ~ | eitcle always contains the second point as the “reflection” of the fist point through the center of the chart. Now for the step-down case we plot in the Tipe left quadrant the reflection hal-cirl(s)corresponding tothe desired step-dowa tato(s) That is for a 5/1 impedance siop-down the S circle tangent tothe bottom of the chart i reflected tothe top ofthe chart, ‘Now unless we can travel around (to the right) on the resistive cree from the fist reflection point in the upper left-hand quadrant and intersect the reflected stp- ddown cree, then this combination of Q, and step-down are not allowable. 1 the Step-down value cannot be reduced, then ether Q, must beinereased or the step-dows Imust be obtained as 2 two-stage process. "A numeral example may help to clarify he use ofthe modified chart. First we norinalize the eomponents of Fig. 58-5 0 R; oF Ga WC, = @CR, OL = OL/Rz, OCR; = OC. Gi, = GyiG2, and Gy = C/G [As a numerical example related ta ove previous calculations, consider the case in which Q, = WpR;C2 ~ @C = 3 and for the case of lossless components find the values (normalized) of Land C, that will provide a 4/1 impedance step-down, 98 PRACTICAL POWER AMPLIFIERS — 445, 5 98-6 Most Sith char, Adal efesn ccs aid inh any sg of otching ‘The normalize ay ~ Gy conductance it | +2, whichis how as ol jn Fig O88, The praleciosenes converson it pvormed by rection rough the cero ofthe cat to point whch ha the ocala seri imped of 8 “ow we sed othe ong te sel wie ep wn ceteat pine. Wether feet hough cere to poi -9), Now sadngsnormalzevalucolax = 43, earicbackat prc estvecaanea {impedance sep down. The ference baween the reasunce tpt b snd pointe 423 which ofcourse the normed ale Ly instead of 4/l impedance st-down we had wanted 21 peda: sepup we would hve continued rom pln cto the inersation of he Rin nea The aos "conductive load cle This iteration oseore st Dt J (ps)486 POWER AMPLIFIERS ae which reflects into 005 — 0.705 (point g); hens adding oC, ~ 0.7056, wil yele the desired 20/1 impedance step-up (point hy. ‘Severn things are apparent at this point. One is that component losses may bs casily handled since, once normalized, they merely add into the appropriate sexton of fhe operation. Another facts that ore isable to work in ether direction on the chart; thus tor example, one can assuime both C, and C and read off the required norma ized value of Lto tie them together. “To relate Table 9-4 to the char, its helpful to note that the values ofthe table correspond to thecasein which thepath rom the equivalent ofpoint jus bisetsaste= own fection erelein the upper right-hand quadrant. Reficting this bisection pot Pete the lower lef-lnnd quadrant indicates that either a larger ora small step- Bown ratio willlead toa smaller value of C, and hence oa larger value of N = C,/Cy The chart also makes it clear that as Q is inereased the variation in the inpet {impedance with Irequency or with temperaturc-induced variations in 1. andor the C's will increase. Tn addition, the modified chart may be used to find the effect of variations of requency on Yq. Once a solution is obtained, a 10% increase in the three reactive tens conesponds to.a 10% inerease in frequency; hence the normalized result is theinput admittance at the new frequency. Normally several points suffice to show the pattern of both the real and the imaginary part of ig near resonance Ones reasonable values for L, Cy, and C; have been located, then one can return to Eq, (8.39) or Eq, 03-10) and analyze the behavior of the pi network in more detail, "The modified Smith chart is well adapted to dealing with added components such ave capacitor in series with L, (This capacitor might provide de blocking andor might allow [to be constructed in a more convenient sizc Both ofthese uses are important at high frequencies) Itis also perfectly capable of handling # wo section filter Sach a fter will have five poles in its transfer impedance and, in addition 10 the poles, wil have four complex 2ros ints input impedance. In this casei is even rae important that one operate close to the highest-(requency pole or z2r0 so asto noid potes atthe harmonic frequencies. Because the chart i relatively fast way of apeaineng data, one can use it to check the variations in Zj, vs. ota make sure that the circuit is operating near the uppermost pole or zerot Pole-Zero Plots "Another way to gain some insight into the passband properties f the pi nerwerk isto plot the pole-zero patterns of 2), (and thus the pole patterns of Zor several “SMleneat cases, It must be pointed out that this method is not a satisfactory way Cathe an inital design, since to make the jfots one must first choose the com. ponent values rather than being able to work backward from a desirable pattern to ‘component values 7 Wh the mide C equal to twice the gutside ones and with equal nductancy, such a wo se reac unloaded pols in is 2 atthe origin, al Jay, and at )/ 20, unloused Sor nits Zp at 20 Sand at jl and 08 = TLC 99 HIGH-LEVEL AMPLITUDE MODULATION 447 ‘san expe conie the wo cass in which H = L{C, = C cess in which W = 1 (Cy = C4) ain which 0, 23 Arne te ronour mma empl atest lon alien Og at wich Zang opr fete, At one Reg = Shed on'= de. The fat cape sonesponds tote 3) inpadteSe cat, whe the sect corexpons tothe If penne teannmaton inte Sit cst see tc) oer (01661 4 098 whe tsar xe thy ora (016612 0720, In bot asthe toate val pos ous ite ont ~D Togs ale tne =o te the Comper poe le Dea (082 tng sinh ond ee the) ea (0081S 82h qe scr nya ash he se n wi nda tat nether Zt) nor 25) to yet eon) eke the 9/1 step-down or for the 1/1 case. e : See 7s 1 seduced (Or 4a sale of 035 the apps compl 2 he wpe mp poe and pproich each other unl atthe vale of able 94-4 there ony ssn rseney ‘Mth Zeca tere Far Qs ~ 3 thominimun vaueot MoO, For hs eisths compl stone at (016674 497Sq, ne he el pole fear “US tnd th ome pots are eat (~01025 1 437Siy. Iai ce he pasbands Sven toe sont tun nthe = 1c, 99 HIGH-LEVEL, AMPLITUDE MODULATION Singesideband and suppress carer opera a ir operations are normaly done 1 signal eels and then ampli op tothe deste Boal power lees in Chass RF amplifiers. a fee Whe noma amplitude modulation can be dove a over power ko vsualy aecompithed te ote othe fal tage a posable. What we chal wy oo inhi scion capi the al goal fl ghee modulating cits st how ne ors about sshicving this ost We shall ot be able o prove spc deals ‘out pertulr designs. I hoped tha, the reader known what He ng 10 do, lb eas or i to dot proper _ bees tomotae egal amie comput heel of Class Asn Clase BRP stage when such ampljng 007 sso lated signal, The results are as follows: ae for Class A, (on) Te oe Che. (99-2)448 rowoe auecimiens 99 “Thus for normal variable amplitude modufation the efficiency ofthe Class B amplifier lies between 50% and 757, ofits peak efficiency, while the Class A stage achieves only 25 9%t0375%ofits peak elisiency. Foreither no modulation or full modulation, the Class B efficiency is times the Class A efiiency. ‘Alogica! fest step toward an idea! high-level modulator would be to try to raise the average eflcieney of the Class B amplifier from the 25-55% range found bete back to the 75% possible for unmodulated signals. igure 9.9-1 itustrates a circuit that allows Us to have linear envelope ampli. cation at aconstant theoretical efciency of neatly 2/4, In thiscireuit Cypi presomed to be a short circuit with respect to RF frequencies and an open circuit with respect 10 the “modulating” signal 0. | Tene toy te Modan Seat cctsseale feos] = f00 le he] Fie 99-1 Output Cs Bmpr fora modltl sea Figure 29-2 shows the operating paths for valves of J) of ~08, 00, and +69 fora sovce with lea oration characteris tht pases trough the oc Fash deve characters (hich va good apposition for many vansson), the seat lvaye operating wa fly driven Class Bape heee is ne salva n=e{ ~ Be, 199-3) al!" Te 99 MOH-LEVEL AMPLITUDE MODULATION — 449 where Ray is the slope of the device situration characteristic ant J, is te peak current at 100% modulation. Since peak ac power output for this ease # (Kec — 1,Ru){T,H) the ratio of peak ac power output to peak device dissipation becomes even larger than the Class B result of Eq. 2-3) for unmodulated carriers, When 1X, = Vou = (005)2Ve, then wees, renanstl, py Mel Pa Penice = O1S2ely, i298 09-4) Hence for a 100 W output on a modulation peak or a 25 W unmodlated output all one needs isa device capable of dissipating & peak power of 100/295 = MW. Ifthe iod of the lowestfrequency modulating signal is sufficiently shorter than the ‘thermal time constant of the device so that one can assume averaging owt & modk= lation eyele then fora 100% sinusoidally modulated signal 128 W devi lissipation capability should be sulicient (Thisisin fact the normal situation) Thus, by "modu lating” the power supply of an amplifier driven by a modulated signal, we have increased the long-term average effcioncy by a factor of about 2/1 and! nttuved the device's power-handling requirements by more than 3/1 ‘| on. om me Co © Fig. 99-2 Operating paths for a modulaod Class B ampli, “variable sopry [Note that, for ait unmodulated input to the characteristic of Fig, 29-200) in creasing Vee!! +,f(0] upward from Vee Would not lead to any variation inthe output whatsoever. Reduction of Veelt + J()] downward from Vee would lead (0 the com- bination of effects diseussed in Section 86. ‘As was explained in Chapter 8, with the drive properly increased, the collector modulation ang its sccompanying "Teflection” into the base circuit ean lea to a Finear modula All inal, the desirable operation ofa transistorized AM transmitter would seem 10 require that the output slage be of the type illustrated ia Figs. 9-1 and 919-2, For high-power outputs one would extend this reasoning back to ince the driver sage. Atsomepoin where the driver power leelis reasonubly low, one must gonerate the AM either by a collector saturation teehnique or possibly by one ofthe other ‘methods outlined in Chapter & (ne further method that can be used 10 improve the quality of a modulation system is t0 employ one of the AM detectors {rom Chapter 10 to detect the final450 rows aupLiris ioe ‘modulation and to apply it via a negative feedback cireuit to correct the minor distortions of the whole modulation chain. ‘Modulated Vacuum-Tube Amplifiers fa modulation transformer were included in series with Vgp in Fig. 94-1 (and ifit was adequately bypassed for RF signals}, then the effect of applying slow modulation ‘Would be the same as the eflect of varying Yay. Actually, if we wished to modulate this emplifier, we would first convert it tothe form of Fig. 98-1. Furthermore, we would choose the time constant of Rg and Cg so that the bias circuit would be able totrack the highest modulation frequency. With these changes, as well asa reduction im the drive signet and a aight redvetion in the load impedance, we would havea ‘modulated Class C amplifier. It snot at all obvious intuitively why such a modulator should be linear. 