Akcelik ARR124 FuelConsumption

Akcelik & Associates Pty Ltd
PO Box 1075G, Greythorn, Vic 3104 AUSTRALIA

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REPRINT
Progress in Fuel Consumption Modelling

for Urban Traffic Management
R. AKELIK (Ed.)
REFERENCE:
AKELIK, R. (ED.) (1983). Progress in Fuel Consumption Modelling for Urban
Traffic Management. Research Report ARR 124. Australian Road Research Board,
Vermont South, Australia.
NOTE:
This report is related to the intersection analysis methodology used in the SIDRA
INTERSECTION software. Since the publication of this report, many related aspects of the
traffic model have been further developed in later versions of SIDRA INTERSECTION.
Though some aspects of this report may be outdated, this reprint is provided as a record of
important aspects of the SIDRA INTERSECTION software, and in order to promote software
assessment and further research. This report was originally published by the Australian
Road Research Board.
Akcelik and Associates Pty Ltd / www.sidrasolutions.com

PO Box 1075G, Greythorn Victoria 3104, Australia
Email: info@sidrasolutions.com
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ARR No. 124
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Progressin
Fuel ConsumptionModelling
for UrbanTraffic Management
R. Akcelik (Ed.)
with contributionsfrom
A.J. Richardson
R. Akcelik
C. Bayley
H.G.Watson
r x = r i+ o . s o - r , l
i
=124ml/km
t.9oo+
v: = 80
,.' v=c ru *
o.oo743
OR
,'/
rlUl
l-
/
t/
/,/
/
//
tr
/1
,/-'
vc = il
km/h
1!00
+ 0.00743v: + 114PKE
t, = zs *
= 1 1 9m l / k m
o=26s+i
v. = 36 km/h
PKE = 0.30 m/s
?
I
/
ts=76s
'--
>
AUSTRATIA}{
NOA$
NTSNARCH
BOARD
RISTA
RC
r| RIPORT
ROADRESEARCH
AUSTRALTAN
BOARD
\-l
IS
SUMMARY
REPORT
T H EP U R P O S E
O F T H I SR E P O R T
is to present edited versions of the papers presented at the ARRB Seminar on Fuel Consumption Modelling for Urban
Traffic Management held on 9 October 1981, as well as two subsequentpapers. These papers represent an evaluation of
ideas and findings during the period from September 1981 to Jrly 1982.
THIS REPORT SHOULD INTEREST

traffic engineers,automotive engineersand researchersconcerned with fuel consumption modelling and urban traffic
management.
THE MAJOR CONCLUSIONS OF THE REPORT ARE

1. Substantial progresshas been achieved in specifying fuel consumption models for the design and analysis of urban
traffic management schemes.
2. The relation between the models proposed by different traffic engineeringand vehicle design engineeringgroups has
been established.
3. Fuel consumption models of different level of detail are available,which can be used for different purposes.
AS A CONSEOUENCE OF THE WORK REPORTED. THE FOLLOWING ACTION IS RECOMMENDED

Further work is necessaryon severalunresolved questions, in particular on fuel consumption during acceleration, using
good quality on-road data representing a wide range of speedsand acceleration rates and realistic acceleration profiles.
The work should be extended to include road gradient as a parameter. Papers presented at the 2nd SAE-A/ARRB
'Traffic Energy and Emissions',19-21 May 1982 should be considered in this respect.
Conference
RELATED ARRB RESEARCH

P388
P390
P395
P397
Appraisal of Small Area Traffic Management Study Tools

Energy Savings from Traffic Management Actions
Integrating Evaluation into Area Traffic Control
Emissions and Fuel Consumption Models
A K C E L I K ,R . ( E d . ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) : P R O G R E S lSN F U E L C O N S U M P T I OM
N O D E L L I N GF O R
URBAN TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT. AustralianRoad Research
Board. Research
--l:ggl--f x xl 121-?-9:1rr-':"lgg-3j rigg"'-ag 1-11119'

:_----
K E Y W O R D S : E n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n / f u e lc o n s u m p t i o n / m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l / t r a f f i c c o n t r o l /
r llution/conference
u r b a n a r e a l t r a f f i c f l o w / s p e e d / d e l a y / a c c e l e r a t i o n / d e c e l e r a t i o n / api o
CUT OUT INFORMATION

R E T R I E V ACLA R D .
ABSTRACT
: The report collects together edited versions of four papers presented at an
ARRB Seminar on Fuel Consumption Modelling on 9 October 1981, as well as two subs e q u e n t p a p e r s .T h e o b l e c t i v e o f t h e S e m i n a r w a s t o f o c u s o n t h e i s s u eo f f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n m o d e l l i n g a n d d a t a n e e d s f o r u r b a n t r a f f i c m a n a g e m e n tp u r p o s e s .T h e f i r s t p a p e r
( P a r t 1 ) s p e c i f i e st h e g e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t so f a f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n m o d e l w h i c h i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f t h e t r a f f i c s y s t e m a n a l y s i sp r o c e s s .l t t h e n d i s c u s s e sa n
elementalmodel of fuel consumption as the most appropriate'simple model'for traffic
d e s i g n a n d e v a l u a t i o n p u r p o s e s . I n P a r t s 2 a n d 3 . m o r e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n so n t h e
e l e m e n t a l m o d e l a r e p r e s e n t e d ,a n d i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e P o s i t i v e K i n e t i c E n e r g y ( P K E )
m o d e l i s e x p l o r e d . I n P a r t 4 , p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e dw i t h f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t
a r e d e s c r i b e d .T h e e l e m e n t a l a n d t h e P K E m o d e l s a r e t h e n d i s c u s s e di n d e t a i l a n d
criticism of the elementalmodel is provided. In Part 5, the authors of the four previous
p a p e r sp r e s e n t a j o i n t s t a t e m e n t o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e si n t h e a p p r o a c h e s
a d o p t e d b y t h e m f o r d e v e l o p i n gs i m p l e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n m o d e l s . l t i s s h o w n t h a t ,
s u b j e c t t o v a r i o u s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n sa n d a n u n e x p l a i n e d t e r m , t h e e l e m e n t a l a n d P K E m o d e l s
a r e v e r y s i m i l a r . I n t h e l a s t p a p e r ( P a r t 6 ) , r e s u l t so f f u r t h e r s t u d i e s a r e r e p o r t e d w h i c h
answer some of the questions raised in previous parts of the report.
'Non IRRD Kevwords
AustralianRoad ResearchBoard
ResearchReportARR No. 124
PROGRESS
IN
FUELCONSUMPTION
MODELLING
FOR URBANTRAFFICMANAGEMENT
by
(Ed.)
R. AKCELTK
PrincipalResearchScientist
AustralianRoadResearchBoard
P367 - TrafficSignalControlTechniques
5OOBurwoodHighway,VermontSouth
Victoria 3133, Australia
A p r i l1 9 8 3
\:
[S
ResearchReportARR No. 124
The ARRseries of reports was createdby the Board to quickly and economicallyreproducethe conclusionsof
road and road transportresearchsubjectsfor those associatedwith roadsand the road transportindustry.Unlike
other technicalpublicationsproducedby the AustralianRoadResearchBoard,ARRreports are not reviewedby
referees or ARRB Directors.
Althoughthis report is believedto be correct at the time of its publication,the AustralianRoad ResearchBoard
does not accept responsibilitylor any consequencesarisingfromthe use of the informationcontainedin it. People using the informationcontainedin the report shouldapply,anCrely upon,their own skill and judgmentto the
particular issue which they are considering.
Referenceto, or reproductionof this report must include a precise referenceto the report.
I S B NO 8 6 9 1 O 1 2 3 4 R e p o r t
I SB N O 8 6 9 1 O 1 2 4 2 Mi cro fi ch e
fssN o518 -
0728
ResearchReportARRNo. 124
FOREWORD
synergy in researchis an often discussedbut not so often observedevent, lt is
my view that this report representsa real exampleof the fruitsof sucn synergy.
when the need to develop a better understandingof urban fuel consumption
becameparamount,we were fortunatein having in the one city the automotive
e n g i n e e r i n sg k i l l sa n d m a j o rl u e l c o n s u m p t i otne c h n o l o g yc o n t r i b u t i o nosf H a r r y
Watson, the wide analytical skills of Chris Bayley, the transport and traffic
m o d e l l i n gs k i l l so f T o n yR i c h a r d s o an n d l a s t ,b u t n o t l e a s t ,R a h mA
i k c e l i kw i t h h i s
e x t e n s i v ek n o w l e d g eo f t r a f f i cf l o w a n d p a r t i c u l a r l yo f s i g n a l i s e di n t e r s e c t i o n
b e h a v i o u rR
. a h m ia n d H a r r y i n p a r t i c u l a ra l s o b r o u g h tt o t h e g r o u p a d o g g e d
d e t e r m i n a t i otno p r o d u c ea s c i e n t i f i c a l lcyr e d i b l ea n d p r a c t i c a l l yu s e f u e
l n dw o d u c t . I b e l i e v et h i s r e p o r t ,a l t h o u g hn o t y e t t h a t f i n a le n d p r o d u c t ,i s s u f f i c i e n i l y
close to it to both demonstratethe valueof synergy in researchand to providea
powerluland practical tool for the achievementof energy conservationin traffic
management.
The report itsell is built aroundeventsat and the consequencesof a seminar
o n l u e lc o n s u m p t i o n
m o d e l l i n gh e l da t A R R Bi n l a t e 1 9 8 1 w i t h a v i e w t o b r i n g i n g
togetherthe various local researchersin fuel consumptionmodellingand urban
trafficmanagement.
The seminaritselfrevealeda convergenceof views towards
a commongoal and an understandingof outstandingresearchneeds.one key
point to emergewas the realisationthatfuel consumptionmodelsserve a variety
of differentpurposes - vehicle design,traffic engineering,transportplanning
and strategicplanning-and we wouldbe naiveto believe that one modelwould
satisfyall needs.Too often in the past,modellershad attemptedto force one particular model down a whole range of somewhatunwilling throats.Even traffic
engineeringmodels, it was realised,needed to be subdivided into different
levels of system aggregation- intersections,links, routes, networks.Rarely
could data collected in the field for some aggregatepurposebe disaggregated
suflicientlyto producedataof use to others.Bewareof multi-collinearity.
gut tnat
is the bad news . . . the good news is in this report. Read it and use it.
As well as thankingwatson, Bayley,Richardsonand Akcelik for their technical work and Akcelik for his persistenteditorship, I should also thank peter
Lowrie of DMR-N.s.w.for his practicalcontributionsas the reporterat the seminar.
M . G .L A Y
ResearchReport ARR No. 124
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
NOTATION
ANDDEFINITIONS
ABSTRACT
PART1
FUELCONSUMPTION
MODELSANDDATANEEDSFOR
THEDESIGN
ANDEVALUATION
OFURBANTRAFFIC
SYSTEMS
by A.J.RICHARDSON
andR.AKCELIK
1.
Introduction
2.
TrafficSystemAnalysisProcess
3.
GeneralModelSpecification
3.3
3.4
Rangeof options
Data collection methods
Inputdata detail
Requiredmodel output
3.5
Statisticalconsiderations
3.1
3.2
4.
TheElementalModel
4.1
4.2
Cruise
ldle
4.3
Stop/startmanoeuvres
5.
Formatof FuelConsumption
Data
6.
Conclusion
2
2
3
4
4
4
4
5
6
7
References
10
- Furtherreading
Appendix
11
PART2
PREDICTION
OFCHANGES
INFUELCONSUMPTION:
TWOEMMPLES
by R.AKCELIK
1.
Introduction
2.
Effectsof Changesin SignalTimings

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Basicdata
Trafficperlormancecalculations
Fuelconsumotioncalculations
Discussionof results
l?
13
13
.|Q
13
14
3.
lncremental
FuelConsumption
dueto Extraldling
Time
't6
4.
Conclusion
17
References
17
PART3
ONTHEELEMENTAL
MODELOFFUELCONSUMPTION
by R.AKCELIK
1.
Introduction
19
2.
Different
Formsof theElementalModel
19
3.
Relationto thePKEModel
21
4.
Effectof Acceleration
andDeceleration
Rates
23
5.
AnAnalysisof Bayley'sExcessFuelConsumption
Formula
26
6.
OnComposite
VehicleModels
27
7.
SimpleMeasurements
to Produce
ElementalModel
Data
27
8.
Otherlssues
27
9.
Conclusion
28
References
28
PART4
CALIBRATIONANDAPPLICATION
OFTWOFUEL
MODELS
CONSUMPTION
by H.C.WATSON
Introduction
2.
ModelsConsidered
2j
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.
4.
Measurement
of FuelConsumption
3.1
3.2
Installationproblems
Vehiclevariability
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Exhaustanalysis
Routinecalibration
Calibratingthe elementalmodel
SurveillanceDrivingSchedule
Application
Model
of theResults
to theElemental
4.1
4.2
5.
6.
Obiect
Elementalmodel
Travel speed models
Comparisonbetweenmodels
Cruise
Acceleration/deceleratiorr
Extension
of thePKEMethodTowardsthe
Microscale
Comparison
BetweenMethods
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Coefficientsfor the elementalmodel