11 isa fact that reasonable linearity ean be obtained :hrough the judicious combination of three eect 8) The finite rp of the tube makes ig & function of op. ) The grid current is also a function of vp; hence the grid circuit loading, and therefore the drive voltage, i @ function ofthe plateccathode voltage ©) The grid circuit bias isa funetion of fgg aind hence of pq. Cateulation of these effects is complicated by the fact that now the tank load in pedance must be fixed, it ean no longer be left free to be defined as Vy/!,.. Thus oe Is forced fo assume a tank valtage, a drive voltage, and bias fora given combination Of Pop and modulation and to derive an operating path and set of current pulses. “These current pulses must now yield values for Jg, yan Jgg that are consistent with the assumed values. Obviously with so many variables this nota simple procedure. Tntuitively what one wants to happen is this: As the modulation drops into a valley, the bias should increase, and the loading should recuce the drive so that the ‘Output siving alls but the elicieney holds constant. Then as the modulation swings Toward w peak, the drive should inerease, and the bias should fall sp that again the ‘efficiency remains reasonably constant. ‘In effect, we ate trying to reflect the modulation into the grid circuit. ‘The fact ‘that this “reflection” combines with the nonlinearity in the sslationship between the eurrent pulse size and shape and its fundamental value to veld an overall linear resul is just a fortuitous circumstance that we exploit ‘Many commercial high-power modulations are claimed to keve plate efficiencies ‘upto 80%, Since this is only 5% better than is possible with the “variable collector Voltage” Class B modulated amplier, the vacuum tube has vety tle theoretical, ‘dvantageasahigh-level modulator. Actual overall ube efficiencies are always ower than transistor efficiencies, since the vacuum tube requires an additional power source of 10% t0 20% of its available output power just to heat is filaments "Most higher-level transmitters currently available employ vacuum tubes because of the tubes" high voltage ratings and hence their nbility to produce high power at reasonable curtent levels rather than because of any theoretical superiority in Con~ version eficiency opin: 451 PROBLEMS 8. tn the circuit of Pip. 9P-1, {49 = (1 + 009 coest) A and the transistor ft constant ttabtorsa’»e > 10DmA (rs onitaraprcis Pathe impli) Pd the pve saa ye etry. the one: consumed inthe 30 ests the poner dane sam 3a aol nv Figure 9-1 92 Assuming that the tnstor in Probl 9 hs thermal eine of °C fms jmetion fois ese, fi the aperture i othe junction over h cas bth ate ign oF Probie 9 af th in wee ee penton ohare sia sven, 93 Assumed the 30 sssor of Problem P+ spas bythe primary ofa vis ans ‘emer ht refs 3 fad atthe aperiting egensy Repo Probl and 92 fortiscae Mae th ado! sumption tht he L2V spay tees 8 94 Repeat Probie 9.3 suming ta th O08 peak ample sinewave drive 0.09 A peak amplitude square wave. . es 95 Compare the conenion icici of the sof Problems 81,93 she cases of Problems 91,93. and 94. Faplin ‘physically the great difference in these values. . 96 kepeat Problem 94 assuming that the rondband tasormer couple lo is wentced bys arrowtand lun eet that pres the sme impede atte onda even 9 In Prob 94 assume thal te square drive ot sori a A ho ha ampliwie varies 0th the percentage o re al ech ampli assed Tabk-9 Pt Find the long-term average values of collector dissipation, lad power, and pos Fad ioe pat ower ipower suppl Tabie Pt Percent oftime | Peal amplitade, mA 0 30 » 0 » 7 » so 0 30 0 0452 rower amruiians Promns 453 98. Find he “long-term average” power supplied toa 5 oud by exh ofthe folowing signal. ae ‘CLonptern average” means averaged over a complete eel of the longest pee in he oer ‘ a ‘oduation} pubes 4) A angular modulated 10KHz sine wave as shown in Fig, 9.P-20) 1) A repetive waves shown in Fig 9.P-200) RRC (©) ASO im, 5 Miz carrie thai frequency modulated fo an rms deviation of 3D kHz by Ky | | Gaussinn noise. a x G 0 rar emoaon own in Fi 98-20 Seer ah vans Seufocoumn PS 2 oye Vou 1% ~| apa ne Figere 9-2 91 Te ceuits of Fig 85-3) and 9.6.) are bob i ch arebot ven bya De LV pea suas wave ‘he postive supply in each cases 20V hilton sor OUR = U8 Ihe cour castor i 1004 n Fig 96-36) Daw te aio olor shapes for both cases snd ealeulate the powe delivered to the 1022 lon. {Thc serey Le ser ered tot 0s lo (Thee He 98) enna at Oa) Dee or pean te pr. iy to complete the peoblem, Pa 92 Inthe cnet of Fig 96-30), Vec = 20Y, B= 50, Ry = 10002, Ry = KO. Ry = 140, ia td net fel ut voluptua 13 pen toe tq saga sesh arene ote. Clete power tan san mH vena Make ste sy assmpos a arose wong een iil 913 Foe it of roken 9.1 dhe umpltae ofeach rng arp at ea “500 Hz Square wave ‘transistor. ie o ws Figue 9.02 99. A cersin device produces an ontpatcutent that flows in halsinc-vave pulses of peal ‘haptnde equal to 28BA and pesk spacing of 1 jsec. Tie minimam allowable out whinge of the device without excessive distortion i 1V. Choose values for Cy, C3, ad & (Goon Ls toss that will yld maximum power to Hie 720 foad while preventing Ceethe ditouion serous C, of Fig. 2P-} 04C, = 007 mho. Calculate the sie of the SSSR harmon component of the walage across bath C, and across the 72-2 oad Sheth the passband for 21094 around the center frequency for transmission fom the evi current pales vo the 72-0 load. 010 Consider the ccuit shown in Fig.93-1 with a 120" wide poke train wherein Jy = 2. tf ‘poltesonantiunpedange of the tuned ciel ig 320 and the allowable minsmum device ‘Rhos 00 ¥, wat value must Voc have? Find the fondamentaloatpat power for ths Te rthetuned-cheut @ #10, culeuate the magnitude and phase ofthe oupat second formonic woltage, What the conversion efiiency of his device under these conditions? What the device dissipation?[APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 9 . PULSE TRAIN EXPANSIONS {In general itis possible to approximate the plate, eid, collector, oF base current avezhapes that are produced in Class C amplifiers by one of several tabulated ‘waveshapes (or by some combination of these waveshapes) "To asd in such calculations, this appendix tabulates the general results of L/2p vs /Plor six waveshapes. In addition, it presents graphs of JylIyy fully a Ja/1, all Versus 1/Tror the total conduction angle, 0 Figures 42-3 and 42-4 present similar data for sine-wave tip curves. In practice, the sinewave tip and the cosine pulee data are almost interchangeable inthe region where 7 <4. Table A Pulse ape | Rectangular ‘Triangular Syme pz) en ee) ce aT sr = nt? te 2, sinus courmucipie =| | essen, “The cosine puss ienot sinewave ip (except when «/7 = 3 although it closely approninaes ones = 1,cos if) WH = t.1 =0 otherwise, The cosine-squres are aul tof cos? (ae) when I < x2 and ro otherwise. ALS = 6 the ra fact value Sf 12 whl the cosine pulse ha ave of Zyx/2, Table 94-1 ra Acl'sow the waveshapes and the expressions for Tyo and Ty Figuts aan ae ee at A-tshow te normalize fundamental, d,s second-harmon components vs the conduction angle as PULSE TRAIN EAPANGONS — 455 Fig, 2A. Waveshapesillostrated in Table 9-1 | om i | on 2n(5) TTL square ac ST rapid aso} SA conite oa AW tive ~ oso] SG Seeing, | sal ce ual Oi Tr es 2s as ur 1g 9-2 (fp Pert ondution angle for epi: pus sins. 0.0, = 29(5) Lsnuire i of De tapes ae coin an fae "Tange re cosine used re air ears as as ur e.9A.3 Jl orl oadactinsngferepeitvplesin486 POWER AMPLIFIERS 0r saaa(g) a a a os os ur lg. 9A lf, vs. fT 0 woul conduction angle in degrees for repitve pate trans CHAPTER 16 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS In this chapter we consider the theoretical limitations on the amplitude demodu- lation of signals, as well as the details of « number of practic circuits wo accomptish this demodulation. ¥¢ most widely used practical circuit isthe narrowband envelope detector of Sections 10:3.nd 104. Though simple toconstruct,thiseireuit has detinite imitations that may be circumvented by the use of synchronous or average deteviors. In other sections of the chapter we examine these circuits in some detail 10.1 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION TECHNIQUES In this section we consider the basic theoretical principles involved in the demodu- lation of AM and SSB signals. In the subsequent sections ofthis chapter we shall consider the practical citeuits by which these principles are implemented. In genera, there are only three basic methods of amplitude demodulation oF detection: (a} ‘synchronous detection, (b) average envelope detection, and (c) peak envelope detec tion. The basic dew behind all ofthese methods isto reclaim the modulation infor. sation x) from the modulated carrier which has the form é normal AM we) 20. dN = g{)c03 aot, em carrier AM: sf] = 0, 110 = essay sins, 80) voy where@{)is the Hilbert transform of (see Chapter 8). As we shall se, synchronous etection must always be employed 10 demodulate SSB or suppressed catrice AM, hile any of the three demodulation methods may be employed to demodulate Normal AM signal whose modulation index does not exceed uly Synchronous Detection The block diagram of the synchronous detector is shown in Fig. 101-1, For this Aetector, if oft his he form given by Fa, (101-1), then with the wid of the identities cos xcos y= feos x +») + cos(s — 93} and sin « + 9) + sin(x — 9) “sr458 aMPLETUDE DEMODULATORS 10.1 SS Multiplier consant: a oy , wm] Be a Beosuxt neterence Seal) imal Fig. 10-1. Block diagram of synchronous detect. the multiplier output», can be written a5 so[P2 nau], pemerannent eA al 2 7 2 BD, O cosregr t Asin 20y1|. (SSB) (uo1-2) sini atay 28a) osm ws = BPD, aai-9 wre 1= 2 fer somal A. = oS, a is inp rose fe Jow-pass filter. If the filter has a wide enough bandwidth to pass g(¢) undistorted, a i iwi ee rm vay = 28010, Foy hare ey tare tao ht, Noe ate ete al as Ti a cet terse Dgotshcosd : ihc anacatd vn o (101-9, Heer marin Geer eta bei OA pte is agar tht he spel Se mE er ie comers v0 tot AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION THCINIOUIS 459 transform Va(a) of o4() is given by Bote) , KB 12) ho — 209) + 0+ 2a), (1018) Halo) ‘where Gla) is the Fourier transform of g(t). plot of Fo] Ys «forthe case where (is aind-limied in Frequency to cy i shown in Fi, 11-2. In order to separate the desired output snail from the double Frequency term, the inequality must be satisfied; ie, the maximum modutation rate must be less than the eurier Freaueney. Ifa is not greater than Op, then synchronous detection (or, for that matter, any other form of detection) is impossible. In addition, he closer ay is 10 lp, the more complex the low-pass filter of the synchronous devector must be to fexteact the dpsed outpat signal yt Ka}G Dah ee Baha ay Fig, 103-2 Spectrum of vc witht) banding 0, For an SSB signal with (0) andlimited 10 oq |Vq(al vs. oo hus the form shown, in Fig. 101-3. Here we see that for lowersideband SSB, synchronous detection is possible only if wy. < a, whereas for upper-sideband SSB synchronous detection fan be accomplished only if wy < 20, "To implement the synchronous detector, a multiplier and a reference-signal soutee of the form B eos wt ace required. Any of the multiplier circuits discussed in Chapter 7 or 8 is sulfcieat as a multiplies. Afterall, synchronous detetion is essentially mixing down 1o de. The reference-signal source at ax may be obtained by placing o(¢) through a very narrowband flter which extracts thecutris component it exists) and removes the sideband information. Specifically, f of) = ALL + mftoleosant, where the Fourier transform Ya) of (0) and the spectrum F(w) of f(t) ate as shown in Fig. 101-4, then the output of the narrowband filter centered at oy with a band- ‘width less than 22, is given by Avosee, ‘which isthe desired reerence signal. Such an extremely narrowband filter is usually implemented with a crystal ora mechanical Miter or with a phase-locked loop (PL). 1a exystal filter is amployed, the center frequency we of of) must aso be crystal460 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS ot re | unersiatnt se v0 = ee » Fig. 01-3 Pot of /s) ve w for SSB modulation with s) bandsimted 10 ©, beta carter a a ig. 10.14 Plot of FOF and |e vs Pw controlled, On the other hand, if PLL is employed, a need not be (but usualy is) ‘xystal controlled, since the phase-locked loop is capable of tracking slow variations in whlestil ating as narrowband fer about ao ae ‘in the case of SSB and suppressed carrier AM, a carrier component does not usually exist in (2). For SSB signals a low-level or pilot carrier is usually added 10 the transmitted signal and extracted as the reference signal atthe receiver with 3 harrowband fiter-| However, when the SSB modulation is an audio signal, the Teference signal may be obtained from an independent oscillator. ‘Tis oscillator erates signal ofthe form B coe [oyt + O{q), where {is aslowly varying random cs BW < 348) Tyran vs communication sei le munber of wie cht Lite se tequansy htnonmlieaed a Aufl ina fom do dak SEeEnSthatnontetsthoaecomgoe siglo sitters tea de ae a emuccy cue A the ee, a egy dnultion Te etan tosycronnady demos “Theapproumae ene on SD eds rcs by sxc te wel fetes ipa ad ten Cons (acting ine dated harmon by appro a wor AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION TicHNIQUES 461 phase (or frequency) error between the osillator at the transmitier andthe oscillator atthe receiver. With the independent rterence signal, the output of te synchronous detector is given by 240 = “Fie cos) sin 0 (ots) Since it has been observed that the human ear cannot readily distinguish between (and 21, the output signal ofthe detector isa perfectly acceptable reproduction of et)even when Oy) dfs through 2/2. 16) = et +O, that is, if the reference oscil lator differs in frequency from the transmitter oscillator, the effect on the ear is to raise Gr lower the pitch ofthe demodulated signal while maintainingits intelligibility. ‘The eye, however, Is not as forgiving a8 the ear; hence an independent relerence oscillator cannot be used for demodulating SSB video information, For suppressed carrier AM the reference signal can be generated by passing 2{a) through a network ofthe form shown in Fig 10.1-S. ‘The output of the square- luv device, which may be implemented with a eld effect transistor, is given by e200 = he?|0)008? gt 2), Bat, BO + EO cos tugt 0-7) oa) feady’| —Sauure [| Narrow Count eer ome Sen ‘down fn ome fie LS tice mh Beosunt feos ial) ig, 10.148 Network for extracting reference cartier fom soppressedcarie AM. Since g() is always greater than zero its average value, unlike the average vilue of ‘(is greater than zero and thus 9,() has a carrer frequency component at 20, ‘which isin turn extracted by the nartowband filter centered at 2g, This ier may also be implemented as a crystal filter of as a phase-locked loop, The filter output is then counted down in frequency by 2 and filtered to provide the desired rolerence signal B cos wgt. Tae coeflciont Bis, of course, a function of the indivilual device and filter scale factors within the network of Fig, WL1-5. Average Envelope Detection ‘The block diagram ofthe average envelope detector is shown in Fig, 104 6. tea isa normal AM input ofthe form 4() = al}e0s 0st462 axtPLITUDE DENODULATORS 0. ett ease eae wp 49) Fig, 111-6 Block diagram of average envelope detector where g() 2 0,and ifthe transfer characteristic ofthe half-wave rectifier i given by ty > : eee 0-8 as shown in Fig, 101-6, then 246) = Ble0s 0)t0, (0-9) where S() is a switching funetion with the property S{e) = 1 for cos wot > 0 and Sit) = O for cos.ayi = 0. A sketch of vf) (0), and Ste) is shown in Fig, 10.1~7. Tris imuaitively obvious from the sketch that by extracting the average value of ‘o) with the low-pass filter, an output signal proportional to gis obtained. To demonstrate rigorously that »,) is proportional to g(), we expand St) in its Pouries siya} + Zeosoy = Zoster + a an atin Ba (10199 on 1) Mans + Ment nt ~ 2s a 29,0 exon hhertrmeisAN Aa GI-1 I the low-pass filter (ek Fig, 10.1-6) removes the frequency components of vd) ‘entered about 29,249, ¢t, then 2) i given by et?) 240 = FP shld, (101-12) were hy() is the impulse response ofthe low-pass filter. If,in adition, the low-pass fier has @ wide enough bandwidth to pass g(t) undistorted, then Eq, (101-12) wot AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION TECHNIQUES 463, ZH) pat oie “average vale Of Fig, 101-7 Plt of fo, n4e)and Si) vt. simplifies to the desired form 20, vse) = 8 H1,0), (at13) where again Hy) isthe Fourier transform of (th Trwve plot the nisgnitude af the Fourier transform V(w) of ef) for the cise where alt) is band-limited 19 «36 shown in Fig. 10.-8, we observe tal the inequality on ons % (ott rust be sisted ifthe low-pass filter isto be capable of extracting gl) fam rl. ve (Gen (oy (Gian) L~ 1 On ee cisco Be Fg 101-8 Potof fol we.464 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS 101 If the half-wave reetiier of Fig, 10.1~6 is replaced by a ful-wave restifer, not aly docs the output ofthe fow-pass filter double, but no term exntered about 09 tints in oft), Consequently (¢) may be extracted from v0), provided that %y < p> ‘which i the same frequency constraint imposed by the synchronous detector Tis apparent from Fig. 101-7 thatthe outpt signal) must always be positive:t jie, the average envelope detector extracts the positive envelope. If g(0)c0s Wo! Neretoplaced by —g()o8 Wot = ¢(7)e0s (wot + m), the output would be unchanged Since the average envelope detector is clearly insensitive to the phase of the carrier hence the outpat of the average envelope detector is written more precisely as lo = “thas ifa supposed cater wave for which gl) Bas both positive and negative vals Teds by an emloe detector, grove dtton would ancora the sere eral the output woul appeat asf the modulation had Deen passed oo ar entire strated in Fi 101-8. Simla the modovoe thou aM sgl exeeds uni, he average entelope deter ied ‘inom an syne onous detstion mas be employed Fri expression or the SSBsigal given by E1011) 8 the euivalet form : POT PO THT es[ our + oof 01-16 wv observe thatthe ouput fen average envelope detector with an SSB input woul take the form 20,0) aot vat n= LVeor PO ot) ft) = 5/80 + PADMA), c 00] ste Fig 102-9. Ouiput of average envelope detestor Five balewave rectifier ehiractoritis ae revered that is 4, = fore < Oana =O Tere Osten ot) must aay be nepative 101 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION TecHNquES 465, ‘which is also a highly distorted output signal. Here again we see that synchronous detection is required. However ifa large carrier component A c0s opt is added to the transmitted SSB signal, the resultant signal may be demodulated by envelope detection, Specialy, if il) = Ut) + A C08 wt 2 [OP Tbe ret 825] erin TA+ a, ‘most of the transmitter power must be expended in providing ‘Te basic concept, however, provides the basis for vestigial sideband transmission, Most video signals have the property that thir requency spectra ave concentrated at low frequencies, as shown in Fig, 101-10. Consequently, when a carrier at we is ‘amplitude-modulated by a video signal, the resultant signal »(2) bas bandwidth Of 2u,. This bandwidth may be reduced considerably to «2, + by placing the ‘AM signal through a filter H{Jw) of the form shown in Fig. 10.1~11, which removes the low-level portion ofthe lower- (or upper) sideband information avi doubles the low-level portion ofthe upper- (or lower.) sideband information to produce vestigial sideband signal v3(2} The basie property of the resultant vestigial sideband signal is that it requires less bandwidth Tor its transmission and still is capable of being demodulated by an envelope detector te a) Fito A) Fig, 101-10 Froqueny spectrum of type video signa.Seem I yr a] az aoe a stent l ae eee Gy ate oe eae Sareea ‘To demonstrate his fs, we write the video signal J) in he orn SO Al) +A, (101-19) Ca eet a heicganey potas ot 7) The onan it Sina hereto tes the fore Hy) = ALL (0+ feos, tiai-29 were Ais the earier amplitude adm the medlaton index. "The vesigisid bend signal (which consists of J, normally modulated and f, single-sideband- modulated und inereased by a factor of? relative to) is given by Ps) = ALL + mf) + mf} eosngt — Amfs(O) sin out. (10.1-21) 2 [f(t « 1, vy(¢) is equivalent to an SSB signal with a large added carrier, and thus has an envelope of the form AULA mf) + mle) = ALL + moto, aim) which is identical with the envelope ofthe normal AM signal (0. Tm practice, the amplitude of the upper-sideband information is not doubled at the transmitter; rather, the high-frequency portion of ft is enhuanced by @ factor of 2 by the receiver after the signal has been demodulated. This not only simplifies the bandpass filter atthe transmitter, which removes the lowe=‘sideband informaticn, but also permits faithful envelope demodulation ofthe vestigial sideband signal with the weaker requirement that (s(t)? « 1. 104 AMPLITUDE DBMODULATION TECHNIQUES 467 Peak Envelope Detection ‘An ideal peak envelope detector is a device which samples the peak ofeach positive (or negative) carrier cycle and holds the peak value until the next carrier eyele occurs, Figure 10.1-12 illustrates @ typical se of input and output waveforms for an ideal peak envelope detector. It is apparent from Fig. 10-12 that a considerable amount ‘of ripple appears on the output signal e() unless the carrer frequency greatly exceeds the maximum frequeney component 2, of s(2- Consequently, unless subsequent filtering is employed, the use ofthe envelope detector i restricted to situations where a very wide separation exists between a, and «wy. However, when a wide separation between wand exists, it is apparent that v,() closely approaches) for at) = 10 | tdetpeak | vlope fete wd) ain casa ig, 101-12 Kel peak envelope detector ‘Most practical peak envelope detectors employ a diode to drive the holding network (usually # resistor in parallel with a capacitor} 10 the peak value of each corti excl, as showa in Fig, 10-13. Once et) has reached the peak value of vl, the diode becomes reverse biased and 1) decays slowly toward zero with a time constant t = RC until, near the peak ofthe eye, », = v,, hich again turns the diode fm and brings v4) to the peak value of 4). The resistor R in the holding network ‘obviously has the effect of increasing the ripple; however, itis required in most practical detectors to ensure that 1?) decays more rapidly during every holding period than the envelope of o(). Ifthe decay in o() is insullicient, the diode does not tum on at the peak of every cycle of o(0), and “falure-to-ollow™ distortion results. ‘Cleary the time constant + must be chosen to meet a compromise between ripple and “fulare-to-ollow” distortion Iisappurent that the peak envelope detector, lke the average envelope detector, produces un output proportional to {g(t which results in distortion ifg)isnot always positives hence suppressed carrier AM demodulation and SSB demodulation are468 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS 2 ies pS ees 2 L tn R culo 40) dr cosas ig 101-13 Praia peak envelope detector: impossible with the peak envelope detector. On the other hand, the peak envelope detector