Inclusionolacceleration/deceleration
Comoarisons
Applicationto roaddriving
29
29
29
30
30
31
31
31
31
31
32
5Z
33
33
33
35
38
38
40
40
40
7.
FurtherResearch
41
8.
Conclusions
41
9.
Investigation
Further
41
References
42
Appendices
A.
B.
Definitionol cruise,accelerationanddeceleration
Fuelusageduringconstantaccelerationand deceleration
43
44
PART 5
RELATION
BETWEEN
TWOFUELCONSUMPTION
MODELS
by R.AKGELIK,
A.J.RICHARDSON
andH.C.WATSON
1.
lntroduction
45
2.
Relation
BetweenModels
45
3.
Gonclusions
Appendix
PART6
SOMERESULTS
ONFUELCONSUMPTION
MODELS
by R.AKCELIK
andC.BAYLEY
1.
lntroduction
tr1
2.
lnstantaneous
FuelConsumption
51
3.
Constant-SpeedCruiseFuelConsumption
51
4.
AccelerationFuelGonsumption
53
5.
ExcessFuelConsumption
PerStopfor the
ElementalModel
53
6.
Application
to thePKEModel
54
7.
Conclusion
55
References
56
ABSTRACT
Thereportcol/ectstogethereditedyerslonsof lour paperspresented
at an ARRB
Seminaron FuelConsumption
Modellingon g October1981, as well as two subsequentpapers.Theobjectiveof the Seminarwas to locus on the lssueof tuel
consumptionmodellingand data needsfor urban traflic managemenfpurposes.
Thefirstpaper (Part1) specifiesthegeneralrequirements
of a luel consumption
modelwhichis compatiblewithotherelementsof the tratticsysternanalysisprocess./t thendiscussesan elementalmodelof fuel consumption
as thernostappropriate'simplemodel' lor traffic designand evaluationpurposes.ln Parts2 and
3, moredetaileddiscussionson theelementalmodelarepresented,and its relation to the PasitiveKinetic Energy(PKE)model is explored.ln Part 4, problems
associatedwith tuel consumptionmeasurementare described.Theelemental
and the PKEmodelsare thendiscussedin detail and criticismol the elemental
modelis provided.ln Part5, theauthorsof the fourpreviouspaperspresenta joint
statementof theresolutionof diflerencesin the approaches
adoptedby themfor
developingsimpleluel consumption
models./t ls shownthat,subiectto various
simplifications
and an unexplained
term,the elementalandPKEmodelsare very
similar. ln the last paper (Part 6/, resu/ls of furthersludies are reported which
answer someof the questionsralsed in previousparts of the report.
NOTATIONAND DEFINITIONS
Units
lnstantaneous
accelerationrate (: dv /dt)
km/h/s
(or m/s2)
Meanaccelerationrate
km/h/s
cl
Delayper vehicle (average)-the difference

betweeninterruptedanduninterrupted
travel times
( : t" - t, ), which consistsof stoppeddelay and
deceleration-acceleration
delaysdue to stops
(d: d" + hdh)
s ( o rh )
ds
S t o p p e d( i d l i n g )d e l a yp e r v e h i c l ea l o n gt o t a l
s e c t i o nd i s t a n c e
s ( o rh )
a ,a .
D e l a y sp e r u n i td i s t a n c e( : d / x * d " / x " ,
respectively)
s/km
(or h/km)
dh
Averagedeceleration-acceleration
delay per stop
(forh stops alongtotal sectiondistance,total
d e c e l e r a t i o n - a c c e l e r a t idoenl a yp e r v e h i c l ei s h d n)
(total)
F u e lc o n s u m p t i o n
mL (or L)
Instantaneous
fuel consumotionrate
mL/s
tc
Constant-speedfuel consumptionper unit distance
mL/km
'f l
A v e r a g ef u e lc o n s u m p t i opne r u n i tt i m e ( : F / t " )
mL/S
f,
A v e r a g ef u e lc o n s u m p t i opne r u n i td i s t a n c e
(: F/t")
mL/km
fl
F u e lc o n s u m p t i o pn e r u n i td i s t a n c ew h i l ec r u i s i n g
mL/km
F u e lc o n s u m p t i o pn e r u n i tt i m ew h i l ei d l i n g
mL/s
(or ml/h)
f)
Excessfuel consumptionper stop (seethe

d e f i n i t i o no f ' s t o p 'b e l o w )
A v e r a g en u m b e ro f ' s t o p s ' p e rv e h i c l e- a ' s t o p ' i s
definedas a completestop-startmanoeuvrewhich
i n v o l v e sa d e c e l e r a t i o fnr o ma n i n i t i a l( c r u i s e )
speed to zero speedand an accelerationback to a
linal (cruise)speed.A speed-changemanoeuvre
which involvesa non-zerointermediatespeed (i.e.
slow-down)can be convertedto an equivalent
n u m b e ro l ' e f f e c t i v es t o o s '
mL
n
PKE
A v e r a g en u m b e ro f s t o p sp e r u n i td i s t a n c e( : h / x r l
'Positive
K i n e t i cE n e r g y ' - s u m o f p o s i t i v ek i n e t i c
e n e r g yc h a n g e sd u r i n ga t r i pd i v i d e db y t o t a l
section distance(: ),Av ,/'l 2960 x, where A y 2 :
v 2r - v 2 lw h e r ev t, v i : f i n a la n d i n i t i a ls p e e d s
( k m / h )i n a p o s i t i v ea c c e l e r a t i o n ) .
stops/km
Time
s (orh)
tc
C r u i s et i m e- p a r to f s e c t i o nt r a v e lt i m es p e n tw h i l e
travellinguninterruptedby trafficcontrol devices
s (orh)
U n i n t e r r u p t etdr a v e lt i m e- t i m e t o t r a v e la l o n gt h e
t o t a l s e c t i o nd i s t a n c ew i t h o u ti n c u r r i n ga n y d e l a y
b y t r a f f i cc o n t r o ld e v i c e s( t , > t " l
s (orh)
R u n n i n gt i m e- t i m e t o t r a v e la l o n gt h e t o t a l s e c t i o n
d i s t a n c e i,n c l u d i n gd e c e l e r a t i o n - a c c e l e r a t i o n
d e l a y sd u e t o t r a f f i cc o n t r o ld e v i c e s ,b u t e x c l u d i n g
s t o p p e dd e l a yt i m e ,i . e .t i m ew h i l ev e h i c l ei s i n
motion (: t, * hd6: t" - d. )
s (orh)
(> t")
stops
m/s2
ts
Interruptedtraveltime-time to travel along the

total section distance,includingall delays due to
interruptionsby trafficcontroldevices (: tu* d :
tu+ds+hdh)
s (or h)
t,t,t
T r a v e l t i m e s p e r u n i t d i s t a n(ct ,e/ x " , t t / x s , t s / x s ,

respectively)
s/km
(or h/km)
ta
Accelerationtime
td
Decelerationtime
lh
Deceleration-acceleration
time per stop (: td + ta)
Instantaneous
speed (: dx /dtl
km/h
(or m/s)
vc
Cruisespeed -average speedwhile cruising

uninterruptedby trafficcontroldevices,not
n e c e s s a r i l yc o n s t a n (t : x " / t " )
km/h
vr
Runningspeed (: x" /t, )
km/h
vs
Interruptedtravelspeed (or'section'speed)averagespeed alongthe total section distance,

i n c l u d i n gt h e e f f e c t so f a l l d e l a y s( : x . / t . )
( u s e da s 7 i n p r e v i o u sp u b l i c a t i o n s )
km/h
Distance
km (or m)
xc
Partof the total sectiondistancetravelledat a

speed (v" ) uninterrupted
by trafficcontrol devices
km
xa
Accelerationdistance
km (or m)
xd
Decelerationdistance
km (orm)
dh
Deceleration-acceleration
distanceper stop
l: xot x")
km (or m)
xs
Total section distance
km
Part 1
FUELCONSUMPTION
MODELSAND
DATA NEEDSFORTHE DESIGNAND
EVALUATION
OF URBANTRAFFICSYSTEMS
by
A.J.RICHARDSON
SeniorLecturerin Transport
Department
of Civil Engineering
MonashUniversity
and
R. AKCELIK
(Firstwrittenin September
1981)
A R RN o . 1 2 4
1. INTRODUCTION
In cases where there are many factors which have a
notablebearingon a problem,we findthatlor research
to be tolerableat all we haveto restrictour investigation to the observalionof relativelyfew of the facrors.
We shut our eyes to the rest, either deliberately
becausewe just cannotcope with everything,or unconsciouslybecausewe just cannotnameall the fac_
tors anyway.But the fact that we shutour eyes to fac_
tors does not meanthat they ceaseto existand to ex_
ert an influence.Whenwe can namea factorwhrchwe
are going deliberatelyto ignore, we can often oo
somethingto minimisethe disturbingefJectol its exis_
tence on our results by experimentaldesign before
the experimentis put underway. We can arrangefor
the factorto be held constantduringthe courseof the
experiment,or failing this, we take steps to ensure
thatsucha factorshallnot introducebias intoour data
whichwould leadto misleadingconclusions.
Whenwe
are ignoranlof the natureof disturbingfactorswe just
haveto let themdo their worst and hopethat they will
not introducesuch confusionintoour datathat we can
neverfind anythingsignificantin them.
(Moroney1951)
The above quotation illustrates one of the problems
encountered when attempting to estimate fuel con-
sumptionin urbantrafficsystems.nhilst thereare undoubtedly very many factors which may affect fuel
consumption,the choice of which factorsto consider
w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e dl a r g e l y b y t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s
underwhich such estimationsare to be made.For example,the requirementsof vehicle designers,traffic
e n g i n e e r sa n d u r b a n p l a n n e r sa r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y
differentwith respect to the inputdata and output required from such fuel consumptionmodels.
This paper is written in an attemptto summarise
the requirementsand data needs of traffic engineers
when attemptingto incorporatefuel consumptionas
an explicit design and/or evaluationparameterin urban traific management/control
studies.The rangeof
such trafficengineeringwork is considerableand inc l u d e ss c h e m e ss u c h a s :
(a) isolatedtraffic signals;
(b) tratfic signal co-ordination/areatraffic control:
( c ) G i v e - W a y / S t o ps i g n s ;
(d) roundabouts;
( e ) p u b l i ct r a n s p o r tp r i o r i t yl a n e sa n d s i g n a l s ;
(f) clearways;
( g ) t u r np r o h i b i t i o n s .
It is importantto note that fuel consumptionis
only one of severalperformancemeasureswhich can
be used to assessthe effect of each,or any combination of these traffic managementschemes. Other
measureswhich might be used includevarioustraffic
performancemeasures (traveltime or speed, delay,
numberof stops,queue length,etc.),safety,air pollut i o n , n o i s e , a n d t h e e l e m e n t so f v e h i c l e o p e r a t i n g
cost other thanfuel consumption(e.9.tyre wear).The
effects on different road user groups such as
pedestrians,buses, commercialvehicles as well as
cars, and effects on differentelementsof the road
systemsuch as major roads and side roads need also
to be considered. Detailed discussions on this
aspect of the problem can be found in earlier papers
b y t h e a u t h o r s ( A k c e l i k 1 9 8 1 a ; R i c h a r d s o na n d
Graham1980). Whilst recognisingthe importanceof
these other measures,the present paper concentr_
ates on the predictionof changesin fuel consumption
which would result from implementingvarious traffic
managementschemes.
2. TRAFFICSYSTEMANALYSIS
PROCESS
Before proceeding to discuss fuel consumption
m o d e l l i n gi n d e t a i l , t h e r o l e o f l u e l c o n s u m o t i o n
modelsin trafficsystemanalysisshouldbe specified.
As shown in Fig. 1 , the traffic system analysisproc e s s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e dt o u t i l i s et h r e ed i s t i n c t y p e s
of model:traffic system model,trafficdemandmodel
and traffic impact model. The process starts with an
initialdescriptionof the traffic systemin terms of the
followingcomponents.
(a) Physical characteristics: intersection layouts,
lane configurations,site factors relatedto interferences from commercial activities, property
access, bus stops and pedestrians,distances
between intersections,mid-block road characteristics,etc.
(b) Controlcharacteristics:the type of control (signals,roundabout,Give-Way/Stopsigns),and the
details ol control, e.g. signal phasing and sett i n g s ,a n y t u r n p r o h i b i t i o n se, t c .
(c) Traflic flow characteristics:total flow rates and
turningvolumes (ideallyspecifiedseparatelyfor
successive time intervals)and the composition
of traffic,i.e. relative proportionsof cars, public
transportvehicles and commercialvehicles.
Thesedata are then used by the trafficsystemmodel
to obtain predictions of the traflic system performance characteristics in terms of, for example,
averagetravel time (or delay) per vehicle,numberof
vehicle stops, queue length, etc. (e.g. see Akcelik
(1981b) for the formulaeused for isolatedtraffic signals).
Depending on the complexity required of the
traffic analysisprocess, and consideringthe nature
of the performance characteristics,some studies
then examine the etfect of the traffic system performance characteristics on the traffic demand at the
site, or in the area, in question.lf scope exists for
changes in travel demand due to generation,suppressionor diversionof trips to or fromother routes,
modes or destinations then the extent of such
changesshouldbe assessedat this time by meansof
a traffic demandmodel. Such a model predicts the
response of the traveller populationto the performance characteristicsol the traffic system to produce new estimates ol traffic llows for the system in
question.This new estimate of traffic flows should
then be input into the traffic system model to produce
a new set of traffic system performance characteristics.The process is then repeateduntil a stable
set of traffic flow estimatesis obtained.Because of
the relativelyminor effects of many traffic management schemes, the traffic demand model is often
omitted from the traflic system analysisprocess on
the grounds that no demandchangesare to be expected. This conclusion, however, should not be
A R RN o . 1 2 4
OPTIMISATION
Physical and Control