nicely demodulates normal AM signals, a well as vestigial sideband signals. Since exact expressions for 00) will be obtained in Sections 10.3 and 10. for specific practical peak detectors, no further general analysis is attempted at this point 102. PRACTICAL AVERAGE ENVELOPE DETECTORS Inthis section we consider some ofthe problems encountered in implementing circuits ‘ehich achiove average envelope detection. Unfortunately, the ideal diode does not txist in nature; therefore, the greatest problem in designing an average envelope ‘tector is the synthesis ofthe half-wave rectifier portion with physical diodes. We fist show theeffcis on the detector of employing a physial diode in place ofan ideal ‘Giode in the half-wave rectifier circuit; then we explore a method by which a physic! ‘Giods can be made to function as an ideal diode in the detector cicuit, This methoe ilizs feedback to remove the nonlinearities created by the nonideal diode from the halfewave rectifier characteristic. ‘To observe the basic problem which arises when physical diodes are employed in place of ideal diodes, we consider the detector shown in Fig, 102-1, Ifthe diode 0 is ideal, then for >0 102 PRACTICAL AVERAGE ENVELOPE DITECHORS 469 aiowave eter ‘owepas ier Fig, 102-1 Implementation of sverage envelope detesior and fp= 0 for <0: hence ip is an exact half-wave rectified version of n/R. This current, multipliod by is then placed through a low-pass filter (Rg in parallel with C,) to extract its average value. Consequent!. if o(2) = g(eosex, then nt) = Feats, 02-1) where (0) is the response of og) when aig) = 6(()(@ unit impulse) Tae filter is wide enough to pass gf}, then, of course, : 20 102-2) Euston (102-1) and (102-2) are jus the res of the previous section splint {0 the circuit of Fig. 10.2-1 ” Tionever, i he led i at ideal, the exressons fr ipa n,m ate moi Tn particulate ode is modeled bythe ean, ig = Leo — 1) = Igeto, ua. Which is a reasonable approximation for most semiconductor diodes then jy may be expressed in terms of u(t) by the equation KT in q tok + int 02-4) Equation (102-4) may be also written in the normalized form say+iny— in, 02-5} were = = Qn» = gR/KT: and W = aIaRIKT. plo of y vs = with In Was parameter is shown in Fig. 102-2 along with the corresponding plot for an ideal diode, As ~In W increases, the entie z-y characteristic shifts linearly to the rit Here we see thatthe physical diode dacs not tuca on at o, = Oar 2 =U), but rather requites a more positive value of v, before any significant diode current Nows. The effect of this turn-on requirement isto prevent small input signals from producing470 awpurTupe DeMoputaTOoRS 02 ‘an output Thus such a detector cannot possibly demodulate 100% modulated Sani Toman requsemeat becomes moe obvious he actual hlfwave reir characteristic i» modeled by the twvo-segment piecewise-linear characteristic shown in Fig. 12-2 and given by z4inW—5, 02> In WS, (02-4 7 Yo, Be -InWes, a ra a Pe se = faa Sim aL ssid “| al sevieinat yalp-Stn is Boi In x» _- punatcn, 4G, EE a a a Oa 7 os ka 21 oa ig. 102-2 Prototy ik] v.<[a] with —In Wasa parameter or equivalently, by (102-7) where 102 PRACTICAL AVERAGE ENVELOPE DETICrONS 471 1 should be apparent from Eq, (102-7 that constructing the piscewise-linear chatacterstic is equivalent to replacing the physical diode in the circuit shown in Fig 102-1 by an ideal diode in series with a battery of value Vo, as shown in Fig 10.2-3. From the equivalent ciruit itis obvious thal, unless v{t)eaceeds Vo. a0 Outpt ‘ Fig, 102-3 Model for physica lode in average envelope detector cia, We should note that the tura-on voltage My is @ function of kT iq, R, and Ts. For example, with a germanium diode for which 1g = 2 x 10°7A, R= 140, and kTiq = 26 mV, InW= 486 and Vy = 256 mV. (On the other hand, with a silicon diode for which f, = 2 x 10°17 A, R= 1kQ, and ATI = 26 mV, =InW)= 164 and Y= S56mV. {tis apparent thatthe larger the values of R and J, the lower the value of Yj and the smaller the departure of the physical halfwave rectiler churseteriti. Clearly, then, a germanium diode with a large value of R provides the best approsimation to the ideal half-wave rectifier. To observe the effect of the turn-on voltage Yq on the output ofthe eireut of Fig. 102-3, consider oft) to be equal to ¥, cos ex, The diode current thotefore has the form ofa periodic train of sine-wave tips of peak value Ipp = (V; ~ Y/R and conduction angle 29 = 2eos*(Vy/¥;} Consequently the average value of fay ‘whieh is extracted by the output filter, takes the form (the appendix to Chapter 4) 1002-8)472 aMPuTUDE DeMODULATORS. td LCT ‘A plotof F1¥,/%) appears in Fig, 102-4 from which tis observed that, for Vi > 4¥o, FU ¥e) may be approximated by its asymptotic value where 02-9) Thus, for Y, > 4%, (02-10) nin ig 102-3 remove anitneoupt ter ofthe svrge eno dts o . 2 tr hamonos whe bong Wide enough 0 pss He variations in Vj, then o, is given by 1) aYiRy _ aVoRe (02 tp = oR = SLR _ Se of) ARF 30] 0a_| 33 | eae 3000] vit Fig, 102-4 Prot of F/M Vo 102 PRACTICAL AVERAGE ENVELOPE DETECTORS 473 ICY, = a{0h then 1p = 2200 vay = BO ‘Thus the effect of the tum-on voltage isto subtract a constant value, 2¥)Ky/2R in this eas, from the output, provided that g() > 4¥4. It gt) drops below 4¥, output distortion oveurs, since j, and v1) are nonlinearly related to g\ohs ean be seen feom Fig 102-4, ‘The restriction gle) > 4¥o forall «severely limits the maximum modulation index ‘of the AM signsl that may be linearly demodulated by the detector of Fi. 102-3. Consider, for example, Yee + aR aa2-12) a) = HLL + mie) where [fm I and thus m is the modula isequivalent to the condition index. For this ease x0) > 4¥5 aYy Wey 102-13) Consequently, if Y= 250 mV and m = O8, ¥, must be greater thin $V to achieve linear demodulstion. As u practical matter, for voice demodulation, the distortion would be within tolerable limits with Vyas low as 15. ‘A complete cireuit which has as its model the circuit shown in Pig, 102-3 is illstrated in Fig, 10.2-5. In this circuit the voltage supply Vee supplies the bias keep the colletor-base junction of the transistor reverse biased, while Cis a coupling capacitor which isolates n() from the bias supply. The emitter-base junction nets as the half-wave retifir, white the diode D provides a return path for the capacitor current and thus prevents clamping; i¢, ifthe average value of v(t) i 2er0, fe must charge 10 Vec to keep ip = ig, which is necessary lo Keep the averaye capacitor current equal to zero, With be = Yee, with the emitter curvent describe BY the ‘expression fg = Tye, (102-14) Fig: 102-5 Circit for achieving average envelope detection474 awpuirupe DeMopUtaTons 102 ‘and with the assumption that Cis a short tom, the emitter current may be related {0 (0) by the expression ato ner 2h was “which isthe same relationship as that obtained from the cieuit of Fiz. 10.2-15 thus aoneee thatthe emiter-base junction functions exactly asthe diode in the previous ‘roblem, wile the collector current psovides the eurent drive, ae forthe low-pass Phen, Consequently, Eqs. (1022-11) and (102-12) provide expressions for the output ofthe circuit of Fig, 102-4, se caesing componeuts for the cireit of Fig 107-5 we usually choose (wo identical germanium transistors and connect the base and collector of one together wetptain diode. We then select a value of R somewhere in the vicinity of 10k@2 and ‘Termine Yo, A smailr value of R increases Vo, while a larger value of R requires stip tobe tos large to achieve a reasonable outpu current, For any ven modulation fndex the required amplitude M, of 2f8) = Vif + mg@)eos or may be determined to satisfy Eg. 102-13) ihe assumption that Vecis also specified, Ry is chosen fo produce a reason ably large output swing vithout causing the transistor to saturate. The capacitor Cis chosen such that /RCo = ©» = © where Oy isthe maximum modoltion felquency and wy isthe ~3dB bandwidth of the Tow-pass fies, Finally oC 's {Chosen to be atleast ten times as great as 1/R. Example 10.2-1 For the average emelope detector shown in Fig, 10.26, determine caine for all unspecified parameters such that linesr demodulation is achieved ‘Also determine an expression for v0. Solution. Singe R= OKA and 1, = 2.x 107A, the turn-on voltage Vo has the seer, = 19TmV; hence with & modulation index of Q6 linear demodulation aires; > 197 V(GhEq, 102-13), Weesall choose i = 2.5. With thischoi, coor owe ~ Re oe . ; TT v “y= Fi(h-+ 0608 10 cos 10 Ten dnt™A Figure 102-6 0: PRACTICAL AVERAGE ENVELOPE DETECTORS — 475 cA ae byt 1821 oy 0.0 ga) + asc a8! + 095K with the assumptions that the transistor d " wan Joes not satura that = 1m! that dhe put filer pases requnets upto 10>rajoec undated. Te tits ign of Shireen apg a NPN nr ia PNP ano nce the minimum vale of, mst be gener tan ~ 102 V 1 ths ptm air. Sole CCT Ee 00 BUA), » -r024, [oon = cr equivalently, Ry < 87K2L To leave some matgio (or parameter vartion, we choose Ry = 68 kM {a standard 5% value) and obtain finally : vg = ~(4.7V) ~ (3.2 V)cos 10%. By choosing VRsCy = 10" rate oF squvseny Co ~ so see of equivalely Co = 1500 pF, we ensure sath noah tanec ana trequency conpovents 3 Nefundae tmetal and harmonise of te carr requency are removed ron the oupot_ A o- 10* radjsec, 1/10*Cy = 6.8.2, which is indeed a short circuit covnpared, ‘sith Hic pts fhe sot et hari een) Sal Compared with Ry ipl appears n the output Although thi ips ms De tnoved by subieutt fterng eve mut be ake tense tt toes ot sure thea when aed or. Fy one atthe coping taco san shor creuwe aed C > IDJoR = 1OpP. Again to allow fora marin os ses aie PF Agno alow fra margin of sey, “The noid est ofthe physi doa sical dioe maybe great reduc! by constr analfave vest tha incorporates the gion the edb op ofan operational & Fig. 102-7 Hnlfwave rete employing & dinde in the : sees fer employing & diode in the fedbuck loyp of an operational476 asiurrupe DEMODULATORS. 102 amplifier as shown in Fig. 102-7. The half-wave reetification is achieved with diode Di which conducts for negative values of v and opens for postive values of ¢ Diode D; is incorporated in the circuit to prevent open-loop operation and the possibilty of device saturation for postive values of» for which D; opens. Sinte ‘ith D, and De in the circuit the maximum value of, exceeds the maximum value Of n, by only the small diode “on” vollage (approximately 220 mV for germanium fand’630 mV for silicon. Section 5.4), che maximum value of vs closely approx mated by vg,,./4, where 4 isthe voltage amplification ofthe operational ampli. Jn addition’ the positive and negative peak values of are of the same order of magnitude, the presence of D; ensures that the minimum value of us of the order heen fa Consequently, fr 4 > 100 (which is truz even for the poorest-qualty ‘Operation amplifier), oj appears as a “virtual” ground relative £0 Uy, and thus ty imay be very closely approximated by In deriving 9, (102-17), we assume that die diode current and voltage are aguin related by the approximation of Eq. (102-3) that the operational amplifier input impedance is soveral orders of magnitude greater than R, or Ro and thus may be feslected, and that the operational amplifier output impedance is small in com: parison with R,. These assumptions ae usually truc for most integrated operational Pipher; and even in those cases Where they are not stsictly true, it ean be realy Shown that the results we derive are still valid. The equations, however, become moze cumbersome. ‘Equation (102-17) may be wetten in the normalized form 1 2 + piginy i, (102-18) TS Tis apparent that, for A = 0, Eg, (102-18) reduces to Eq. (102-5) and no improve ment pret the previous half-wave rectfer is obtained. As A is increased from zero, the effect ofthe nonlinear term in yis reduced and the 2-y characteristic approaches that of an ideal diods. A plot of y vs. z for ~In W = 20 is shown in Fig. 103-8 ‘The scale in this igure is greatly expanded from the scale of Fig, 102-2, ws cam bo een from the 2-y characteristic for A = 0. From Fig, 102-7 we observe that for “A's 99 the xy characteristic is within 7mV (unnormalized) of the ideal balowave ‘retifier characteristic (A — co). In addition, for A = 999 the characteristic is within dain of the ideal half-wave rectifier characteristic an forall practial purposes ity [rh me PRACTICAL AVERAGE ENVELOPE DEIMCTURS 477 Sp. ta tode 7 eg a, ee 1 1Yatacsin wy 7 a ae ST aa 1529 ytd Fig, 102-8 Plotofy vez with ln W = 20 nd with 49a parameter { 20, a <0, Rega eS 01 (102-20) 0, ye be considered to be ideal, that is, 102-19) for equivalently, ‘Clearly, then, «is related to; by the ideal ha fave rectifier characteristic given by <0, lo, veo It hotcartien diodes are used for Dy and Ds, Eq, (102-21) provides au accurate description of the transfer characteristic of v, vs o; for eurrer frequencies up to the {ens of meguhert, provided that at these fequencies the open-loop amplification ofthe operational amplifier stil exceeds 100. A complete average envelope detector employing wo operational amplifiers is shown in Fig. 102-9. IPR, » Ry, which shoukl be the case 101 ire that the103 478 AMPLITUDE DFMODULATORS Be Fig, 102-9 Average envelope detector employing operational amplifiers ‘current from D, flows primarily through R,, then the first smplifer performs as an ideal half-wave rectifier, while the second amplifier performs asa low-pass filter with a transfer function Yop) RulRs. (102-22) Van) ~ T+ pRAC Equation (102-22) is the transfer function of a low-pass filter with a transmission Fer tetac of Ry anda dB banish of y= HRC. Trlr 149 = alt)e0s af, then Hp 1) = $2 ge one 02-23) 240) = Feat #0. (102-23) th the maximum frequency where Wt) = 7 'HEp) IE es is large in comparison ‘component of g(t) then -_ dl) = FR 102-24) = GD (102-24 Dy correctly adjusting R, 2, Ry,and R,, any desired amplification may be achieved provided that the operational amplifiers are not driven into saturation. In addition, by cascading several more operational amplifiers, a higher-order, low-pass fiter can readily be synthesized. 10.3. NARROWRAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR ‘One ofthe most widely used demodulators for normal AM signalsis the narrowbwnd peak envelope detector shown in Fig. 103-1. Almost every superheterodyne AM Feesver hasa detector ofthis form, which sconstructed by placing the series combins- tion of a diode D and a parallel Ro-Cy ciccuit across the output-tuned circuit of the last IF amplifier in the IF strip. ‘The parallel RLC cireuit driven by the current ‘souree it) provides the model for the final IF amplifier, The narrowband peak 103 NARROWHAND PEAK ENVELOPE DENICIOR 479 cavelape deo i alas designed 40 that the faded Oy of th a he Hed Oy of he pal RLC eit shigh adhe imeconstnt ofthe paral Ry-Co cea alone route withthe peso of cari pee The high ate of Orensure tat can aor is ulenly elective and alo prevent the noninen ads ces dre thewavelormafn(). Thelong Rayne contant nabs liocemnin aes Constant atthe peak vale of of) oer ea carey cent ae Ta) over each ear eycle “Thus tu ple Fig, 1034 Narrowband peak envelope detector. In analyzing the detector of Fig. 103-1 we assume that the diode is idea. This sumone snes the sls an nation, el dono Drovides results shat are directly appisable to the ident iit employang physical diode, Pere ie ae ll® bstin the soa by obtaining an expression foro ano) fo te case 4) = 1 cose In particular, we show tha 1) indead iretly rectly proportions 01, segue by lina envelope detest. We then generate the apt th dyna ss 1) = Wiese = 11+ nfl on ot au show that simple equivalent cict exit for determing (0 anction of 0), Finally, we consider the problem of “Yailureto-ollow" distortion which results when the detector is improperly designed, Static Analysis H the RCo time constant is long in comparison with the duration T= 2x/oy of a carrier cycle (or, equivalently, Cy is an ae short cireuit at w), then with 40 = 4 ost the oupat voltage nf stabilizes ata de value», = B. With Ye leveloped across the capacitor Cy, itis apparent from Example 5-3 that, i the loaded Q of the parallel RC circuits high, then the voltage across the tuned eieust ‘yf must have the form oe : 240) Yq 08g tasty480 aMpLiTuDe DEMODULATORS 103 we observe thatthe die D i reverse sed ence i te immediate vicinity ofthe peak of nf); hence the diode current ip must low in narrow macs eccorring a the peak ofeach cycle of) a8 ehown in Fig, 103-2, Con ently, fp may be expanded in a Fourier series ofthe frm ight) Dag + 2€08 Wel + 2-7) “To determine Ye (103) uy eu Lb ig. 1033-2. Corrent and voltage wavefoms cueing in the site Fig. 103-1 snude sere pith average avo) (Te arow pe wih canes te ai whee pg thea a ow te the average al], Sse he So em tow IS Re, ‘ Yas = tooRo (103-3) ' sto the fundamental eutrent com- 1 addition, by applying Kirchho’s carent lv tothe f aa esate ie paral RLC cca we oBiN 1, = t= Boo: (103-4) 103 NARROWRAND PEAK INVLOPE DiHCTOR 481 ‘and by combining Fas (10.3-3) and (10.3-4), we finally obtain the desiced expression for Ya Vs Re (103-5) where Ry = RE(Ky/2L We also observe that the equivalent linear loiding on the tuned circuit produced by the nonlinear diode eieuit is (103-6) and that Qy is given by Or (103-7) Itis quite apparent from Eg (103-5) that Vj is indoed linearly related 101, and, therefore thatthe cicuit of Fig. 10.3-1 functions, at least statically, as an envelope detector. To understand the operation of the circuit sil beter. we determine the form of if), I we assume that the diode becomes forward biased at, and becomes reverse blised att, where the time interval fg = 13 ~ 1 is short in comparison with T and occurs in the vicinity of the peak of 0?) and if in addition we assume that id remains essentially constant at Va, during diode conduction, then fort << 1g fe dat (103-8) Since all the nonreactive shunt branches ofthe circuit of Fig. 103-1 eontain constant currents fort <1 Sf the ac ramp component of, must divide between C and Co: however, the ramp component through Co also flows through the diode. Thus the diode current consists of a ramp with slope —VjCy/L{Co + C). which reaches O for r= tz {the diode becomes reverse biased when its current reaches 7210), & sketch of i) i shown in Fig. 103-3, which indicates that il?) eonsists of « periodic ‘rain of narrow triangular pulses. “The pulse width ty is readily determined by noting from Fig. 10.33 that the age Value, [p, Of ft) may be expressed 18 (103-9) {TA sine wave remains esetily constant inthe vicinity ofits peak,482 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS 103 while from Eq, (10.3-3) gp VaqiRa:hence eliminating Ip from Bq, (103-12) yields 5, fiatO_ fooler S T FR AReCe ~ fore. f VER OSCE” VRQs where Ors = WyC,Ro and C, = CCof(C + Co)is the series combination of Cand Co. In almost all narrowband detectors of interest, Ors is slightly greater than Qr5 eae ue of Oy ensues a high mu of Ora end io torn, «narrow pube width. For example iC = C, then (103-10) (103-11) if.Cy C,then Bal en (2+ Bor 03.13 Opp = 200, thon 1/T'= pfx = 00399 and = 144%, where ithe com ce a nee ith 9 = 205. For Oya low a 5 the condition angle Gveton 2 jolly the assumptions tha the amplitude ofthe fundasetal eee twie the average value and that i, may be approximated by ts see ee rig the intr. hain, witha condition angle less han Peat val at orcrsing onthe peal of (due tothe Forward bias of the code + aval percepible Fen constant isnot afin, iezease sighly during the ne that he ere Sa and decreases ing he ine the diode frevese ise, the diode forward uanout af rote on the output. Ts readily show tal even a eco apple Fig 103-3 and Eq (103-10) sil provide very wood a tans for the erode cucentwaverorm and he creet pulse daraton ac Top inresses during diode conduction, then he current pale duration Fig. 103-3 Skerh of v6 ¢ 103 NARKOWEAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR 483 js Sightly shorter than the duration given by Eq. (103-10); thi gives ev vais fhe previous sumptions Seiececheceeetteteeeiecea 9 gel some Hea ofthe size ofthe increase AVin», dung diode conduction, we observe that the act charge entering Cy during a eyele must equal fro. With he jssumplion that ¢¢« T;the charg entering the capacitor fs Qy = CA while the gore ving 0. = Yay (Te pronation bons et 8) “onsequently, the fractional ripe AV, appearing atthe envelope detector out is closely approximated by Hae ite ies avr Vee” RaGy” to" hereto = RoCy, For 1% ripple: = 1007 Ifthe fractional ripper ripple, factional ripple wemains below A, all the previous resus obtained provide excellent approximation thin 5%) to he actual ests; however, with AP/V4, =O, some additional low-pass filtering ttust follow the detector to remove the exces pple Example 103-1. Forthecircitshown in Fi. 103-4 (a) determine he wah of (bydetemine ie peakpeak pple one ae (103-13) a ae ode (2mayeos 10% igure 103-4 Sohtion. Wve assume Q, > 10, we can seplae the diode an the cic fs right by an equivalent 50k resistor; hence tae nf) = (2 mA} (25 kO) cos 10% = (S0V}cos 10% and, in torn, From Bq, (10.3-14) its apparent thatthe fractional ripple has the value av 2 \ Yes” T0® GO pAY x Cow ~ 8% ‘orequivaletly, the peak-to-peak ripple has the value AV = 314. Tissiso apparent that Qy = (2SKQVupL = 25, which justifies the initial assumption, sss484 AMPLITUDE DEHODULATORS 103 Dynamic Analysis Wenow let 03414) sufficontly high id may therefore 0) = 101 + mf] oos old where 60) = 1,{l + fe], and assume again thatthe loaded Q 0 that oft) has frequency components only in the vicinity of wo be written in the general form {9 = althe0s ot (03-15 where ge some low-frequency waveform. If we assume, in adition, thatthe ripple on pt) is small and that the diode D conducts every carrer eycle, then v0) given by fo) = a0. 