C h a r a c t c r i s t i c so f t l r e
Traffic System
Travel er
P o p uI a t i o n
C h ar a c t er i s t i c s
I
T R A FF I C
SYSTEful
MODEL
TRAFFIC
DEMAND
MODEL
T raffic
Flow
Traffic System
P er f o r m a n c e
Characteristics
Characteristics
T R A FF I C
IMPACT
M O D EL S
I D"-1---->l
OVERALL
EVALUATION
@l->r
Fig. 1 - Traffic system analysis process
d r a w n i n a l l c i r c u m s t a n c e se, s p e c i a l l yw h e n l o n g term demandchangesare consideredor when shortterm route changesare likely,e.g. attractiondue to a
free right turn phase at traffic signals. Some
f a m i l i a r i tw
y i t ht h e c o n c e p t so f t r a v e ld e m a n dm o d e l l ing is therefore recommended (e.9. Stopher and
M e y b u r g1 9 7 6 ) .
Once stable estimatesof traf{icflow and per{orm a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c sh a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d ( e i t h e r
w i t h o r w i t h o u td e m a n dm o d e l i t e r a t i o n so r d i r e c t l y
l r o ms i m p l el i e l d s u r v e ym e t h o d s )t,h e s em a yb e i n p u t
into varioustraffic impactmodelsto assessthe overall impactsof the traflic system.lt is at this stage in
the traffic analysis process that a fuel consumption
model is needed. Other traflic impact models might
include air pollution and noise models, vehicle
operatingcost models,travel time evaluationmodels
and possibly traffic safety models such as models of
'traffic impact' corresaccident exposure.The term
'secondary
ponds to the term
measure of perform a n c e ' u s e di n A k c e l i k( 1 9 8 1 b ) .
The next step is to examinethe trafficsystem impacts as well as traffic performancecharacteristics
to determinewhetherthey are satisfactoryor not (the
evaluationphase).lf it is expected that they can be
improvedupon,then modilicationscan be affectedto
the physical characteristics(e.9.additionallanes at
the intersections)or control characteristics(e.9.signal co-ordination to replace isolated operation of
signals) of the system. The relevant data (system
description) can be changed and the analysis process repeated until an optimum set ol impacts, or
s i m p l yt h e b e s t p o s s i b l es o l u t i o ng i v e na l l p r a c t i c a l
constraints,is achieved.Normally,separateanalyses
are carried out for different times of the day, e.g.
rnorningpeak, evening peak and off-peak periods,
a n d a n o v e r a l le v a l u a t i o ni s m a d ei n t e r m so f t h e p e r formanceand impact measuresobtainedfor different
times of the day.
One feature which emerges lrom this traffic
system analysisprocess is that traffic system
n-rcdels,
trafficdemandmodelsand manyof the traffic
. hat is
i m p a c tm o d e l sa r e a l r e a d yw e l l d e v e l o p e dW
n e e d e di n t e r m s o f a f u e l c o n s u m p t i o m
n o d e !i s o i t e
w h i c h c a n b e r e a d i l y i n c o r p o r a t e di n t o t h i s o v e r a i l
process.
3 . G E N E R AM
L ODEL
SPECIFICATION
Given that it is desirable that a fuel consumption
modelbe compatiblewith otherelementsof the traffic
systernanalysisprocess,the generalrequirementsof
such a model can be specified by referenceto five
major factors: the range of optionsto be evaluated,
the method of collecting (or generating)input data,
the type of input data available,the output reguired
from the model and the statisticalconsiderationsof
m o d e lb u i l d i n g .
3.1 RANGE
O FO P T I O N S
It is perhaps obvious that as well as the range of
traffic managementschemes listed earlier, there is
also a wide rangeof design/controloptionsavailable
A R RN o . 1 2 4
f o r e a c h ,o r a n y c o m b i n a t i o no, f t h e s es c h e m e s F
. or
e x a m p l et,h e f o l l o w i n ga r e a m o n gt h e d e s i g n / c o n t r o l
v a r i a b l e sw h i c h c a n b e m a n i p u l a t e df o r i m p r o v e d
o p e r a t i o no f t r a f f i ca t s i g n a l - c o n t r o l l ei dn t e r s e c t i o n s :
(a) alternative
p h a s i n ga r r a n g e m e n t isn, c l u d i n gc o n s i d e r a t i o n so f o p p o s e d ( f i l t e r ) t u r n s a g a i n s t
u n o p p o s e d( f r e e )t u r n s ,p e d e s t r i a n - o n layg a i n s t
c o n c u r r e n vt e h i c l e - p e d e s t r i apnh a s e s ,e t c . ) ;
( b ) a l t e r n a t i v ec r i t e r i af o r s i g n a ls e t t i n g s ;
( c ) a l t e r n a t i v ev e h i c l e - a c t u a t e d
controlalgorithms
f o r i s o l a t e ds i g n a l s ;
(d) v a r i o u s f i x e d - t i m ep l a n s e l e c t i o na n d d y n a m i c
c o n t r o ls t r a t e g i e sf o r c o - o r d i n a t e ds i g n a l s ;
(e) t h e w i d t h a n d n u m b e ro f l a n e s ;
(0 a l t e r n a t i v ea r r a n g e m e n ttso a l l o c a t et h e a v a i l a b l e l a n e st o v a r i o u sm o v e m e n t se,. g .e x c l u s i v eo r
s h a r e dl a n e s .
( g ) l e n g t ho f t u r n s l o t s ;
(h) parking restrictionson approachroads;
( i ) b u s - s t o pl o c a t i o n s ;a n d
(j) 'leftturnat any time with care'and 'leftrurnon
red' arrangements
A g a i n ,s o m e o f t h e s e d e s i g nv a r i a b l e sm a y p r o vide a very large number of alternatives.Zuzarte
T u l l y a n d M u r c h l a n d( 1 9 7 7 1g i v e a n e x a m p l eo f a
c o m p l e xs i g n a l i s e di n t e r s e c t i o n
f o r w h i c ht h e n u m o e r
'maximalphase
of
sequences'they derivedincreased
from seven to 282 (with very differenttraffic performance figures) when a pedestrian movement was
given a staged crossing (pedestriansstopped at the
m e d i a n )i n s t e a do f a s t r a i g h tk e r b - t o - k e r bc r o s s i n g .
To evaluate such a range ol alternativedesigns in
t e r m s o f f u e l e f f i c i e n c y ,a m o d e l l i n gp a c k a g e i s
n e e d e dw h i c ha l l o w sf o r a l l t h e d e s i g nv a r i a b l e sm e n tioned above (and many more).
A furtherconsiderationis relatedto an important
t r a f f i cv a r i a b l en, a m e l yc a p a c i t y .T h e p e r f o r m a n c e
of
a tralfic movementis essentiallydeterminedby the
c a p a c i t yp r o v i d e df o r i t . l f t h e a r r i v a l( d e m a n d f)l o w
e x c e e d st h e c a p a c i t y p r o v i d e d ,o v e r - s a t u r a t i ow
nill
o c c u r , r e s u l t i n g i n u n a c c e p t a b l el e v e l s o f p e r f o r mance.At each intersection,there are many movements which compete for capacity,and a major objective in traffic system design/controlis to provide
sufficientcapacity for all movementsto preventoversaturation.An important point to note is that the
c a p a c i t yi t s e l fd e p e n d so n f l o w l e v e l si n m a n yc a s e s ,
for examole:
( a ) r o u n d a b o uet n t r y c a p a c i t i e sd e p e n do n c i r c u l a t ing flow levels;
( b ) f i l t e rt u r n c a p a c i t i e sa t t r a t f i cs i g n a l sd e p e n do n
o p p o s i n gf l o w l e v e l s ;a n d
( c ) c a p a c i t i e sa t G i v e - W a y / S t o ps i g n s d e p e n d o n
major road flows.
As a result,traffic performance,and the fuerconsumptionby vehicles, in a traffic streambecomes a
function of the flow characteristicsof other traffic
s t r e a m s( t h i s ,a g a i n ,l e a d st o a n i t e r a t i v ed e s i g np r o c e s s ) . T h e p o i n t t o b e e m p h a s i s e dh e r e i s t h a t t h e
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nm o d e l l i n gp a c k a g et o b e u s e d b y
trafficengineersmust allow for such capacity,and in
t u r n ,f l o w i n f l u e n c e s .
G i v e nt h e c o m p l e xs y s t e mo p t i o n st o b e e v a l u ated, fuel consumptionmodels shouldnot attemotto
3
duplicate those aspects of the system which are
already well accounted for in traffic system perform a n c em o d e l s .R a t h e r ,t h e y s h o u l db e d e s i g n e dt o
use the output from traffic systemmodelsas input to
t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nm o d e l . C o n v e r s e l y ,t r a f f i c
s y s t e mm o d e l ss h o u i d r e c o g n i s et h e i n p u t r e q u i r e m e n t so f f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n
m o d e l sa n d b e m o d i f i e d i,f
necessaryand to the extentwhich is feasible,to provide appropriateoutput. Thus, as shown in Fig. 1 ,
traffic system models and fuel consumptionmodels
s h o u l db e s e p a r a t eb, u t c o m p l e m e n t a r e
y ,n t i t i e s .
3 . 2 D A T AC O L L E C T I OM
NE T H O D S
T h e f o r mo f f u e lc o n s u m p t i o m
n o d e l si s i n f l u e n c e db y
the method in which data are collected on traffic
s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e .T w o d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t
methods of traffic observation (both in models and
r e a l - l i f e )e x i s t a n d t h e s e h a v e l e d r e s e a r c h e r sr o
d e v e l o pd i f f e r e n t y p e s o t f u e l c o n s u m p t i o m
n odel.
The first method is based on the observationol
t r a f f i cf l o w sa s t h e y p a s s c e r t a i nc r i t i c a lp o i n t si n t h e
s y s t e me
, . g .s t o p - l i n e sa t i n t e r s e c t i o n sT.r a f f i cs i g n a i
c a p a c i t y c a l c u l a t i o n s( e . 9 . A k c e l i k j 9 8 1 b ) a n d a
s i g n a l i s e d i n t e r s e c t i o ns u r v e y m e t h o d t o o b t a i n
traffic performancestatistics (Richardson1gZ9 and
1 9 8 0 a) a r e r e l a t e dt o t h i s a p p r o a c hS
. i m i l a r l ya, r e a
trafficcontrol systemscollect trafficdatafromdetector loops buried in the road pavement.From such information,a picture of the overallsystemstate can be
drawn and the relevant performancemeasures
calculated.These methods of observationare mosr
c o m m o ni n t r a f f i ce n g i n e e r i n gp r a c t i c e .
The second method is based on observing the
p e r f o r m a n c eo f i n d i v i d u a lv e h i c l e s a s t h e y t r a v e l
throughthe system. in real life, this correspondsto
the 'movingobserver'methodoften used to measure
t r a v e lt i m ea l o n ga r o u t e .I n m o d e l l i n gt,h i s r e q u i r e sa
d e t a i l e dv e h i c l e - b y - v e h i c l sei m u l a t i o nm o d e l w h i c h
c a n p r o d u c ea n o u t p u to f i n d i v i d u avl e h i c l et i m e - d i s t a n c et r a j e c t o r i e s( e . 9 .L i e b e r m a ne t a l .i 9 7 9 ; G i p p s
a n d W i l s o n 1 9 8 0 ) . T h i s m e t h o dh a s n a t u r a l l yb e e n
a d o p t e db y r e s e a r c h e r si n t h e f i e l do f v e h i c l ed e s i g n ,
since they are concernedwith the performanceof ind i v i d u a lv e h i c l e s .T h e ' d r i v i n gc y c l e ' m e t h o d sn a v e
b e e n u s e d t o m e a s u r e i n d i v i d u a lv e h i c l e o e r f o r mances under standardisedconditions, but it has
b e e n r e c o g n i s e dt h a t t h i s m e t h o di s n o t o f p a r t i c u l a r
use for traffic managementpurposes (Watson1978;
K e n t 1 9 8 1) . I n c o n t r a s tw i t h t h e ' b i r d ' se y e v i e w ' o f
the overall system preferredby trafficengineers,the
m o v i n go b s e r v e rm e t h o dg i v e s a ' w o r m ' se y e v i e w '
from a single car in a traffic stream. This method
suffers{rom the {act that it is difficult,or impossible,
to relate the observed data to the causes of delays,
stops,etc. as affectedby trafficcontrol,physicaland
flow characteristicsof the system. For example, a
vehicle may stop several times in a long queue
before it can clear an intersection,and it may be imp o s s i b l et o k n o w i f t h i s i s c a u s e d b y i n a d e q u a t e
capacity at the next intersection,or say the third
i n t e r s e c t i o nd o w n s t r e a mo, r s o m e m i d - b l o c k i n t e r f e r e n c ee
, . g . b y a t u r n i n gv e h i c l e .
Giventhese differentmethodsof ciatacollection,
i t i s e s s e n t i a tl h a t m o d e l s a r e d e v e l o o e dw h i c n a r e
compatible with the type of data which have been
c o l l e c t e d ,o r a r e a v a i l a b l e .
A R RN o . 1 2 4
4
3 , 3 I N P U TD A T AD E T A I L
It is imoortant to realise that whilst the traffic
engineerwould normallypossessinformationregarding traffic performanceat a site, he would not have
comoleteinformationabout that trafficstream.In part i c u l a r ,h e w o u l d n o t h a v e d e t a i l sa b o u t :
( a ) v e h i c l ef l e e t c h a r a c t e r i s t i cssu c ha s e n g i n es i z e ,
v e h i c l ew e i g h t ,t r a n s m i s s i o tny p e ,e t c . ;
(b) vehicle performance characteristics such as
engine speed or torque, current gear, engine
t u n e - u p c o n d i t i o n , t y r e i n f l a t i o n ,e n g i n e t e m perature,etc.; ancl
( c ) d r i v e r p o p u l a t i o nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u c h a s a g e ,
sex, degree of aggressiveness(as reflected in
soeed and rates of acceleration/deceleration)'
Whilst these factors may have a direct influenceon
fuel consumption,and may be the subjectof research
studies, practical design studies must account for
them by meansof aggregation.
Thus vehicle performanceand driver population
characteristics must be accounted for by typical
v a l u e sw h i c h a r e a p p r o p r i a t ei n t h e g i v e n c i r c u m s tances.With respect to vehicle fleet characteristics'
some aggregation of data is necessary, whereby
of
vehicles may be classilied into a limited number
'lightand
being
c l a s s e s ,t h e s i m p l e s tc l a s s i f i c a t i o n
h e a v yv e h i c l e s '( e . 9 .s e e A k c e l i k 1 9 8 1b , p . 1 5 ) .
MODELOUTPUT
3.4 REOUIRED
In determiningthe output requiredof a fuel consumption rnodel,one should consider the two maJorapplicaticns of such a model in traffic management:
designand evaluation.In a designcontext,the objective is to find a set of trafficsystemparameterswhich
result in an optimal set of traflic system impacts.In
p r o b l e m t, h e a c t u a lv a l u eo f t h e
s u c ha n o p t i m i s a t i o n
o b j e c t i v ef u n c t i o n( e . 9 .f u e l c o n s u m p t i o ni)s n o t a s
importantas the changesin the valueof the obiective
t u n c t i a r rf o r c h a n g i n g v a l u e s o f t r a f f i c s y s t e m
parameters.In an evaluationcontext,the problem is
again one of comparingalternativesets of impacts
(usually before and after implementinga traffic
rnanagementscheme).lt thereioreappears that, for
s o m e t r a f l i c m a n a g e m e n tp u r p o s e s , r e l a t i v e
measures of luel consumption may be adequate.
G i v e nt h i s , i t i s r e a l i s e dt h a t o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n sm a y
well reouireaccurateabsolutemeasuresand that the
cieveiooment
of a fuel consumptionmodelwhich preclictsabsolute fuel consumptionwill, rnteralia , produce relativemeasuresof fuel consumptionif adequate data are available.However,particularapplications of fuel consumptionmodels to traflic system
design and evaluation may omit elements ol the
system which are not expected to experience
changes.For this reason,and becausedata are nornnallyonly collected on those aspects ot system
operation which are expected to experience
changes,it is desirable to use some form of model
which treats different componentsof traffic system
o p e r a t i o ns e p a r a t e l y .
3.5 STATISTICALCONSIDERATIONS
A note is appropriateat this stage about the use of
lormulaebased on regressionanalysesof observed
data for predicting fuel consumptionfrom measures
of average speed and, perhaps,physical descriptions of the system such as numberol intersections
oer kilometreof road (e.9.Evansand Herman1976;