103-19 [Note that se) cannot be less than g(), since this would require a voltage across.a forward-biased ideal diode at the peak of wf) ora large amount of ripple. On the ‘other hand, off) cannot be greater than g(@) oF the diode could not conduct every yete hence, with the above assumptions, v0) = g(0)] Ithe diode does not condust Creey cycle, the result is fuilure-te-follow distortion, which we investigate later in this Section. Clearly, our objective isto evaluate g() in terms of K). To achieve this objective ‘we first observe that a high value of Q ensures an even higher value of Qrs and thus ‘cnsures that the diode current ig) flows in narrow pulses. Therefore, inthis ete, fs inthe static analysis, i may be expanded ina series ofthe form Jolt) Fagl (t+ 2608 0 + ==), 03-17) where ipl) isthe slowly varying average value of it. [The reader should convinse himselfahat the expansion of Eq, (103-17) isa unique representation for it) provided that it) is Band Limited t0 0/2] The slowly varying diode current flowing through the parallel Rg-Co circuit gives rise to g()s hence et) = inl zl where 2) isthe response ofthe parallel y-Cy circuit when driven by a unit impu'se of eurrent Tn addition, the input current i(P), less the fundamental component of the diode ccarrent, lowing through the parallel RLC circuit gives rise to vd); thats, (103418) cos wet ~ Ding c08 wot] *20), (103-19) (0 (0608 ot where s() i the impulse response of the parallel RLC circuit. By noting that (is 2 symmetsie narrowband filler with O(,) = 0, and by employing Eq (33-3) we can ‘Simplify Eq (103-19) to the form skd.c0s wot = {(B() ~ Zinlt] * 249} C08 Hot. (493-20) 103 NAZROWBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DENRCION 485 fr equivalently, ¢ the form " = [2 -no) 20 ven where 2,(t)is the low-pass equivalent of 2(¢). The response z,(1) is the impulse response equivalent sth 00 4 ; - a SS aio mo Fig. 103-5 Twocitcuits fom which Fe, (103-1 right aned a, (103-21 ca be obtained We note from the exuivalent circu of Fig, 1035 ta i) may be elated 19 0) by the transfer function . a ae (103-22) where TRC and Gip) and Bp) are the Laplace transiorms of gi) ind A) respectively. “Here we see that the ~3d8 bandwidth, which must be chosen large enough to pass Mi) i & function of not oaty the parallel Ry-C, circuit but also the parallel RLC circuit, Hence in designing a narrowband peak envelope detector one must consider the complete equivalent circuit of Fig. 103-5, However, fas is wide enough to transmit the information of b) undistorted; then (0) = BOR = NEL + nf OR (103-23)486 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS 103 and the desired envelope information is obtained. Clearly, Bq (10:3-23) could have aoe vipiained directly from Bq, (103-5) withthe assumption of lowly varying modu Paecetor Ca << C, Eq, (103-22) can be obtained by reflecting Rol? cross the vill] RLCcreult (as was donein the static case) and then determining the relation Ship botween gl) and b() for the resultant parallel RLC circuit Traddienal ciseitry is added to the peak detector output for the purpose of developing an AGC voltage Fig. 103-6a) oF forthe purpose of ac-coupling the de- sesulated signal co @ subsequent stage (Fig. 103-60), the previous analysis is elk 240, ao =z : HH count Voture contol o tg. 103-6 Adéiiooal ccs paced on detecior out () develop aa AGC voltage and © {b)acrcouple the detector output valid provided that Oris high and the ouput ripple is smal; the bandpass oscus wana eof the diode may be replaced by the equivalent eicuitshown in Fig. 10.5 (uid. A complete equivalnt circuit forthe enveope detector containing a couPlite ser ost (rg, 10.}-6b}is shown in Fig 103-7. In this igure the polarity ofthe current saner has been versed since the diode in the original ciruit is positioned to obtain {he negative envelope. "Two examples now demonstrate the usefulness of the ‘equivalent circuits. 7 Example 103-2. For the narrowband peak envelope detector shown in Fig 10.3 Tring expressions for oJ¢) and 2) Repeat the problem for Co = 10uF. 103 NARROWBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR 487 i ro) oe 107 Dun may F605 52 10% Figure 10.38 Solution. For the circuit of Fig, 103-8, t 10" radjsee and In addition, the fryctional ripple has the value Avi hence, with a high value of Qy, a small amount of ripple, and the hb } 28 8 sn of ripple, and the assumption of no ‘ailureto-follow” distortion, the detector of Fig. 10.3-8 may be replaced by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig, 103-9. From the equivalent cieuit its apparent \ : ur ps [oan = rove pusloxoe-')} Into sn sa cape te 10V)] 1 + cos. 8) | cos 10%, ‘ L A I] a Weotwere that ven thought input current hata modtion io wrheteaLecloged sero the uined creat hasamodolaion index of. /oyRyCo == 00314; 2a wt 5x 10%488 AMPLITUDE DEHODULATORS 103 2d seo pF Sioa 40 mansvon 5x09 Figure 103-0 16 Cp is replaced by 4 10 uF capacitor, the capacitor inthe equivalent cieait of Fig. 103-9 must be replaced by a 10)F + 1000 pF ~ 10x capacitor, Such & lange capacitor effectively shorts the signal component of B()/2 to ground to yielé di) = IOV, and in turn oft) = OV) cas 10%. Consequently, since all te envelope formation has been stripped from vf the circut functions as an amplitude limiter provided that no fuilute-to“ollow distortion occurs. Example 10.33 For the circuit shown in Fig. 103-10, make an accurate sketch of 24h vad 24) 0. wo cost Son “0 —_t—s en aodles ama er | woes | Ferool 7 Figure 103.10 ‘Solution, Assuming that Qyishigh thatthe ripple issmal,and that thereis no failure te-follow distortion, we replace the circuit of Fig. 103-10 by its equivalent circuit, Shown in Fig, 103-11. Since the 10 uF eapecitor appears as a short circuit to the ae ‘component of ()/2 and an open circuit 10 the de component of (2, we decompose ‘lap? into its ac and de components as shown in Fig, 103-12 and solve for vf) and HD by superposition, ‘The de component of 1) is qual to(¥mA) x 40k8 = 20; 103 NARROWBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECION 489 al our ban Y smal 010 won cu) Figure 03-11 ima Ima L Figure 103-12 hed nd vi) = vft)cos 107: is shown in Fig. 10.3~13. pen 10 the modulation information {the ac components of b(1)} is significantly = Kas = (40 KO(0/2) and, in tura, ff) (20041, cos 10"490 —_axepLeTupE pawoDULATORS 103 xo Figure 103-13. ractional ripple is Conseaquent 20KO and Oy = 200. In addition, the fractional ripp V/V. = Q0I37; hence two of our original assumptions are jstifed. The method for justifying the third assumption, that of no “failure-o-fllow” distortion, i= now considered, Foilure-to-Follow Distortion Tn a narrowband peak envelope detector of the form shown in Fig, 103-1 or Fig. 10.3-6 a form of distortion known as filure-toollow distortion or diagonal clipying tay result if the cirevit is improperly designed. Physically, this form of distortion results when the input modulation on if) causes the envelope of vf) 0 decrease at & fate greater than the natural decay ofthe parallel Ro-Co circuit; hence the diede fails to conduct on each eyele and 2,1) decays towhrd a steady-state value which is inde- pendent of the input modulation, Typical waveforms of o(i) and v0) during failure~ {o-ollow distortion are shown in Fig. 10.3-14 103 NARKOWSAND PEAK ENVELOPE DEWCIOR 491 Intuitively we can make a number of observations concerning fuilur-to-follow distortion which are helplul in preventing its occurrence: 1. Failuresto-folow distortion always occurs on the negatively sloping envelope ofthe input earrent 2. Failureto-follow distortion is most likely with high modulation indices and high modulation frequencies, Both of these conditions tend to increase the negative slope of the envelopes of ie) and in turn of), and thus increase the ‘chance that {0 will ot be able to follow the envelope of v(t). 3. Failureto-ollew distortion cannot occur if the parallel RLC circuit contains ‘ng loss that isi R co. Ino loss is present and diede D conducts on the peak ‘of a particular cycle of (0), then it must lao conduct on the pak of eich subse= {quent eyelets eliminating the possibilty of diagonal clipping, This statement follows from the fact that the envelope ofthe lossless tuned circuit must increase ‘remain the same with D disconnecied;t while with D open v0) decreases; hence conduction is ensured on the peak of every cycle. Thus, diagonal clipping Fesults when the tuned eiteuit is sufficiently heavily loaded 10 permit the envelope of v(t) to decrease more rapidly then o,() during the interval when D is back: biased. (It is epparent that diagonal clipping is impossible inthe circuit of Example 103-3, since no loss exists in the tuned circuit) 4. Faiture-e-folfow distortion cannot occur in the circuit of Fig. 10.3-1 2RC = RoCp. Assume that for an arbitrary rm 1, the diode conduc and et) = elt) = Alig. Ifthe diode now opens, ot) decays exponentially to zero with at initial, slope equal to ~g(VRyCq. In addition, iis equal to 2ero, the envelope of (| decays exponentially to zero with an initial slope equal 10 ~¥40)2RC (cf, Section 3.3). If, # 0, energy is supplied to the tuned circuit and the initial slope ofthe envelope of vf) is greater than g(g/2RC; hence, if 2RC = RCS for equivalently, 2RE = RCo, 103-24) the envelope of v(t) decays less rapidly than a(t) and the diode vonduets at i+ T. The same argument may be applied to subsequent eycles; thus the diode conducts on the peak of every cycle of o(2) and diagonal clipping # impossible. 1 isupparent at this point that, when diagonal clipping occurs, the diode current and in turn its average value drop to 22r0 for a large number of carrer cycles, conse quently, # sufficient condition to ensure that failureto-follow distort eannot ‘ecu i thatthe average diode current ig exceed zero for ull tim, that is ing > 0 03-25) + S0 tong as Ne) cos eat supplies energy tothe lossless tuned crc, is vohage amplitude ine eresses: if = 0, noon ener ie supplied an the volte split remains enstin492 AMPLITUDE DeMODULATORS Ww3 for ail Thus by obtaining an expression for igg from the equivalent envelope de tector circuits of Fig. 103-5 or Fig, 103-7 and requiring that it savy Eq, 03-25), tre obtain an inequality involving the parameters of the envelope éctsctor which sures that diagonal clipping cannot occur. Therefore, in addition ¢o solving for hh we must solve fr ipglt)and eheck tose tha it exoeeds zero. Ifitdoes, the mode! being used is valid. Two examples should clarify the use of this method, Example 1.3-4 For the narrowband peak envelope detector shown in Fig. 103-15, Setermine the relationship between m, R, C, Rg, and Cy which ensures no diagonal clipping for all values of a, sn 0 Buymh(l tees) Figure 103-15 Solution Assuming that Q, is high and that the output ripple is small, we replace the envelope detector by its equivalent cireuit, shown in Fig, 10.3-16. For the nan eat we obin LRP 4 OO costa + 60] Mafra +b i= ge where 1 Dyaa ange = TeToemE mM eerie en Clearly, for ig(t) to be greater than zero for allt, we require Jojo #1 edo tho, (103-26) Vio,jan? +1 since c0s (ot + $) reaches a value of ~ For a, = os the coefficient of min Eq, (103-26) has its maximum value of unity for @y = 0; henee for w; 2 2, oF equivalently for ReCo 5 2RC, no diagonal clipping occurs for any value of «a, provided that m = 1 [a condition ‘which i always satisfied). This of course i an expected result. On the other hand, 103 ARREWUAND PEAK EXVELOPE DITECTOR — 493 CT farmaun(] ak sti Fine 03-16 for ws D5 he fo Wo" dagen! coping je Ds ence for my = 0, NO diagonal lpn occurs for any value of wy provided that i ere 2RiCy + OY vale + 3K) For example, i 2R = Ry and Co = 3C, then the maximum modulation index Which may be used without fllure-o-follow distortion is m= {. Also, for the case ” where the detector is used.as a limiter and Cy > <0, ms 4103-27) (103-28) {Note that diagonal dipping does occur in the second pt of Example 103-2) ‘Bxample 103-8. With the sssumption tat Ce sa a short cult ut the ren toes determine the maxon vate af modulation index m which doc tot couse Giugonal clipping inthe envelope detector of Fig 10-17 Solution, Again assuming a high Op and a lo Btu ih and a low output ripple, we can replace the envelope detector by ils equivalent citeut, shown in Fig. 10.318. Por this ciecul, gl s given by an bin UL mee Figure 103-17494 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS 103 Figure 103-18 {owe assume that Ce isan ae short circuit). Hence, for py) to be greater than z2r0 Tor allt 1 she size ofthe output resistor or the resistor loading the tuned circuit i increased, the value of m that the circuit ean accommodate increases. ‘Summary and Design the interrelationship of para In the previous analyses a number of constraints on the lationship meters were required for the earrect operation of the peak envelope detector shown, in Fig. 103-1, ‘These constraints are summarized as follows: QraOrv Cor oat Seen 1) 1 Q, = ooRrC Rolo 5 1, ow ripple) T sie (bandwidth sufisent 10 pass modulation information) (no failure-to-fllow distortion for any mi) L 3) on 0s= TED 4) ReCo = 2RC, = ech and tee Oyo ouRC ithe unloaded Qo te ted cst, Or = CR de oe cae Maton feqosnay. For cnet of he Spe howe Fe eee ie aboreit ms te mae sig. Toobere how at moje inthe eg oan cvtope Ses, these cons rewrite condition 4 in the form RoCo _ fo < 2RCwve | Orv (103-28: TTS om Te ‘To satisfy condition 2 and minimize the ripple, we wish r/o be as large as possible 103 NARROWBAND PEAK ENVELOPE: 495 however, Eq, (103-29) limits its value to Qra/ms hence we choose 3 = Ow (103-30) which is equivalent to 2RC = RyCo. ‘With the value ofr piven by Eq, (10.3-30) condition 3 may be rearsanged inthe form 1 Or For proper operntion we desire small amount of ripple and thus « large value of Gry: however, from Eq, (10.3-31) we tee that the maximum size of Qi limited by the ratio of w/in (broadband signals require low-Q, circuits) Conssquently the peak envelope detector may beemployed only when wy exceeds i, usualy by afactor 9f 100 or more. Under these conditions we choose yy as large as possible within the limitations of Eq, (103-31) A large value of Qry also ensures tht condition | will be satisfied. Condition 1 also requires high valve of Qre which we choose, onvs the required value of Q; is specified, from the relationship OrOre_ (103-39) aa 103-32 ore Ga OF ae With th rian pica of one desied parameter in he int fF, 103-L, lbeeationtp oe = Le and eqs (103-0) (ILS 31), 9) prove 4 $= of equations fo sompltly determining al ter parame inthe elope detector. ‘The following example demonstrates this fact, Example 10.3.6 The circuit of Fig. 103-1 has an output resistor Ry = 10k Choose the remaining parameters i the circuit to ensure Q; = 25, minimiem ripple, no failure-to-follow distortion regardless of the input modulation index, and sufficient bandwidth to ccommodate modulation frequencies up 10, = 10" tad/see. ‘The carier frequency 0" rade. Solution. Minimum ripple, sufficient bandwidth, and no diagonal clipping are ensured by choosing, ‘Thus ty = RCo = 1 psec, Oxy = wyRC = 50, and RC = 05 ps 1OKQ, Cy = 100 pF. By solving for Oro from Eq, (103-32), we obtain Since Ry =496 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS 104 But Qro = woRoC/2; therefore, RyC = 10-6sec. ensures Op = 25. Again, with Ry = OKO we oblain C= 100pF, and with RC = 0S ysee we obtain R= SKS Finally, YogC = Lull = Le tod. PRACTICAL NARROWBAND PEAK SNVELOPE DETECTOR Ifa physical diode is placed in the envelope detector etcuit of Fig 10.31, the detector ‘no longer functions properly forall levels of the input current 140. Specifically Tnlese the amplitude of i( is sufficiently large 10 develop a voltage a(t) across the ned circuit which exceed the diode turn-on bias, then the diode remains reverse bussed and ny = 0. To focus attention on this problem we model the physical diode byran ideal diode in series witha battery of Yo a8 shown in Fig, 104-1. For silicon ‘odes Fs closely approximated by 650 mV; for geemenium diodes, Ys close 10 Seo mV. From Fig 104-1 it apparent that the effect of ¥y isto Keep the diode paves biased for small values of f(t) oF, equivalently, 10 indvee fajlureto-fllow Cistortion for input modulation indices close to unity. na gobo! Fig. 104-1. Narrowband pesk envelope detector wth physica dade replaced with ts model However if the input drive level is sufficiently high and the input modulation index is sulliiently low so that filure-o-follow distortion does not oscar, if Qr is tigh-ane ifthe outpa ripple is smal, then x follows theeavelce oft) 4nd of) = tae) = Vo. That i, i o(0) = g(t) c08 ao, then WZ) = gt) and 2) = 0) ~ Va ost ‘In addition, the diode current flows in sulfcistly narrow pulses so that the detector waste roplaced by the equivalent circuit of Fig. 104-2. With the aid of this eiout sui) ana a0) may be determined as functions of ht) and, in addition, inl) may be ‘Sbtained to check that Vy has not induced failure-to-follow distortion. For example, if be) = f,[1 + me0s wt] 208 2a, thea. eos (ot + 0 wie eS) 104-2) 104 PRACTICAL NARKOWSAND PEAK ENVELOPE DELCTOR 497 and wt = LR 4 RoR Ly, mowtlogt +0) MO SRR, IRs wal! 7 eee). 04-3) where § = —tan™' (fas) and ws = 1/(Ro2R(C + Co} In addition, Mo AR © ioolt) = — al oat Ninf ei ates tae! + eT cota + a} coe where an! uf) — (a0 (oafas and = YRC, To ese that 96 fsiluresto-fllow distortion occurs, We Fequite pg!) > O for allt, or equivalently, OO CCTESS Veojoy 0 where n= VallsR. If 2RC 2 RoCo (he case which 2 RiGo (the case which ensures no fureo-olow Aistoron or Fy = 0) then wy > wy and the enefcent of m in Eq, (108 5) chives semana ale fant fn, = Ths oemuenofavetotlow rea forall values of we require (104-5) bane m. «in4-6) From Eg, (104-6) we observe that n approaches zero as Vis decreas, I is increased, or R is increased. Consequently, for an envelope detector employing a physal dae o demodlat AM signals with modulation ines ean, wwe choose a germanium diode to keep Yq as small as possible and we make the Impedance ofthe tuned cut ae high posite (In hes scion we sav ta we could choose one parameter ofthe envelope detector arbitrarily.) In addlition, as a practical mater, we choose a diode with «stray capacity much less than C ot Cy With this accomplised, the reining components in the detector may he selected by the method discessed in Section 10:3. Here again, ithe tuned circuit contains no Joss, diagonal clipping i impossible regardless of the sizeof Vy498 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS los 105 BROADBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR ‘Am envelope detector which linearly demodulates AM signals over a broad range of jnpat carrier frequencies is shown in Fig, 105-1.-For ths circuit the diode conduets atthe peak ofeach carrier eyete, thus increasing the capacitor voltage zt) tothe peak Malte bf nf) less the turn-on Voltage of the diode. As n(1) decreases from its peak Value, the diode is reverse biased and the capacitor holds the voltage until the diode ‘gain conduets at the peak ofthe next cari cycle. The output voltage 0 there: fore follows the envelope of (sifted down by the turn-on voltage ofthe diode, aUormeth cover poker” Fig. 105-1. Broadband peak envelope detector. “The de current source in the network serves two valuable purposes. First it provides a discharge path for the capacitor when the diode is reverse biased, thus Pepmiting 2?) 10 follow negatively sloping envelopes of off) without failure t= Fellow distortion. Secondly, it ensures that the diode turns on at the peak of each input eyel even when the mpat amplitude drops below the nominal turn-on valge bf the diode, Consequently, even with a silicon diode in the detector, the output faitfully responds to variations inte input envelope dosen to very low levels. The Slightly undesicable effect of 1, isthe negative diode turo-on voltage which appears srene output athen of) = 0. This voltage can readily be compensated for in eeuts ‘where its presence is undesirable “To obtain a more quantitative expression for vf in terms of nt) et us consider the case where oft) = ¥, cos and where Cis sufficiently large so that over a carrzt {pele o() remains constant at F. For this case the diode eurrent may be written as pip = Lr iarinig eth arene oss) with an average valve Tp Ialteyersroe, (0052) where x= qV/kT and Lo(x) is the modified Bessel function of onder zero, Since in 10s BROADBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DENICTOR 499 the steady state 7p = J4,, we can rearrange Eq, (10.5-2) to yield (105-3) where in this case Vy = In (u/s), which has a value in th Yo I) which has a valve in the range of 200mV for gemanivm diodes and 650 mv for silicon diodes. A plotol is is shown in Fig. 105-2 for kT{g = 26mV. It should be obser 05-3 Yq = 26 mV. It should be obser ip 105-2 ‘that /(V4)is remarkably linear for values of ¥; in excess of SOmY and thus may be closely approximated by ‘ JU) = 0997¥, ~(S4 mV) > ¥, (05-4) s79¥F fil) Morsay Expand view ston500 aNPLrrupe DewopUtAToRS 10s Consequently, with f(V;) = i, the output voltage is given by VeVi Mo (105-5) {or values of ¥; as low as 50 mV regardless of whether a germanium or silicon diode is being employed. Equation (10.5-S) makes it obvious that for V, > S0mV the ‘exponential diode inthe circuit of Fig. 105-1 may be modeled by an ideal diode in series witha battery of value Yq, a8 was assumed in Section 104, ‘On the other hand, i gV/kT « 26 mV, thea ass) and 0s) “hereon (05-8) ‘and we observe that the peak envelope detector functions as a square-law detector for ¥; in the millivolt range. Unfortunately, ¥p must be removed from V_ by sub ‘action or eapacitive de blocking before the square-law property can be fully uilized ‘Output Ripple _Even ifthe output capacitor is large, a certain amount of ripple exists on o() because of the narrow current pulses which Row each time the diode conducts to recharge theeapacitor. [tis apparent from Eq, (10.5-1) thatthe current pulses have the wave~ form shown in Fig, 45-3 which is indeed narrow for x > 1 or Vs > 26mV. i we mode! these narrow pulses as impulses of strength TYa,, where Tis the period ofthe input carrier, then both the impulse model and the actual pulses supply the same charge to the capacitor when the diode conducts. With the impulse mode!, however, its apparent that each pulse increases the capacitor volta. by lag (05-9) (A slightly smaller value of AV is obtained ifthe acca current pulse sha is used.) "As should be expected, the ripple varies directly with the current /,, nd inversely with the capacitance and carrier frequency, Unlike the ripple in the narrowband peak envelope detector, the ripple AY (Eq, 105-9) is independent of V.. This elect {Sa direc result of providing 14 to discharge C in lieu resistor. Failure-to-Fallow Distortion Now, if) = g() 608 wyt andl we assume that gi} remains greater than $0 mV most fof the time, then we may model the expinantial diode of Fig, 10.5-1 by an idea! 10s [BROADBAND PEAK ENVELOZ® DETHCTOR SOL diode in series with battery of value Yo. 1f,in addition, we assume thatthe oulput ripple is small and thatthe diode eonduets on the peak of ach carrier cycle, then the ‘output voltage», is given by 20 = eto) = hich isthe desired ontpat voltage. ‘To ensure that tis ods conducts on the peak of each carrie eycle it is suficient to require, wth the diode in Fig. 10.5-1 reverse biased, thatthe output voltage decay ‘more rapidly than the envelope g(). Specifically, diode conduction is ensured if uns 19) hag i> -'8 ost for ail, Ifthe inequality of Eg, (10.5-11) is not satisfied failure-to-follow distortion ofthe form shown in Fig. (10.3-14) results, ‘The requirement of a small amount of ripple means that [4.7/C = [y//'C must ‘be small in compasison with the average value of g(); on the other hand, the require= ment of no failure-to-ollow distortion necessitates I,/C > —¢() far all 1. IF ‘0 = ALI + cosea}, then these two conditions require that Ao, ey, a8 was also the case for the narrowband peak