Watson, Wilkins and Marshall 1980). The authors
believethat such lormulaedo not satisfyvarious reouirementsto enable them to be useful for traffic
engineersin designing and evaluatingurban traffic
managementschemes (however,this is not to say
that they are not use{ul in anothercontext, e'g' for
general transport planning purposes where more
macroscopicmodels are needed,or in cases where
predictiononly is sufficient,i.e.no need for optimisation).
The reasons for this reservationabout regression models are three-fold.Firstly,those equations
which attemptto use physical descriptionsas independent variables cannot hope to account for the
enormous range of options described earlier and
hence such models will always be mis-specifiedfor
traffic engineeringapplications.The variables in a
regressionequationare subject to upper and lower
limits representing the range of observations on
which the equation is based. In practice, the existence of limitationson the range of applicability of
variablesis often neglected resultingin mis-use of
regression equations. For the examples of traflic
work which give due emphasis on this point, the
reader is referredto Beard and McLean (1974) and
FreemanFox and Associates (1972\ on speed-flow
relationshios and Kimber (1980) on roundabout
caoacities.
Secondly, those equations which use average
speed as the only independentvariable describing
trafficperlormancedo now allow lor the ditferentfuel
consumptionrates whilst cruising,stopping and idl i n g .A s s h o w nb y A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 1a ) , t r i p s w i t h i d e n t i cal averagespeeds can have very diflerentfuel consumptionperlormance,dependingon the pattern of
stops. Since many tratfic managementoptions may
changethe correlationbetween averagespeed and
stops it is necessaryto have both variables in the
eouation.
Thirdly, il both average speed (or delay) and
stops are included as predictor variables in the
regressionequation,then the coefficientsobtained
from field data are likely to be unreliabledue to
multicollinearityof the predictor variables.That is'
there is correlationbetween these two supposedly
predictor variables, because average speed and
numberof stops will always be relatedto each other
in uncontrolledfield data.Undersuch conditions,it is
difficult,if not impossible,to identifythe individuat
contributionof each variableto overalltuel consumption.
It is therelore argued that a model o{ fuel consumptionfor tratfic managementdesign and evaluation should be constructed using data derived from
carefully designed and controlled experiments to
relatevariousfuel consumptionratesto their causes
d i r e c t l ya n d e x p l i c i t l y .
MODEL
4. THEELEMENTAL
Given the above requirementsand limitations,the
authorsconsiderthat an elementalmodelof fuel con'simplemodel' for
sumptionis the most appropriate
trafficmanagementstudies.Such a model,which exoresses fuel consumotionas a functionof the three
ARR No. 1 24
p r i n c i p ae
l l e m e n t so f d r i v i n gp a t t e r n s- c r u i s i n g i, d ling and stop-startmanoeuvres-has been reviewed
i n d e t a i lb y A k c e l i k ( ' l9 8 1 a ) . T h e m o d e li s p r e f e r r e d
n o t o n l y b e c a u s e o f i t s a d v a n t a g e so f s i m p l i c i t y ,
g e n e r a l i t ya n dc o n c e p t u acl l a r i t y ,b u t a l s o b e c a u s ei t
i s w e l l - r e l a t e dt o e x i s t i n gt r a t f i c m o d e l l i n gt e c h n i ques. The model has been used, and some dara are
a v a i l a b l ee l s e w h e r e ( e . 9 . C l a f f e y 1 9 7 1 a n d | 9 7 6 :
D a l e 1 9 8 1; E r l b a u m1 9 8 0 ; F e r r e i r a1 9 8 1; H i g h w a y
ResearchBoard (HRB)1960; Instituteof Transporrat i o n E n g i n e e r s( l T E ) 1 9 8 0 ; M a r t i n1 9 7 4 ; R o b e r t s o n ,
Lucas and Baker 1980; Tarnoffand Parsonson19g1 ;
W i n f r e y1 9 6 9 ) .H o w e v e r ,t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t en e e d f o r
d a t a p e r t a i n i n gt o t h e A u s t r a l i a nv e h i c l ep o p u l a t i o n
u n d e rp r e s e n td a y c o n d i t i o n s .
U s i n gt h e n o t a t i o no f t h e e a r l i e rp a p e r ( A k c e l i k
1 9 8 1a ) , t h e e l e m e n t a m
l o d e l c a n b e e x o r e s s e oa s
follows:
F:1,x"+lr4+lrl,r
:
xs
ds
h
tI
f,
l::
The coefficient I, therefore accounts for both

fuel consumedwhilst travellingat a steady (constant)
cruise speed (1") and fuel consumedas a result of
speed fluctuationsdue to side and internalfrictions
(Al"):
(1)
where
F
The side friction encounteredalong a route is a

functionof such factors as the numberand width of
lanes,qualityof the road geometry,adjacentlanctuse
(affectingproperty access, commercial activities,
kerb parking conditions,bus stops, pedestrianactivities),traffic turning in from side streets,etc. The
internalfriction is a lunction of the flow level and
traffic composition,and it is consideredto include
the effects of lane changes and overtakingsdue to
different vehicle speeds in a traffic stream. The
effects of interferenceby vehicles turning into side
streets at mid-block locations could also be consideredto be part of internalfriction.
average fuel consumplion per

v e h i c t e( m L ) ,
total sectiondistance(km),
averagestoppeddelay per vehic l e , i . e .i d l i n gt i m e ( s ) ,
average number of (effective)
stops per vehicle (stop rate),
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nr a t e w h i l e
cruising (mL/km),
fuel consumptionrate while idling (mL/s),and
e x c e s s f u e l c o n s u m p t i o np e r
vehicle stop (mL).
The model can be expressed in other forms as disc u s s e di n A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 1a ) a n d i n m o r ed e t a i li n p a r t

3 of this report.
The elementalmodel is based on the assumption
that the three elementsare independentof each other
and they can be added togetherto find the total fuel
consumption.The accuracy of fuel consumptionprediction by the model is limitedby this assumptionas
well as any inaccuraciesin the traffic perlormance
v a r i a b l e s( x , d " , h ) a n d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s( f | , f j , | \ 1 .
The three elementsof this model are now discussed
separatelyto draw attentionto particularaspects of
both the independenttrafficvariablesand the associated coefficients.
4.1 CRUTSE
The first componentof the elementalmodel,f , x , rerates to the total length of the section of road under
study, e.g. distance from the stop line of one intersectionto the stop line of the next.This is the amount
of fuel which would be consumedif this lengthof road
was travelledat the cruising speed, v". The uninterrupted cruise speed is the average uninterrupted
speed for a given flow level and underthe prevailing
roadway conditions.The word 'uninterrupted'refers
to the etfect of the traffic control system,that is the
cruisingtime (t, : x /v") does not includeany delay
time due to the effect of the traffic control system.
However,delays due to any mid-block interferences
('side friction') and due to the effects of other vehicles in the same traffic stream ('internalfriction')are
accountedfor.
f,:|"*Jf"
(2)
Fuel consumptionat steady speedshas been investigatedby severalresearchers(Claffey1971 and

1 9 7 6 ; K e n t 1 9 8 1 ; K e n t e t a l . 1 g 8 1 ; V i n c e n te t a / .
'1980;
Watson et al. 1980). Frg. 2 summarisesthe
followingdata:
U.S.compositecar data (Claffey1971);
Data for the Melbourne University test car
(Watsonet at.1980); and
D a t af o r 1 1 c a r s ( K e n te t a / . 1 g g 1 ) .
It is seen that all data show similartrend,and significantly,minimumfuel consumptionoccurs at a steady
cruise speed in the range of 40-60 km/h.
ln real drivingconditions,however,it is impossible to maintaina steady cruise speed because of
side and internalfriction and, as a result. fuel consumptionunder real driving conditionsis higher than
understeady speed conditions.This increasein fuel
consumption(Af") should be related to the magnitudeand frequencyof speed fluctuations.However,
in the absence of detailed informationon actual
speed fluctuations,it appearsthat these fluctuations
mayneedto be accountedfor by a factorwhich is dependenton the side and internalfriction conditions.
e . g .u s i n gA , f : o f a n d l , : ( 1 * r r ) 1 " .
"
"
It may not be feasibleto quantifyall side friction
factors explicitly (see e.g. Beard and McLean 1974;
FreemanFox and Associates 19721.For this reason,
and for the purpose of deriving an easy-to-use
method,it may be useful to define several ,types of
environment'(E) representing aggregate, and to
some extent subjective, values of side friction factors. For example:
Type 1 :
ldeal conditionsof uninterrupted

travel
(no side friction,typicallyin freeway-type
envtronment)
Type 2:
Goodconditionsof uninterrupted
travel
(majorarterialroads with negligibleside
friction).
Type 3:
Averageconditionsof uninterrupted
travel (arterialand otherroadswith a
moderatedegreeof side friction).
Type 4:
Poorconditionsof uninterrupted
travel
(roadswith a highdegreeof side friction,
typically in city centreareas).
A R RN o . 1 2 4
C l a { f e y( 1 9 7 1 )
W a t s o n e t a l .( 1 9 8 0 )
Kent et al
E
!
E 2oo
E
150
6
A
6
* roo
t
a
o
.A
60
Steadycruisespeed,v" lkm/h)
Fig. 2 - Steady-speed luel consumption
The internalfrictioncan be measuredin termsol

of theflowratio,
varyingflowlevels,e.g.as a function
y (theratioof llow to saturationflow,wheresaturation
roadcapacity).The speed
flow is lhe uninterrupted
fluctuationadjustmentfactor (1 * tt) can then be
calculatedas a lunctionof both E andy , perhapsby
llow as is donewith
usingE to modifythe saturation
intersection
design(Akcelik1981b).
signalised
As an alternativeto this method,free speed
(average
can
speedundervery low llow conditions)
be usedas a surrogatemeasureof variousenvironmenttypes,andthe ratioof the cruisespged(i.e.the
achievedspeed)to the free speedcan be usedas a
combined
measureof sideandinternalfrictions.This
speedratiomaythenbe relatedto thespeedfluctualactor.Aireadysuch a speed ratio
tion adjustment
hasbeenshownto be relatedto traveltimevariability
(Richardson
and Taylor 1978) and hencea similar
relationship
with speed fluctuations(or variability)
mayalsobe quiteviable.
of theelemenInsummary,
thecruisecomponent
tal modelcould be expressedin termsof a steadyspeedfuel consumption
term modiliedby a speed
fluctuation
factorwhichis relatedto the
adjustment
on that road
side and internalfrictionexperienced
if required.
datain theformof adsegment.
Similarly,
justmentfactorscould be givento accountfor the
effectsof geometricleaturesof the road such as
gradeand curvature.Suchgeometricand physical
may,however,be of morerelevance
characteristics
in ruralroadfuelconsumotion
thanin urbanfuelconsumption
calculations.
4.2 IDLE
model,/ , d,
Thesecondcomponent
of theelemental
is the fuelconsumedwhilstidlingwhena vehicleis
stoppedby a control elementof the trafficsystem,
Withrespectto the
e.g.a Stopsign,or trafficsignals.
measurement
of idlingtime,it shouldbe emphasised
thatstoppeddelay(d" in eqn (1)) is differentto the
averagedelaynormallyusedin manytrafticmodels.
is onlythatdelay
Stoppeddelay,as thenameimplies,
incurredwhenthe vehicleis actuallystopped.Delay
is not inincurredin decelerating
and accelerating
1980a; Akcludedin stoppeddelay(seeRichardson
celik 1981a , andParts3 and5 ol thisreport).
The fuel consumedwhilstidlingappearsto be
dependent
essentiallyon the engineidlingspeed,
although
Martin(1974)statesthatidlingconsumption
is also dependenton ignitiontiming,enginetemperatureand combustionefficiency.The elemental
modelcoeflicient
for idling(1,), however,
simplyexpressesthe fuel consumption
rate per second (or
hour)of idlingtimeindependent
of otherfactors.This
is becauseengineidling rate is a vehicledesign
parameterand not a traflic management
parameter.
However,
the effectof vehicledesignchangeswith
respectto idlingfuelconsumption
shouldbe recognised in terms of the effect on traffic management
strategies.
Thus,a changein fuelconsumption
whilst
idlingwill changethe trade-offbetweenthe stopped
delay(idling)timeandthe numberof stopsin traffic
designandevaluation.
ARR No. 124

4,3 STOP-STARTMANOEUVRES
wnere ll"
The third componentof the elementalmodel, f .,h, is

the excess luel consumptionassociatedwith stopstart manoeuvrescaused by traffic control devices.
The measurementof the averagenumberof effective
stops per vehicle, h, needs to take account of two
factors:
(a) vehicles which do not stop but which change
speed significantly as a result of the control
system should be counted as partialstops; and
(b) vehicleswhich stop morethanonce as a result of
the control system should contribute multiple
(partial)stops to the total count.
The etfects of partial stoos have been considered by several authors (Richardson1979; Vinc e n t e t a / . 1 9 8 O ;A k c e l i k 1 9 8 O )w h i l s tc o n s i d e r a t i o n
of the partial effects ol multiple stops has more recently been addressed (Richardson1980a and b ;
Ferreira1981). ln both situations,the critical factors
are the maximumand minimumspeeds experienced
during the manoeuvreand the rates of acceleration
and decelerationutilised by the driver.
F u e l c o n s u m p t i o nr a t e s f o r p a r t i a l s t o p s
(slowdowncycles), which involvea changein speed
from the cruising speed to a lower speed and then
back to the cruising speed, could be presented as
fractionsof complete stops in proportionto the fuel
consumedin the slowdownmanoeuvre.In the case of
multiplestops, all stops except the first one correspond to a reverse cycle, i.e. accelerationfrom zero
speed to a higher speed (maximumvalue v") and
back to zero speed again.This may occur at GiveWay/Stop signs and roundaboutswhere all vehicles
in the queue move forward and stop again as one or
more vehicles accept a gap in the opposing stream
and depart. Similarly, at over-saturated signals,
severalvehiclesat the end of the queuespeed up but
get stoppedagainbeforethey can clear the intersection becauseof insufficientcapacity.This type of fuel
consumptionrate could also be presentedas 'effective stop' figures as in the case of slowdown
manoeuvres.
The coefficient f ., is related to the excess
amountof luel consumed in a stop-startmanoeuvre
(with no idling) from an initial cruisingspeed to zero
speed and back up to the same cruisingspeed. The
coefficient is obviously a function of the cruising
speed adopted.This is discussedin detail in Parts 3
and 5 of this reoort.
It is importantto note that f , in eqn (1) is an excess consumptionfigure.lt is calculatedas the consumptionduring a completestop-and-gocycle (with
no idling time) less the consumptionwhen the stopstart manoeuvredistance is coveredat cruise speed.
By using 1.,as an excess consumptionfigure in eqn
(1), the first componentof the model is conveniently
expressedin terms of the total lengthol the road section under study. The separationof the first and third
components of the model is most useful when
estimatingchanges in fuel consumptionas a result of
a changein traffic managementstrategiesat an intersection. In such circumstances, where average
cruise speed and cruise speed fluctuations are
unlikelyto be affected,the changein fuel consumption may be estimatedas:
Af":f,(a4)
+t,(Ah)
(3)
ld"
tn
change in fuel consumptiondue

to stops and delays,
changein stoppeddelay,and
change in effectivestops.
It is interestingto note that Tarnoffand Parsons o n ( 1 9 8 1 )a b a n d o n e dt h e u s e o f a d e t a i l e ds i m u l a tion model for fuel consumption(NETSIMby Lieberman el a/. 1979) in favourof the use of the elemental
model approachbased on eqn (3) for individualsign a l i s e di n t e r s e c t i o n s .
In practice, it is diflicult to separatethe cruise
and stop-startcomponentsof fuel consumptionfrom
a continuousrecord of fuel consumptionin a single
vehicle trip. Away from intersections,the distinction
between partial stops and speed fluctuations,as
d e s c r i b e de a r l i e ri n c o n n e c t i o nw i t h c r u i s ef u e l c o n sumption,becomesratherblurredandmay be difficult
to identifyin the field by a movingobserver.Similarly,
it may be difficult in the field to identifythe cause of
m u l t i p l es t o p s i n a l o n g q u e u e ,i . e .i f t h e y a r e d u e t o
the control system (relatedto the third componentof
the elemental model) or due to mid-block interferences (relatedto the lirst componentof the elemental model). Therefore, careful experimental
design is required for this purpose. lt is relatively
easier to allow for the diflerencesbetweendifferent
speed changemanoeuvresin a model.However,it is
importantthat the relevantfuel consumptiondata are
presentedin a form which matchesthe requirements
ol the traffic model.
5. FORMATOF FUEL
CONSUMPTION
DATA
Given the form of the elementalmodel of fuel consumptionspecified in eqn (1), the question remains
as to the most convenfientlormat for the fuel consumptiondata. For routine traffic engineeringwork,
where informationand time is at a premium,the most
convenientformatwould appearto be look-up tables
or equationsapproximatingthose tables.Data could
be given as 'correction factors' rather than actual
consumptionfigures in some cases.
The values of all fuel consumptionparameters
dependon the type of vehicle.A majorrequirementof
trafficengineersis thereforeto havedata for different
types of vehicle.Too much detail in terms of vehicle
a n d d r i v e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ss h o u l d , h o w e v e r , b e
avoided as discussed in Section 3. Data should be
aggregatedand presentedfor a set of 'representative
vehicles',e.g. for cars, light trucks,heavytrucks and
b u s e s ,o r s i m p l yf o r ' l i g h tv e h i c l e s a
' n d ' h e a v yv e h i cles'. Whilst greater detail is obviouslyrequired lor
vehicle design purposes, and perhaps in traffic
e n g i n e e r i n gr e s e a r c h s t u d i e s , f u r t h e r d e t a i l f o r
generaltrafficengineeringpractice would tend to be
moreconfusingthat illuminating.
Datafor presentday
vehiclepopulationsshouldbe used as a basis of data
a g g r e g a t i o n( e . 9 .F e h o n1 9 8 0 ) .
For each representativevehicle,the cruise fuel
consumptionrate could be shown as in fable /. As
discussedin Section 4.1, the choice of 'environment
types'for use in lable / is arbitraryand could also be
ARRNo.124
represented
by the freespeedof thesectionof road
underconsideration.
lt shouldbe notedthat within
each environment
type, the effectof flow (internal
friction) is implicitly accountedfor by reduced
averagecruisespeed.
The idlingfuelconsumption
ratewill be a single
valuein millilitresper second(or hours)of stopped
delayfor each representative
vehicle.The excess
per effectivestop mightbe tabulfuel consumption
ated as shownin Table//. Sucha Tablewould be
constructedwith an implicitassumption
about the
patternsand ratesof acceleration
anddeceleration
used in the manoeuvre.
The top row of the matrix
givesthe excessfuelconsumption
duringa multiple
(i.e.fromzerospeedto finitespeed
stopmanoeuvre
andbackto zero),the left columngivesvaluesfor a
completestop manoeuvre,
the lowerleft triangleol
the matrixgives valuesfor partialstops (slowdown
manoeuvres),
while the upper right trianglegives
(ifneeded).In each
valueslor speed-upmanoeuvres
case,the speedat the startandendof themanoeuvre
is the same.
TABLE I
CRUISEFUEL CONSUMPTIONRATES
(mL/km)
Side Friction
Average
Crurse
$peed
(kmlh)
EnvironmentType
1234
(ldeal) (Good) (Average) (Poor)
FreeSpeed(km/h)
120
100
80
60
20
40
60
80
-z-
120
TABLEII
EFFECTIVE
STOPFUELCONSUMPTION
RATES(mL)
lnitial
(: tinal)
Speed
(kmlh)
lntermediate Speed (kmth)
20
40
60
80
100
MuttipteStop Rates
20
\
40
60
Complete
BO
Stop
Rates
r00
\\
\\
PartialStop \
(Slowdown)
Rates
An alternative,
andmoregeneral,
methodof obtainingthe datais by the generation
of vehiclemaps
as describedby Kent (1981).Thesemapsshowthe
rateof fuel consumption(in mL/min)as a functionof
speedandrateol accelerationandwouldneedto be
generatedfor a set of representativevehicles.lt
wouldbe desirableif suchmapswerealsoobtained
undercontrolledconditions
wherebythesamplesize
for eachpoint in the matrix(withinfeasibleboundaries)was approximately
equal.This wouldensure
thatequalstatisticalreliabilitycouldbe attachedto
each point in the matrix.Giventhis matrix,the fuel
consumption
for any manoeuvre
couldbe calculated
by tracing the speed/acceleration
trajectory over
time on the matrixand integratingthe resultantfuel
consumption
rates.This wouldenablelables I andll
to be generatedand would also be more useful in
traffic researchwork where, occasionally,the
researcherhas access to detailedvehicletrajectories (e.9.GippsandWilson1980).
6. CONCLUSTON
f , (mL/km)
100
To conclude,referenceshouldbe madeto the

way in whichdatamightbe obtainedto enableconstructionof the Tables describedin the paper.
Alreadyit has beenarguedthatregression
analysis
fieldsurveydatashouldnot be used
of uncontrolled
to obtainfuelconsumption
ratesfor eachof the three
componentsof the elementalmodel.Rather,a
programshouldbe
carefullycontrolledexperimental
undertakento obtainthe rates in one of two ways.
Firstly,the ratescouldbe obtaineddirectlyby performingtest runswhichconformto strictlydefined
manoeuvres,
e.g.a seriesof partialstopcyclesfrom
an initialspeedto an intermediate
speedandbackup
to the finalspeed (withspecifiedratesof accelerationanddeceleration).
\
\
Sped-Up
Ratas
This paperhas attemptedto summarise

the requirementsof trafficengineerswith respectto fuel consumptionmodels.As a resultol thissummary,
a number ol conclusionscan be reached.
(a) Fuelconsumption
modelsare but onepart of the
trafficsystemmodellingprocess.They should
thereforebe designedto complementexisting
modelsfor otherpartsof the process.
(b) Informationon changes in fuel consumption
ratherthantotal fuel consumption
valuesmaybe
adequatefor sometrafficmanagement
studies.
(c) The data availableto traffic engineersare
usually limited and hence fuel consumption
modelsrnustbe ableto be usedwithsuchlimited
data.
(d) Trafficengineersare often concernedwith individualelementsof the trafficsystem(e.9.an
intersection)
andhenceiuelconsumption
models
mustbe applicableat this level.
(e) Becauseol the large rangeof trafficoptionsto
be evaluated,
andbearingin mindthe statistical
problemswith regression
analysison fielddata,
it is unlikelythat a reliableset of regression
equationscan be developedto cover all combinationsof the manypossibletrafficmanagement (design/control)
options.In view of the
largeextantbody of knowledge
coveringtraffic
A R RN o . 1 2 4
systemmodels,the developmentof such regression equations would also appear to be
unoroductive.
(f) In view of these requirements,
some form of elementalfuel consumptionmodelwouldseem most
appropriate for tratfic engineering purposes.
S u c h a m o d e lw o u l d a c c o u n tf o r t h e c r u i s e ,i d l e
and stop-start componentsof driving.
(s)The mostappropriatelormatfor fuelconsumption
data would appear to be in the form of tables or
equationsfor practisingtrafficengineers.Datato
allow for the effects of different road grades,
9
various friction factors, diflerent decelerationaccelerationpatternsand rates,etc. are needeo.
(h) Dataenablingthe calculationof fuelconsumption
rates should be obtained under stricily controlled experimentalconditions,with the construction of vehicle maps being a useful intermediatesteo.
( i ) The fuel consumptiondata should be available
for a range of 'representativevehicles' such as
cars, light trucks, heavy trucks and buses, or
s i m p l yl i g h t v e h i c l e sa n d h e a v yv e h i c l e s .
10
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cle time for a single tratlic controller.Proc. PTRC Sth SummerAnnu.Meet.,Traffic and
Environmental
ManagementSeminar(F),pp. 96-112.
ARR No. 1 24
11
APPENDIX
FURTHER
READING
BARNARD,
R.D. (1979).Trafficmanagement
as a meansof conservingenergy.paper presentedto joint SAE-Aust.and Chart.Inst.of Transp.,Adetaide.
BAYLEY,c. (1980).Energyimplicationso{ co-ordinatedsignals. Aust.Rd Res. 1o(2),pp.
16-24.
BEsrER,c.J. (1981). Fuel consumption
on congestedfreeways.rransp.Res.Rec.Bo1,pp.
5 1- 5 4 .
CHANG,M-F. and HERMAN,R. (1980). Driver responseto differentdriving instructions:
effect on speed, acceleration and fuel consumption.Trattic Eng. contiol 2i (11), pp.
545-550
(1981). Trip time versus stop time and fuel consumptioncharacteristicsin cities.
Iransp.Scl.15(3),pp. 183-209.
CLAFFEY,
P.J.(1979).Automobilefuel economyand the driver. Transp.Res.Rec.739, pp.
21-26.
DEPARTMENT
oF NATIONALDEVELOPMENT
AND ENERGY(1981). Motor VehicteFuel
Conservation
Workshop,Melbourne,
February.(2.1papers.)
GIPPS,P.G.(1981). The impactol electricvehicleson petrolconsumption.
paperpresented
at Inst.Eng.,Aust.,Transp.Conf.,Brisbane,September.
GYENES,L. (1980). Assessing the effect of traflic congestion on motor vehicle fuel consumption.Transp.Road Res.Lab. (U.K.).TRRLSupp.Rep.SR 613.
HURLEY,
J.w., RADWAN,A.E.and BENEVELLT,
D.A. (198i ). sensitivityof tuet-consumption
anddelayvalueslromtrafficsimulation.
Transp.Fes. Fec. 795,pp. 14_21.
- is therea case lor strictermotorwayspeed limits.
LEAKE,G.R.(1980).Fuel conservation
TratticEng.Control2l (11), pp. 5S1-S53.
LYONS,L.E.,LUXTON,R.E.and wATSoN, H.c. (1981).Trafficmanagement,
vehictesand
luels - in the NERDDCprogramon motor vehicle fuel conservation.Paperpresentedat
the Nat. Conf. SAE-Aust.,Melbourne,June.
MIDDLETON,
G. and KENYON,J.A. (1981). A review of overseas experiencewith reduced
speed limitsas an energy conservationmeasure.Aust. Rd Res. 1j (1), pp. 51_S7.
NEVvlvAN,
P. and KENWoRTHY,J. (1980).Land-useplanningfor transportenergyconservation in Australiancities.Searchl 1 (1), pp.367-976.
PEAROE,T.c. and wATERs, M.H.L.(1980). cotd start tuel consumptionof a dieset and a
petrol car. Transp.Road Res. Lab. (U.K.).TRRL Supp. Rep. SR 636.
RADELAT,G. and EULER,G. (1980). Capacity and quality of flow on urbanarteriats. pubtic
Roads44(1), pp.35-43.
RAUS,J. (1981). A methodlor estimatingfuel consumptionand vehicleemissionson uroan
arterialsand networks.Fed. Highw.Admin.Rep. No. FHWA-TS-BI-210.washington,
D.C.
REED-F.c (1982). Energyconservationby traffic management.Inst.Eng.Aust.,eueensland
Div.TechnicalPapers,23(5),pp. 13-17.
RICHARDSON,
8.c., JoscELYN, K.B.and SAALBERG,J.H. (i 980). Limitationson the use of
mathematical
models in transportation
policy analysis.Highw.safety Res. Inst.,Univ.
Michigan.
soclETY oF AUToMolvE ENGTNEERS
AUSTRALAS|A and AUSTRAL|ANROAD
RESEARCHBOARD (1980). can Tratfic ManagementReduce VehicteFuel consumption and Emissionsand Affect Vehicle Design Requirements?proc. ol a seminar and
Workshopheld in Melbourne,July (30 papers).
SIMMONS,l.C.P.(1979). Fuel consumptionof commercialvehicles:instrumentation
and
analysisof results. Transp.Road Res. Lab. (U.K.).TRRL Supp. Rep. SR 508.
srlMPSoN, w.A. and TAKASAKI,G.M. (1981). co-ordinating vehicle-actuatedtraffic signals to reduce vehicularfuel consumption.
Gen. Motors Res. Lab. u.s.A.). Research
Pub. GMR-3945.
WAGNER,F.A. (1980). Energy impacts of urban transportationimprovements.Inst. Transp.
Eng.,Washington,
D.C.
WATERS,M.H.L. (1980). Research on energy conservation of cars and goods vehicles.
Transp.Road Res. Lab. (U.K.).TRRLSupp. Rep. SR 591 .
wATsoN, H.c. (1980). Traffic flow -its etfect on energy and emissions.paper presentedat
the Aust. Inst.of PetroleumCongress,Sydney.
andMILKINS,E.E.(1981). Altemativetechnologiesin motorvehiclefuelconservation.
Paper presentedat the 51st ANZAASCong. on 'Energy and Equity',Brisbane.
WEEKS,R. (1981).Fuel consumptionofa diesel and a petrol car. Transp.Road Res. Lab.
(U.K.).TRRL Lab. Rep. LR 964.
wooD, R. and GRIFFIN,L. (1980). The effect of a change in traffic managementon fuet consumption.Transp.Road Res. Lab. (U.K.).TRRL Supp. Rep. SR 634.
UNDERWOOD,
R.T. (1980). Fuel economy- road and traffic engineering.paper presented
at the SAE-Aust.Seminaron 'Fuel Economy'.Melboume.
12
A R RN o . 1 2 4
Part 2
PREDICTION
OF CHANGESIN
FUELCONSUMPTION:
TWO EXAMPLES
by
R. AKCELIK
(Firstwrittenin October1981)
ARRNo. 124
13
2.2 TRAFFICPERFORMANCE
CALCULATIONS
1. INTRODUCTION
T h i s p a p e rp r e s e n t st w o s i m p l ee x a m p l e si n o r d e r t o
c o m p a r e t h e p r e d i c t i o na b i l i t i e s o f t h e e l e m e n t a l
model (Parts1 and 3 of this report)and the PKEmodel
( W a t s o n ,M i l k i n s a n d M a r s h a l l1 9 8 0 : W a t s o n 1 g 8 O
and Part 4 of this report). Both the overall and the
incrementalfuel consumptionpredictionsfrom:
Using the basic data given above and in lable /, the