envelope detector. Developing /,, with Resistor Bias Ihe cen sours a he sof i 105-1 pracy planes by a large restora sve ith anepatve supply vliage Yo, the eeu sow i Fi 10-3 rents Forth ui wilh) = H corer and with ge mal of Cy ig, 105-3 Broadband peak envelope detector with eit iss502 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS 10s ss = Vee Sine in this ease the average diode current given by Eg, (105-2) mst ‘ual + Vo R, Vis lated tox = g¥/kby the equation want (Vas colin) For Yee» Ko, Ba. (105-13) may be closely approximated by (ef footmote on page 173) eas-13) rate IE ef i!” (105-14) from which we obtain Vag = InIoi2) ~ You (105-15) where Vp = —In (R/Yec In particular, th value of Ya; obtained from Ea. (10.5-13) Uifersby les than {7 from the correspontang value of ¥, obtained from Eq. (10.5-18) fT Yoe>26V (a condition which is almost always true in practice, Consequently, by Shinpaving Eg (105-3) and (105-15) wesee thatthe output voltage snot lected by replacing the current source Ig by the series R-Vec combination Ga the other hand: the ripple voltage and the condition for no failure-to-follow distortion are affected by the bias change, For the circuit of Fig, 10.5-3 the Fipple Voltage AV (assuming narrow current pulses) i given by avaften'| ws aera : ae RE (10.5-17) which must be satisfied for allt. The reader should convince himstf of the validity fof Eqs. (10.5-26) and (105-17). Example 105-1. Determine the maximum value of R forthe circuit shown in Fig 105-4 which ensures no failureto-ollow éistortion, ‘Soluion, If falure-o-follow distortion occurs, it must occur on the negatively sloping portion of gv) between O and 10 pses. During this inter = vil! cs al and it) = $V/nsee However, rom Ba (105-17) if asyt= soa) Wiser s hee REE 95-18) RCO FY los ponies $03, HOA os 20 Figure 105-4 for 0.<1-< 10st, then no falureto-llow distortion occuns. Clty. if B {i018 issabed Yor r= 10 yo iste ovr the ene feral xe therfore with = 10 ace Ea, (105-18) educes to Rs mK PROBLEMS. 101. Forte cist shown in Fig, 102-1, a, 2) = cos 10% ’, in 0%, ¥ where gf) = (1 VJeas 10? and o() has the form shown inthe gure Find oh 102. Modify the circuit of Fig, 4-2 s0 tha it funtion asa synchronous detector. 102 Forte ict shown in Fig. 1.P-2, lated to byte relationship = Arf. F fan expreson for!) and show thatthe crit unebons a6 a synchronous tector if 1B A. Show sto tht with 8 ~ Othe cial fetons az an envelope det 104 The halewave rctier in Fig. 101-6 is rjlaced by a fullave seis. Sheth the frequency spetrn of v, fr this cae and show thal o spect components overlap the lowrleueney ocean so long a8 ly > ¢2. FOr this ese, Cemensirate also tht the ‘vipat ofthe avers: detector i doutied orf eI508 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS. n(oenal tml) 20 et ay pe Keory 4G HOB coset Figure 10-2 Tow pan Her PRUBLENS 50S 105 ‘The basshind signal (afier foquency demodulation) of & composite SSB frequency: demodulaas wiephony signal baste form 100 § [Perna aim] de whore the individual voice chanel ga) is bandtimied between 200 Hy snd 3 Kia and fom 44Hz. Draw the block diagram of system which can be employed To ita each ‘510, Include the bandwidhs ara center requences of ll ers und indicts how the ‘efrence signal fr euch SSB demodulator is obtained. 16 For the ceeuit of Fig 102-5, R= Ry = Sk, C~ 1 pF, Cy = 2000p Hoe = 12¥, {9 = se)e08 10%, where gis howo in Fig 1UP-3, alate s0ysee Figure 10P-3 10.7 A “hack” diode isa Zener diode which hs breakdown voltage wihin a fo milivals of ‘2210. The Up ~ Ip charters fr such 4 diode is given by y= HiT 1, ty BO, fom enin ty <0, where is of the order of 1002 A silicon “buck” dade with r= 2000 and 1s = 10>! Feplacedinhe:rcuitef ig, 102-1in which R = 1800,a-= 1, Ry = 10K0,Cy = ODI and td) = ¥, e050 vaste and plot the upvso¥) tanslercharsceristic for O-< ¥y < 2V. Over approxi ‘mately what range of % does the cut Fiction as 2 inear averageeaveope dteetor? 108 For he circuit shown in Fig. 10-4 of) = (025 V\l + cos 10%) cos 10% Find nf. How many decibels below the output signals the cei rpple? 109 For the etek shown in Fig) 102-9, Ry = Ry = IED, Ry = SOKO, & (Co 20D 200, and of) = (LVM + moos 10") 08 10% 500 42,506 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS 10 neo poe sticonback —}-—2 fioge 1 100 ey wo os 7 wan reo 7 2a = —10¥ Figure 10-4 Find nf) IA now reduced 1 9 and Dy and Da ot aie ods with wo Tehage p= 04 V determine the maximum size of for near demain 040 For the cca of Fig 103-1, R~ 2040, Ry = AOKD, L= 10 pH, Cy = C= CODPF, and {e)~ (10mAj 08 10 Find ofoy othe conduction angle of), and the factional ripple of 0. ont For ha carui of Fig- 103-1, R-~ Re C = Co, 40d = 1 cose, Bit he otal be aoe rouuoe oft) Ye Or foe the values Of Qpsucenty large Wat fy) may be modeled as thown a Fig. 103-3. 12 For enh ofthe eioute shown in Fig 1AP-S, let 1) = 1, = Sm aa ceri oth Tran san Othe rational ripple, tbe ode conston ange, ad the THD For 0. 1013 14) has the form shown in Fig. 1036, determin 2, and foreach of the cicats shown in Fig, 10P-5. 10.14 Repeat Problem 10.13 wih i) = (S=A)L + 6062 «10%, dius What isthe minimums value of whih may shunt Lin she dreitof Fig 1DP-Sa without causing diagonal clipping? 1416 Whats the minimam value of R which may hunt Lin the crit of Fig. 10.P-X0) without ‘husing diagonal clipping ib) = GmANl + }cos2 > 1041? 107 For the creat shows in Fig. 1GP-7, deterine expressions, form eal and assuming thats) = CL m¥(t + 08 1080 10010 1 cos or wo. poor saldioke yy so7 st508 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS nn eat ia 1000 pF S10 nH ncns 10s woe > 10 wy Figwe 107-7 fox com «Probes 101 plc tide ie it aston doce f= 0 ra ik ean can bend asst 1 gH nto nhc be a> tof disor osu? — 1049 Fore sand onan nope dee town in Fig 1-8 show nf were cH tran -9s82 Fo his cist, dtein the maximum ae of which maybe without ise i cst shown in Fig 105-4) = (OVI + cote a R= 10802 Fed re edu ao fan fhe reo dsern co Figure 107-8 CHAPTER 11 GENERATION OF FM SIGNALS In this chapter, ater discussing the theoretical limitations on the transmission of FM signals throvgh ters and nonlinear networks, we study a number of circuits for yeueiaing frequescy-modulated signals. This discussion starts from the direct ‘mechanization of the FM diflerential equation and proceeds to both analog and digital generation ceca Imall cases we explore both the theoretical and the practical limits of the circuits. UL PREQUENCY-MODULATED SIGNALS Uf the instantaneous frequency or phase of < high-frequency sinvsoid is varied in Proportion to a desired low-frequency signal f(0), a constant amplitude-maduluted signal is generated which has its spectrum concentrated about the frequency of the lunmodulated sinusiva, ‘Thus a requency- ar phase-modulated signal ike an AM. signal, cam be efficiently transmited with reasonably small antennas if the carrier frequency is suficently high. In addition such a signal can be frequency uivision multiplexed However, frequency- and phase-nodulated signals, unlike amplitude-modulated signals, have the advantage that no information is carried in their envelope; thus atmospheric and receiver noise which introduces unwanted perturbations on the envelope ofa received signal ean be removed by limiting the signal amplitude before the FM or PM signal is demodulated, As a cousequence, the signal-o-noise rio at the outpat of an FM or PM receiver is higher than that of a comparable AM re ‘ziver which receives a signal with the same average currier power as the ceived FM or PM signal and which has been subjected to the same unwanted disturbances. ‘The price that must be paid for the increased output signal-to-noise ratio in FM or PM receivers is increased transmitted signal bandwidth. For FM signals, the output signal-to-noise ratio increases only when the ratio of the bandwidth of the FM signal to the bandwidth of f(t) i increased. ‘A Typical phasesmodulated signal has the form He) = Acos Ht) = Acos[ayt + AAO), ea where (0) = wot + APF) is the instantaneous phase, A isthe cartier amplitude, Ais the carter frequency, A¢ is the phase deviation, and f() ia signal proportional tothe modulation information with the properties low = 1 and Feo. AHL 2) sop510 GENERATION OF FM SIGNALS nd CCeatly the instantaneous phase varies in direct proportion 10 /() with the constant ‘of proportionality Ad. “Any time-varying instantancous « frequency e{t) which by definition ist phase (has associated with itan instantaneous he derivative of the instantaneous phase; that i, (1-3) 1f instead of varying $4 in proportion to ft, we vary a) in proportion to f(t). tha is, if of) = ao + Sa wn on dy ag + dof san % as and ae hom fa popup Se (1.16) sym Aeos[ gt + 80 sae + a]. is the constant of proportionality relating f() spam arbitary conta pinse which maybe a fs a GL1-6) with & where do, the fequsney deviation, to the instantaneous frequency an : taken as 2eco without loss of generality. A plot of x) given by £4. ‘Shtooth el for fe ahown in Fie. LE 7 toot am on Ea (112) hat we can convert any PM signa into an eat Srcsetan ea fo, "0 AMMA, vill VU Fig 114 Sawiooth-modulated FM signal nt FREQUENCY-MODULATED SIGNALS SIT second frequency isthe frequency deviation Avo, which i a measure of hove fur the instantaneous frequency departs from the carrer frequency as /() varies beiween plus and minus one. The third frequency is the maximum modulation frequency q {the frequency 10 which /() is band-imited}. This maximum modulation ie quency is a measure of how rapidly the instantaneous frequency varies about ey ‘We may express these three frequencies inthe form of two parameters by normal izing oy and a, t9 Aw with the relationships 22 and vw Ae, 7 be Where fis referred fo as the modulation index and D is eefered to asthe devistion ratio can have values inthe thousands, whereas Disalways required tobe less than unity and in many practical systems may be 00S or even smaller) Frequency Spectram ‘To obtain the frequency spectrum of an FM signal we may, in principle, obtain the Fourier transform V(w) of) given by Bq. (11.1-6). Unfortunately such an operation isnot mathematically tractable for an arbitrary J. Therefore, we restrict our initial attention to the special case of obtaining the spectrum of (0) with fi) = cos) Fortunately, as we shall demonstrate, the bandwidth of u() obtained with J) £08 wy provides a conservative bound for the bandwidth of x) which is modulated in requeney by any f() band-limited 10 04. + With f() = 60s eg, Ea, (111-6) may be writen inthe form ) Ac98 (vot + Bin tle = Acos opt cos fi sin gi) ~ Asinactsin(Psinoyt), (111-8) which isthe superposition of two AM waves, ie-first modulated by cos sin ct) and the second modulated by sin (f'sin wt). Thus if we obtain the spectra ofthe two low-frequency, periodic modulating functions, we may shift them up in feyuency by ‘9p to obtain the spectrum of). Now cos (fsin yf} and sin (fsin 4) may both be expanded direcly as Fourier series whose coefficients are ordinary Bessel functions ofthe frst kind with argument Bt 0s sin agt) = JylB) +2 ¥ Jnl) cos 2nwgs, ano 2E Jane s(Osin On + Hort A plot of (8) vs. for several typical values of fland m is given in Fig. 11.1-2. sin (Psin oy (ts 10) {Equations 911-42 and 9.1-43 on p. 261 of Hahdbook of Mathematical Functions M. Atasowitz and LA. Stun, Eds, National Sureau of Standards, Applied Mathematics Series No. 5, Govecnaneat Printing Ofice, Washington, D.C. (968). Revised by Dover, New York 965),