averagedelay (d) and the averagenumberof stops
(h) are calculated for each case from eqns (6.1) to
( 6 . 5 )o l A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 1a , S e c t i o n6 ) . F r o m t h e s e ,t h e
resultsgiven in Table llare calculatedas follows (see
Part 3 for the basis of these calculations):
(a)
the elementalmodelfor threedifferentcars; and
(a)
(b)
the elemental model and three differenily

calibrated formsof the PKEmodelfor the same
car are considered.
The first example is related to the effects of

c h a n g e si n s i g n a lt i m i n g sa l l o c a t e dt o a m o v e m e nat t
an isolated intersection. The traffic performance
variabfes (delay,numberof stops,speed and pKE are
p r e d i c t e du s i n gt h e s i m p l ea n a l y t i c am
l o d e l sg i v e n i n
A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 1a ) a s a b a s i s .T h e s ea r e t h e n u s e d a s
input for the fuel consumptionmodels.Thus, the exampleshows the combineduse of trafficand fuerconsumption models to analyse the effects of small
c h a n g e si n t r a f f i co p e r a t i n gc o n d i t i o n si n a s p e c i f i c
s i t u a t i o nT. h e e x a m p l ei s s i m p l i s t i ci n t h e t r e a t m e not f
t r a f f i cs i g n a lt i m i n g s T
. h e r e a d e ri s r e f e r r e dt o A k c e l i k
( 1 9 8 1 b )f o r a l u l l i n t e r s e c t i o n
examole.
The second exampleis related to the orediction
of incrementalfuel consumptiondue to extra idling
( s t o p p e d )t i m e .l t i s g i v e nt o c o m p l e m e ntth e d i s c u s s i o no f t h e p r e d i c t i o no f i n c r e m e n t af ul e l c o n s u m p t i o n
due to stops in the first example.
2. EFFECTS
OF CHANGESIN
S I G N A LT I M I N G S
2 . 1 B A S I CD A T A
This exampleconsidersa throughtraffic movementin
two lanes of an approach road to an isolated signalised intersectionunder three differentsignal timi n g , a n d h e n c e c a p a c i t y , c o n d i t i o n sd e s c r i b e d a s
CasesA, B and C in Table/. Hypotheticalcruise (uninterrupted travel) conditions are also indicated in
Table l. For basic definitionsand formulaerelated to
traffic movementvariables,the reader is referredto
A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 1a ) . D a t a c o m m o nt o a l l c a s e s a r e a s
follows.
A r r i v a lf l o w , q : 1 8 O 0v e h / h
Saturationflow, s : 3600 veh/h
F l o w r a t i o ,y : q / s : 0 . 5 0
F l o w p e r i o d ,f , : 6 0 m i n
Cruisespeed, v" : 54 km/h
Totai section distance,x" : 0.75 km.
Delay and number ol stops per unit distance

(s/km,stops/km):
3 = dlxr, h-= h/x,
(b)
Averagespeed (km/h):
3600
v' =_-.=_=_
390!
,c
(c)
*o
3600
66.2 + J
T o t a l p o s i t i v ek i n e t i ce n e r g y( m / s z ) :
P K E = h v " , 1 1 2 9 6 0= O . 2 2 5 i
It is assumedthat thereare no speedfluctuationsduring cruise,and hence,PKEis only due to stops at the

intersection.For this example,it is estimatedthat all
vehicles will reach cruise speed during multiple
stops.
Absolute and percentagechanges in traffic performancevariablesare given in Table///. lt should be
notedthat a changefromCaseA to Case B represents
a substantialchange (fromsaturatedat-capacityconditions in Case A to an acceptablelevel of service in
Case B). A changelrom Case B to Case C represents
a relatively minor change in that both cases have
similardegreesof saturation,and hencesimilarlevels
of service.
2.3 FUELCONSUMPTION
CALCULATIONS
The trafficperformancedatagiven in Table//are used
as input for luel consumptioncalculationsusing the
elemental model (E) and the PKE modet (p) with
differentdata as given below.
E1.
Elementalmodel with data from Ctafiey t1976)

tor 1972 Chevroletsedan (V-8, 6.5 L):
l,:116+0.883O+Se.Sh
E2.
Elemental model with data from Robertson,

Lucas and Baker (1980) for a medium family
saloon (6 cyl., 2.2L) alv": 52km/h..
l,:94+O.41la-+t+:n
E3.
Elementalmodel with data from Watson (1991)

for Ford Cortinawagon (6 cyl., 4.1 L):
l,:89
+ O.7OO
a + tg.qE
TABLEI
BASICDATA
CaseA
G r e e nt i m e ,g ( s )
C y c l et i m e ,c ( s )
Greentime ratio,g/c
Capacity,Q (veh/h)
Degreeof saturation,q/Q
N . A .: N o t a p p l i c a b l e
60
120
0.50
1800
1.OO
CaseB
CaseC
60
100
0.60
2160
0.83
64
100
0.64
2304
0.78
Cruise
N.A.
N.A.
1.OO
3600(:s)
o.so(:y)
ARRNo.124
14
TABLEII
TRAFFICPERFORMANCE
DATA
Averagedelay,d (s/km)
Averag_e
numberot stops,
h (stops/km)
Averagespeed,v" (km/h)
PKE (m/s,)
CaseA
Case I
Case C
87.0
22.6
17.3
0.97
40.3
0 . 2 1I
0.86
42.9
0 . 19 4
0
54 (:vc )
0
1qt
23.4
0.349
Cruise
TABLEIII
CHANGESIN TRAFFICPERFORMANCE
CaseA-CaseB
Averagedelay,d (s/km)
64.4 (74o/ol
Averagenumberof stops, h (stops/km)
0.58 (37"/")
Averagespeed,v. (km/h)
CaseB-CaseC
5.3(23%)
0.11 (11vo)
- 2.6 (6%)
- 1 6 . 9( 7 2 % )
P 1 PKEmodel by Watsonet a/. ('1980)for the same

car as in E3:
l,: - 11.2 + 2597/ v" + 0.811 v" * 121.1PKE
P2. PKEmodel by Watson (198O) for the same car

asinPl:
f , : - 3 0 . 7 + 2 9 0 3 / v " + 1 . 2 1 6v " * 9 4 . 2 1 P K E
Variable
Detinition
Units
f,
Fuel consumptionper unil distance
mL/km
Averagedelay per unit distace
s/Km
tr
Averagenumberof stops per unil

distance
stops/km
ys
Averageinterrupledspeed
km/h
PKE
Sumofpositive kinetic energy

changes
m/s?
P3. PKE model by Poyntonand Dawson (1980) for

the same car as in P1:
fx: - 46.9 * 3093/v, + 1.342v"* 90.66 PKF
(0
The following should be noted about these

formulae.
(a) The elementalmodel coefficientswere derived
individuallyby direct measurement:

on the road
for E1 and E2, and in the laboratory (chassis
dynamometertests) for E3.
( b ) The PKE model coefficientswere derived lor
the same car by regressionanalysisusing data
lrom real-life traffic conditionsfor P1, and data
from variousdrivingcycle tests in the laboratory lor P2 and P3 (ADR27A cycle for P2; ADR
2 7 A a s w e l l a s U . S . H i g h w a y ,S y d n e y a n d
M e l b o u r n eI n i t i a lc y c l e s f o r P 3 ) .
The first term ol the elemental model is the

steady-speedcruise fuel consumption(at v" :
54 km/h). The correspondingfigure from the
PKEmodel is obtainedby putting v" : v" : 54
and PKE: 0 in the formula.
T h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nr e s u l t s a r e g i v e n i n
Table lV together with normalisedvalues based on
c r u i s ef u e l c o n s u m p t i o n: 1 . 0 .A b s o l u t ea n d p e r c e n tage changes in fuel consumptionfrom Case A to
Case 8, and fromCase B to Case C are given in Table
V. The predictionsof the incrementalfuel consump'stops'
tion due to
as a percentageof the total are
given in Table Vl (the 'stops' componentis the last
ternnof each formula).The results are summarisedin
Fig. 1.
2.4 DTSCUSSTON
OFRESULTS
( c ) A i l c a r s h a d a u t o m a t i ct r a n s m i s s i o n s .
(d) Different assumptionsregarding deceleraiion
and acceleration rates and prefilss during a

s t o p a r e b u i l t i n t o t h e a b o v e m o d e l s .F o r E 3 ,
constant deceleration and acceleration rates
were used (averageah : 5.33 km/h/s). For E1,
the average deceleration-accelerationrate is
ah:
4.9 km/h/s but the deceleration/
acceleration pattern is not clear. The PKE
model (P1 to P3) assumesindependencefrom
the accelerationrates and profiles.
(e) Variablesin the above formulaeare:
The following observationscan be made from the

above resulis.
(a)
The differencesin the basic fuel consumption

data for different cars (as reflected by the
coefficientsof the elementalmodel in E1 to E3)
result in different sensitivities to changing
traffic control conditions (fables /Vand V).
Analysesfor differentvehicletypes in the traffic
stream is thereforenecessary.For simple applications, data for different vehicles can be
combined to produce a 'composite vehicle'
model to representa standardcompositionof
traffic.
A R RN o . 1 2 4
15
253 {fx in mL/kml
117
113
118
113
94-- - Cruise
MODEL:
E2
E1
Elemental
E lemental
Model
E1
E2
E3
P1
P2
P3
?ryrs!19r
104
100
83
89
E3
P1
,PKE'
Elemental
P2
,PKE'
P3
,PKE'
Cal (all with automatictransmissions)
1972 Chevrolctsedan (V-8,6.5 L)

Claffey (1976)
Robertson,et al (1980)
Medium family saloon (6 cyl., 2.2 L)
Ford CortinaWagon {6 cyl-,4.1 L)
W a t s o n( 1 9 8 1 )
Watson.et al (1980)
Sameor as E3
('1980)
Watson
Sameer as E3
Poynton and Dawson(1980) Sameer ar E3
Fig. 1 - Normalisedfuel consumption results f.om the elemental model and the PKE model for
difterent data
TripA:
vs=45km/h
PKE = 0.278m/s2
dr=10s
TripB :
vs=30km/h
PKE = 0.278m/s2
dr=50s
TripC :
vs = 15 km/h
PKE = 0.278m/s2
d , = 1 7 0s
15
0
230 240
Fig' 2 -Three trips vYithidentical acceleration-cruise-deceleration patterns but different idling
times
16
A R RN o . 12 4
TABLEIV
FUELCONSUMPTION
PERUNITDISTANCE,
f, (ml/km)*
Model
CaseA
E1
253(2.18)
1 7 3 ( 1. 4 9 )
az
1 5 2 ( 1. 6 2 )
1 1 7 ( 1. 2 4 1
trJ
1 7 1( 1. 9 2 )
1 1 8 ( 1. 3 3 )
P1
1 6 1( 1. 9 9 )
1 1 2 ( 1. 3 8 )
P2
P3
1 5 5 ( 1. 7 4 )
1 1 1 ( .12 5 )
1 4 8 ( 1. 7 8 )
1 0 4 ( 1. 2 5 )
Case I
CaseC
Cruise
1 6 4 ( .14 1)
11 3 ( 1. 2 0 )
11 3 ( 1. 2 7 )
108(1.33)
1 0 7 ( .12 0 )
10o(1.20)
1 1 6 ( 1. 0 )
94(1.O)
8 s ( 1. 0 )
8 1 ( 1. O )
89(1.0)
8 3 ( 1. 0 )
Normalisedvaluesbased on cruise fuel consumotion: 1 .0 are shownin brackets.
TABLEV
CHANGES
IN FUELCONSUMPTION
Model
CaseA-CaseI
E1
E2
Case B-Case C
80(327")
35(2370)
53(31%)
49(3O7o)
trJ
P1
P2
P3
s(5.3%)
4(3.4olol
5(4.20/ol
4(3.670)
4(3.6%)
4(3.9%)
44(28o/o\
44(309")
TABLEVI
INCREMENTAL
FUELCONSUMPTION
DUETO'STOPS'AS A
PERCENTAGE
OFTHETOTAL
Model
CaseA
E1
E2
24
14
EJ
12
P1
P2
P3
zo
21
(b)
T h e s e n s i t i v i t i e so f t h e e l e m e n t a lm o d e l ( E 3 )
and the PKE model (P1 to P3) for the same car
are reasonablysimilar (Iables IV and V: Fig. 11.
C o n s i d e r i n gt h e a p p r o x i m a t en a t u r eo f t h e f o r mulae to predict the traffic performancevariables {i.e. the simpliednature of the traffic
model), the differencesbetween modeis may
not be consideredto be signilicantin terms ol
overall model sensitivity to changing tralfic
conditions.
(c)
However,as seen trom Table l'/, the predicted

fuei consumption only due to 'stops' differ
markedly between the elemental model (E3)
and the PKEmodel (P1to P3) for the same car.
A differencebetweenthe PKEmodel calibrated
u s i n g o n - r o a dd a t a ( P 1 )a n d t h o s e c a l i b r a t e d
using laboratory data (P2 and P3) is also observed. lt is seen that the PKE model implies
much higher stop penaltiescompared with the
e l e m e n t a lm o d e l . T h i s c o u l d b e d u e t o t h e
assumptionin the PKEmodelthat fuel consumption due to stops are independentof the acceleration rate and profile,and/or because the
Case I
22
12
11
24
18
19
Case C
20
11
10
22
1a
18
coefficientof the PKEtermis derivedby regression and there may be other factors affectingit.
For example,it is possible that the PKE rnodei
under-estimates
delaysbut compensatesby attributinghighercontributionsto stops.This particular point is exploredbelow by means of an
example.
3. INCREMENTAL
FUEL
CONSUMPTION
DUETO EXTRA
I D L I N GT I M E
fn the example shown in Fig. 2, three trips along the
sameroad section (x": 1 km) are considered,which
have identicalacceleralion-cruise-deceleration
patterns but different idling times, d" (hence different
average speeds, v"l. Figure 1 indicates constant
accelerationand decelerationproliles, but the discussion below applies to any profile as long as they
are identical for each trip. In this exampleacceleration and decelerationtimesare equal (f, : ta : 10 s)
and the cruise time, t" : 50 s for all trips. Thus, the
A R RN o . 1 2 4
't7
runningtime, t. : l, * tc + td : 70 s is constant.
H o w e v e r ,t h e s t o p p e d ( i d l i n g )t i m e s ,d " , a r e 1 0 , 5 0
a n d 1 7 0 s f o r T r i p sA , B a n d C , r e s p e c t i v e l yT. h e c o r _
'interrupted'travel
re_sponding
times (t" : t, * d ) are
80, 120 and 24O s, and the averagL ,interrupted'
speeds (v" : 3600 x. /f. ) are 45, 30 and 15 km/h,
r e s p e c t i v e l yT
. h e v a l u e o f p K E i s c o n s t a n t :p K E :
( 6 0 2* 0 ) / ( 12 9 6 0 x 1 . 0 ) : O . 2 7 8 m / s z .
T h e f o l l o w i n gf u e l c o n s u m p t i o nv a l u e sa r e o r e d i c t e db y t h e P K Em o d e l( p 2 g i v e na b o v e )u s i n gt h e s e
data:
T r i pA :
T r i pB :
T r i pC :
fA : 1 1 4 . 1m L / k m
t B : 1 Z B . Tm L / k m
f c : Z O 7 . gm L / k m
The differencebetweenfuel consumptionsfor Trips B

and A is Aler : 14.0 ml/km, and for Trips C and A is
llco
: 92.6 kL/km. The only differences
between
t h e s et r i p s a r e d u e t o t h e i d l i n gt i m e s :A d " " n : 4 0 s
: 160 s. lf the idlingfuel consum"piion
rate
3n9 l4"o
is known,the expectedvaluesof Jl"o and Ji", can De
calculateddirecily (in the elementalmodel falhion).lf
the coefficient of the secondterm of the pKE model is
the idling fuel consumptionrate (2903 mL/h : 0.g064
m l / s ) , t h e n t h e e x p e c t e dv a l u e sa r e 3 2 . 3 a n d 1 2 9 . 0
m L . A l t e r n a t i v e l yu, s i n g t h e d i r e c i l y m e a s u r e dv a l u e
o l 2 6 4 0 m L / h : 0 . 7 3 3 3 m L / s ( W a t s o n1 9 8 0 ) , 2 9 . 3
a n d 1 1 7 . 3n r La r e f o u n d .T h u s ,t h e p K E m o d e ls h o w sa
tendency to underestimatethe incrementalfuer con_
s u m p t i o nd u e t o e . x t r ai d l i n gt i m e .T h i s s u p p o r t st h e
REFERENCES
s u g g e s t i o na b o v et h a t h i g hs t o p p e n a l t i e si m p l i e db y
the PXEmodel may be a resultof'the underestimation
of idling fuel consumptionwhich is compensatedby
an incrementalfuel consumptionassociatedwith the
PKEterm.This.suggestionis furthersupportedby the
orscussionof the equivalencebetweeh the pKE and
elementalmodels in part 3 of this report.
4. CONCLUSTON
In th_esimpleexamplesconsidered,the elementatand
the PKEmodelsgave similarperformancesin terms ol
lhe overall fuel consumptionprediction, but they
differedsignificanilyin terms ot lhe incrementattuel
consumptionpredictions(i.e.in termsof the contribu_
tions of delays and stops). The pKE model implies
higherstop penaltiesfor for the samecar, and as indi_
cated by the second example,it is possible that the
PKEmodel underestimatesthe incrementalfuet con_
sumptiondue to delays,and overestimatesthat due to
stops (compensationby the pKE term whose coetfi_
c i e n t i s d e t e r m i n e db y r e g r e s s i o n ) .I n t h e m o d e l
choice for a particularpurpose,the differencesbet_
ween the overall and incrementalfuel consumption
p r e d i c t i o n a b i l i t i e s o f a l t e r n a t i v em o d e l s
should
therelore be considered carefully. The elemental
model, with its incrementalpredic[ion ability rs par_
ticularly uselul for traffic managementappiications
which involve design and opiimisation by small
qlgnSe: to the componentsaffectingoperatingcon_
d i t i o n si n s p e c i f i cs i t u a t i o n s .
AKOELIK,R. (1981a). Traffic signals:capacity ancr

timing anarysis.AustrarianRoad
ResearchBoard. ResearchReport ARi No. i 23.
(1981b ). Fuer etficiency_andother objectives in
traflic system management.rrarfrc
Eng.ControtZ2(2),pp. Sq-OS.
OLAFFEY,.PJ(1976).passengercar fuerconservation.
U.s. Fed. Highw.Admin.Rep. No.
FHWA-PL-77009.Washington,D.C.
POYNTON,W J. and DAWSON;L.R. (1980).Future approaches
for reducing motor vehicre
emrssionsand fuer consumption.paper presented at the
SAE/ARR6 seminar and
workshop 'can Trafiic Management'ReduceVehicre puer
consumptioi ano Emis_
sions?',Melbourne,Jury.
ROBERTSON,D.r.,LUCAS, C.F. and BAKER,R.T. (1980).
co-ordinating tratfic signars to
...._!e!.ucg fuel consumption.Transp.Road Res. r_iu. lu.x L TRCI L;b:Fi"p.'t_n gga.
wATSoN, H'c (1980). Sensitivityof iuel
ancremissionsto drivingpattems and
vehicredesign.paper presentedat the
"onsutpti*
'AE;ARRB s;i;;;;;
wolisiioi',can rrattic
ManagementReduce VehicreFuer consumptionand Emissions?j,
Meioolrne, .lurv.
(1981). Appendix B of part 4 of this Reoort.
, MTLKTNS,
E.E.and MARSHALL,c-A (lgqo). A simprifiedmethodror quant*ying
tuel
consumptionol vehicles in urbantraffic.SAE_Aust.
4O(1), pp. 6_13.
18
A R RN o . 1 2 4
Part 3
ON THE ELEMENTAL
MODEL
OF FUELCONSUMPTION
by
R. AKCELIK
ARR No. 1 24
1. INTRODUCTION
I n t r o d u c t o r yd i s c u s s i o n sa n d r e f e r e n c e st o t h e
l i t e r a t u r eo n t h e e l e m e n t am
l o d e lo f f u e lc o n s u m o t i o n
c a n b e f o u n di n A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 1a ) a n d i n P a r t 1 o l t h i s
r e p o r t . D i f f e r e n ta n a l y t i c a if o r m u l a t i o n o
s f the erementalmodelare presentedin Section2 of this paper
in order to facilitateits use with differenttrafficvariab l e s ,n a m e l y :
( a ) i d l i n gt i m e ( d e l a yi n s t o p p e dp o s i t i o n ) ;
( b ) d e l a y t i m e i n c l u d i n gb o t h s t o p p e d( i d l i n g )d e t a y
a n d d e c e l e r a t i o n - a c c e l e r a t i do en l a y s ;
( c ) i n t e r r u p t e dt r a v e lt i m e ( u n i n t e r r u p t et rda v e lt i m e
p l u sd e l a yt i m e ) ;a n d
( d ) a v e r a g es p e e d ( i n t e r r u p t e dt r a v e lt i m e p e r u n i t
distance).
relationshipsanrongthese variables
The {undamental
a r e e m p l o y e dt o s h o w h o w t h e a p p r o p r i a t ec o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h e e l e m e n t am
l o d e l c a n b e c a l c u l a t e df o r
t h e c h o s e nv a r i a b l e .
In Section3, an attemptis madeto relatethe elementalmodelto the 'PKE'modelreportedby Watson,

M i l k i n sa n d M a r s h a l (l 1 9 8 0 )a n d W a t s o n( 1 9 8 0 ) .T h e
P K E v a r i a b l ei s c o n s i d e r e da s t w o s e p a r a t ev a r i a b l e s :o n e t o r e p r e s e nst p e e df l u c t u a t i o nw
s h i l ec r u i s ing without interruptionsfrom tratficcontrols and the
other to representstops imposedby traffic controls.
A f o r m u l ai s g i v e nt o r e l a t et h e l a t t e rt o t h e n u m b e ro f
s t o p s . A p r o b l e m o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c eb e t w e e n t h e
P K Em o d e l a n d t h e e l e m e n t a m
l o d e l i s o o i n t e do u t .
Questionsare also raised about whetherthe coefficients of the two separate PKE variables are the
same and constant,and whetherthey depend on the
amountof speed changeand/or decelerationand acc e l e r a t i o nr a t e s a n d p a t t e r n s .
The effects of deceleration and acceleration

rates are investigatedin Section 4 using data from
Claffey(1976). The analysesshow that the elemental
model coetficient for excess fuel consumptionper
s t o p i s d e p e n d e n to n d e c e l e r a t i o na n d a c c e l e r a t i o n
r a t e s .T h i s r a i s e sa q u e s t i o na b o u tt h e v a l i d i t yo f t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n gc o e f f i c i e n ti n t h e P K Em o d e l .I n S e c t i o n 5 , B a y l e y ' s ( 1 9 8 0 ) m e t h o di s s h o w n t o g i v e a
differentformof the functionwhich relatesthe excess
fuel consumptioncoefficientto the cruise speed. An
analysisof the Claffey (1976)datato establisha form
o f t h e f u n c t i o nw h i c hi s c o n s i s t e nw
t i t ht h e b a s i cr e l a t i o n s h i p sa n d w h i c h d e s c r i b e s d a t a s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
l e a d st o i n c o n c l u s i v er e s u l t s .
19
2 . D I F F E R E NFTO R M SO F T H E
ELEMENTAL
MODEL
The basic assumptionof the elementalmodel is the
i n d e p e n d e n coef t h e a m o u n t so f f u e l c o n s u m e dd u r i n g t h r e e f u n d a m e n t adl r i v i n g m a n o e u v r e sn, a m e l y
cruise,idling and the deceleration-acceleration
manoeuvre.lt is therelore assumedthat consumotions associatedwith these threemanoeuvrescan be
a d d e d t o g e t h e r i r r e s p e c t i v eo f t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h
t h e y o c c u r .T h i s b a s i c p r i n c i p l ew a s u s e d i n a p o l l u t a n t e m i s s i o nm o d e l b y W a t s o n( 1 9 7 3 )w h o t r e a t e d
deceleration and acceleration manoeuvres
s e p a r a t e l y( i . e . f o u r ' m o d e s ' o f d r i v i n g w e r e
e m p l o y e d ) .F o r e a c h m o d e , W a t s o n ' sm o d e l p r e d i c t e d p o l l u t a n te m i s s i o n sb y i n t e g r a t i n ga f u n c t i o n
w h i c he x p r e s s e se m i s s i o n si n t e r m so { i n s t a n t a n e o u s
a c c e l e r a t i o n sa n d v e l o c i t i e s .T h e c a l c u l a t i o n sf o r
t h i s m o d e lw e r e c a r r i e do u t b y m e a n so f a c o m p u t e r
program.
T h e e l e m e n t a lm o d e l d i s c u s s e d i n A k c e l i k
( 19 8 1a ) a n d i n P a r t 1 o f t h i s r e p o r t e m p l o y s a
simplifyina
g p p r o a c hi n t h a t i t c o m b i n e st o g e t h e rt h e
d e c e l e r a t i o na n d a c c e l e r a t i o nm a n o e u v r e si m o o s e d
b y t r a f f i cc o n t r o l s ( e . 9 .G i v e w a y / S t o ps i g n s ,r o u n dabouts, traffic signals, etc.) and treats them as
'effective
s t o p s ' .T h i s i n v o l v e sf i n d i n ge q u i v a l e n t so f
slow-down and speed-up manoeuvrescaused by
trafficcontrols in terms of their fuel consumpticn
v a l u e sr e l a t i v et o t h e c o n s u m p t i o a
n s s o c i a t e dw i t h a
'complete'
stop/start manoeuvre from the cruise
s p e e d .I n P a r t 1 o f t h i s r e p o r t ,i t i s a r g u e dt h a t t h e
c o n s u m p t i o na s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s l o w - d o w n a n d
s p e e d - u p m a n o e u v r e sw h i l e c r u i s i n g ( ' m i d - b l o c k '
component not associated with traffic controls)
s h o u i db e a c c o u n t e df o r a s p a r to l t h e c r u i s ec o m p o nent of the modei.However,there may be a need to
m o d e lt h i s c o n s u m p t i o nc o m p o n e n e
t x p l i c i t l yi f i t i s
expected to be atfected by traffic controls, e.g. for
testing the effectivenessof a clearwaysystem.
T h e e l e m e n t a lm o d e l e m p l o y st r a v e l d i s t a n c e .
delay time and the numberof stops as the traffic perlormancevariableswhich representthe three basic
d r i v i n g m a n o e u v r e sT
. h e s e p e r f o r m a n c ev a r i a b l e s
n e e d t o b e p r e d i c t e db y a t r a f f i cm o d e lf o r a l l v e h i cles in each traffic movement(stream)as average
, a c hs e p a r a t em o v e m e n nt
valuesF
. o rt h i s p u r p o s ee
a t r a f f i cs y s t e mn e e d st o b e i d e n t i f i e db y i t s u n i q u e
s e t o f c o n t r o l ,p h y s i c a la n d f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c se,. g .
s e e A k c e l i k ( 19 8 1 b ) f o r d e t a i l e dr u l e s t o i d e n t i f v
movementsat signalisedintersections.
A c c o r d i n gt o t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o no f t h e e r e mentalmodel,fuel consumptionfor an average vehic l e c a n b e e x p r e s s e da s f o l l o w s :
F : F " * F " * F r ,: e r X c * p z d . * p r h
wnere
I n S e c t i o n 6 , t h e c a l c u l a t i o no f t h e e l e m e n t a l
m o d e lc o e f f i c i e n t sf o r a ' c o m p o s i t ev e h i c l e ' m o d e il s
d i s c u s s e d .P u t t i n g a s i d e t h e t h e o r e t i c a lp r o b l e m s
d i s c u s s e di n e a r l i e rs e c t i o n s a
, s i m p l e - t o - u s pe r a c t i c a l m e t h o di s d e s c r i b e di n S e c t i o n7 t o o b t a i nf u e l
consumptiondata lor the elementalmodel.The same
method is recommendedfor use in research to investigate the problems raised in this paper.Several
other questionsfor furtheranalysisand researchare
g i v e n i n S e c t i o n8 .
F:
E,a
'Fs
Fh
xc
(1)
total fuel consumption(mL),

e r X c : f u e l c o n s u m e dw h i l e
cruising,
9 . t d s : f u e l c o n s u m e dw h i l e i d ling,
e t h : f u e l c o n s u m e dd u r i n g
stop-startmanoeuvres,
d i s t a n c et r a v e l l e dw h i l e c r u i s i n g
uninterruptedby traffic control
d e v i c e s( k m ) ,
20
A R RN o . 1 2 4
ds
h
st
gt
ej
time spent while idling, i.e. in

s t o p p e dp o s i t i o n( s ) ,
numberof (effective)stops,
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o np e r u n i t d i s t a n c e w h i l e c r u i s i n g( m l / k m ) ,
fuel consumptionper unit time
w h i l e i d l i n g ( m L / s ) ,a n d
a c t u a l f u e l c o n s u m p t i o np e r
'stop', i.e.
a complete stop-start
m a n o e u v r ew h i c h i n v o l v e s a
decelerationfrom an initial
(cruise)speed,yc, to zero speed
and an acceleration back to a
f i n a l( c r u i s e )s p e e d ,y c .
The coefficient9, is constant while the coefficients

9 , d n d 9 , d e p e n dp r i m a r i l yo n t h e c r u i s es p e e d .T h i s
i s d i s c u s s e di n d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n s3 t o 5 . l t i s i m p o r tant to note that the averagevaluesol the traffic performancevariablesd" and h are lor the stopped and
u n s t o p p e dv e h i c l e s a l i k e , a n d h i s t h e n u m b e r o f
'effective
stops', and hence these variablesmust be
predicted by the traffic model accordingly.
It may be more convenientto express the first
term ol the elementalmodel in termsof the total section distancex. ratherthan the cruise distance,x". lf
the average deceleration-acceleration
distance per
stop is xn,then
X s: X . * h x 6 .
:
Putting x"
x"
hx6 in eqn (1),
F: pt X, * pz d, * (p, - ptx) h
(2)
i s o b t a i n e d . P u t t i n g t : l t , e t : f z a n d , p-. , p t x n
t, in eqn (2),
F:1,x"+l2ds+fth
(3)
is obtained.The coefficienti, is the 'excess'fuel consumptionrate per stop, i.e.absoluteconsumptionper
stop less the consumotion if the deceleration-accelerationdistance is travelledat cruise speed.
where dn, f; are in seconds,xn is in km and v" is in

km/h.Assumingconstantdecelerationand acceleration rates (a, and a, , respectively),the decelerationaccelerationtime and distanceare given by
tn:2v"/a6
(8)
Xn : vcz/(3600 an)
(9)
where
"o
wr,;-n tttil
is the average deceleration-accelerationrate per

stop (harmonicmean of a, and a" ). Fromeqns (Z) to
(10), the deceleration-acceleration
delay is
( 11 )
d6: v"/a6
I n e q n s( 8 ) t o ( 11 1 ,a , , a " , a h a r ei n k m , h / s .
Further,the elementalmodelcan be expressedin
termsof the averagetravel time, ls, ratherthandelay,
d. Since
l":d*3600x"/v"
(where t" and d are in seconds,the section distance
x, is in km and v" is in km/h),eqn (6) can be re-written as
F: f', x" + L ts + ti)f,
The deceleration-acceleration
delay, dn, is the
time spent during a deceleration-acceleration
manoeuvre, ln, less the time taken to travel the
deceleration-accelerationdistance, xh, at cruise
speed,vc:
dn : tn -- 36O0 x6/v"
l7l
t12l
where
f'r: f, - (360Ofr/v")
(12a)
is the adjustedcruise luel consumptionrate.

Fuel consumption rate per unit distance, f,
(mL/km),and per unit time, f, (mL/s),for the above
equationscan be calculated from f, : F /x" and f, :
F/1", where xs and ts are total section distance and
travel time, respectively.The followingformulaeare
useful:
f
d
sh
=f,+f"- -x
+f,"x
ss
=fr+6Jr+rri
Traditionally,traffic models predict an average
delay, d, which includesthe deceleration-acceleration delays. The relationshipbetweenthis delay and
the stopped delay (idling time), d, used in above
equationsis
d: d" + hdh
where dn is the average deceleration-acceleralion
delay per stop. Puttingd. : d - h dnin eqn (3),
F : f, x , + f 2 d + ( f , t - f 2 d ) h
(41
is obtained.Defining
f 'r: f" - f" dn
(5)
as the adjusted excess luel consumptionrate per
stop, i.e. normal excess fuel consumptionrate less
the idlingfuel consumptionduringtime dn,
F:f,x"+ftd+f:\h
(6)
is derived.
(10)
(13a)
fr=fr'*rr|.r+f;
= t i'+v
3600f"
xs
+t!h
(13b)
x
f t. .=t "f : j + r ,
,,::
fr'
3600 %
+fr+f;:s
( 1 4)
whered", h-are stoppeddelay time and numberof

stopsperunitdistance,
andysis theaveragesection
speed(km/h).
A R RN o . 12 4
21
Example:
B a s i cf u e l c o n s u m p t i o nr a t e sf o r v " : 5 2 k m / h ,a , :
2.2 km/h/s and a" : 8.6 km/h/s (constantrates) are
k n o w no s s r : ' l 4 0 m L / k m ,9 . . : 0 . 6 1 0m L / s a n d 9 ,
: 60 mL per stop (coefficientsfor eqn (1) ). Determ i n et h e c o e f f i c i e n t sf o r e q n s ( 3 ) ,( 6 ) a n d( 1 2 ) .F o r a l l
e q u a t i o n s ,t h e i d l i n g f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nr a t e i s t h e
same:
ft:et:0.610ml/s
For eqns (3) and (6),the cruisefuel consumptionrate
is f, : 9, : 'l 40 mL/km,but the adjustedrate for eqn
( 12 ) i s
f 't : 140 - (3600 x 0.6'10/52): 98 mL/km.
T o d e t e r m i n eI , a n d f i , , f i r s t l yf r o me q n s ( 9 ) t o ( 11 ) ,
a ; : 3 . 5 k m / h / s ,x 6 : 0 . 2 1 5 k m a n d d n : 1 5 s a r e
found.Hence,
f t : e t - e t X n : 6 0 - ( 14 0 x 0 . 2 1 5 ): 3 0 m L
and
f ' , : f t - f " d n : 3 0 - ( 0 . 6 1 0x 1 5 ) : 2 1 m L
are foundfor eqns (3) and (6),respectively.For x, :
0 . 6 5 0 k m , d s - - 2 4 s a n d h : 1 . 4 s t o p s ( h e n c ef " :
90 s, v" : 26 km/h), the above formulaegive F :
148 mL, f , : 228 mL/kmand l, : 1 .644ml/s.
Various lorms of the elemental model given
a b o v e h e l p t o r e l a t e i t t o t h e o t h e r m o d e l sg i v e n i n
the literature.However, a direct comparisonof the
modelcoefficientsmust not be madewith the correspondingcoefficientsof any model based on regression analysisfor reasonsdiscussedin Part 1 of this
report.lt should be rememberedthat,for the element a l m o d e l ,e a c h c o e f f i c i e n it s d e t e r m i n e di n d i v i d u a l l y
b y c o n t r o l l e de x p e r i m e n t a t i oW
n . i t ht h i sp o i n ti n m i n d ,
an attempt is made below to relate the elemental
m o d e lt o t h e P K E m o d e lb y W a t s o n ,e t a / . ( 1 9 8 0 ) .
3. RELATION
TO THEPKEMODEL
Watson et al. (1980) and Watson (1980) gave the
f o l l o w i n ge x p r e s s i o nf o r p r e d i c t i n Ef u e l c o n s u m p t i o n
o e r u n i td i s t a n c e :
t, : k, * k"/v" * &, y" + k, PKE
(15)
:
(r
where k,
1 to 4) are constants,and
kt
representsthe fuel used in overcomingvehicle
resistancelosses,
k,
r e p r e s e n t si d l i n gf u e l c o n s u m p t i o n ,
kj
represents consumptiondue to aerodynamic
forces, and
k,
representsfuel consumptiondue to work to acc e l e r a t et h e v e h i c l ep e r u n i t d i s t a n c e .
ys is the averageinterruptedtravelspeed,and
PKE is the sum of the positive kinetic energy
c h a n g e s( d u r i n ga c c e l e r a t i o n a
) ,n di s g i v e nb y :
2lvr2 - v,2|
PKE =
12960x,
t rol
where yr and v, (km/h) are the final and initial

velocities in a positive acceleration,x" is the total
section distance (km)and PKEis in (m/sr).For example, for a speed change manoeuvre70-40-60 (slowdown from 70 km/h to 40 km/h and speed-up to 60
km/h) over a distance of 500 m.
pKE:
( 6 0 , _ 4 0 , \ / ( 1 2 9 6 0x 0 . S ) : 0 . 3 1 m / s 2
is found.
Watsonet al. (1980)derive the coetficientsk, to
k, ol the PKE model (eqn (15) ) bv regression
'lumped
analysis.Watson (1980) refersto this as the
coefficientmodel', and emphasisesthat the coefficientsderivedfromregressionanalysisshouldnot be
'because
used as the elementalmodel coefficients
regression allows inter-coefficienttransfer'.As an
example,Watsoncontraststhe measuredvalue of k"
: 2640 ml/h with the value ol k" : 2903 mL/h obtained from regression analysis.The following discussion assumes that each coefficientof eqn (15)
can be measureddirectly by controlledexperimentation, and as such it can be related to the elemental
m o d e ld e s c r i b e da b o v e .
Firstly,consider the predictionof steady-speed
fuel consumptionby eqn (15). Putting v" : v" (no
d e l a y )a n d P K E : 0 ( n o s p e e d c h a n g e s )t,h e n
(171
f
k, + k,/vc* krv"
":
where
f" : steady-speedfuel consumptionrate (ml/km) at
cruisingspeed, v" (km/h);k, (ml/km), k, (ml/h) and
k, (mL-h/km,).
T h e f o l l o w i n gf e a t u r e so f e q n ( 1 7 ) s h o u l d b e
noted:
(a) The minimumluel consumotionis obtainedat the
optimumsteady speed given by
(18)
vo : Jkr/k"
and the correspondingminimumfuel consumpt i o n i s g i v e nb y
fo: k, + 25x.,:
k, * 2k.,vo (1g)
For exampleusing Watson's(1980)formulal. :
- 3 0 . 7 - l ( 2 9 O 3 / v " )+ 1 . 2 1 6 v c , v o : 4 9 k m / h
and fo : 88 ml/km are found.However,it should
b e n o t e dt h a t k , , k , , k , i n t h i s e x a m p l ew e r e o b tained from regressionanalysis.Bayley (1980)
suggests a method to calculate coefficients k,
and k] from eqns (18) and (19) using known
valuesof k", vo and fo. This is discussedin Section5.
(b) As v" approacheszero, f" approachesinfinity.
This is due to the contributionof the second term
of eqn (17), and results from travel time per unit
distanceapproachinginfinity.This contrastswith
the steady-speedfuel consumptionformulaused
by Vincent,Mitchelland Robertson(1980),which
is of the form
fc:?*bv"*cv"2.
Vincentet a/.'s (1980) formula
f : 17O- 4.55 v" * 0.049 v"2
"
gives a finite fuel consumptionfigure for zero
s p e e d( f " : 1 7 O m L / k m ) .
Now find the differencebetween the consumpt i o n p r e d i c t i o n sg i v e n b y e q n s ( 1 5 ) a n d ( 1 7 ) w h i c h
must be due to delays and speed change
manoeuvres.This is found as
tr
xc
-'(;
. kr (y, - v"l + k4 PKE

;)
22
A R RN o . 1 2 4
P u t t i n1g/ v ": t
: t + J : ( r/ v ) + d ,
is found. From eqn(78),(h /kr) : 1/voz,and hence
(v"lvolz
f,-f"
= *rJ (t \
)
t +dv" /
+ roere
|2ol
is obtained.
Furthermore,lreat the PKE model in a deterministicfashion,and define two separatePKE's:
PKE. to representspeed fluctuationswhile cruising uninterruptedby traffic controls;and
PKE2 to representstops and slow-downsimposed
by traffic controls.
Now write
(20a)
k1 PKE : k-, PKE, + k, PKE2
givenby eqn(15) is re-writTherefore

the PKEmodel
ten as
f,
= (kt + krlv" + ktvc + kt PKEI\
_ /
+ k z- d l 1 \
lv"lvol2 \
;|
tadvc
*kupKE,
(211
A c o m p a r i s o no f e q n ( 2 1 ) w i t h e q n ( 1 3 a ) i n d i c a t e s
that, for the elementalmodel.
fr = kt + k2/v"+ ktvc+
fz=
ksPKEl
*,(,-:'d)=
r,_jlg!
PKE.
fz' = ka -:h
l22a\
e2b\
d
12Zcl
It is seen that the expecled equivalencyof the idling

fuel consumptionrates, f" : kt, is not obtained.Eqn
(22b) indicatesthat this can be obtained only if the
third term of the PKEmodel (eqn (15) ) is expressed
as &r yc ratherthan (, v". lt appearsthat this problem
is a result of interpreting 'steady speed' as the
'average
speed', v' ratherthan the cruise speed, v",
in the original derivation of the PKE model as indicated by Watson et al. (1980) eqns (12) to (18), and
Watson's(1980) eqns (2) to (4). To compensatefor
the underestimation
of the effects of stopped delays,
the regressionmethodwould produce a higher value
of the PKE coefficient k. . This would result in overestimation of the effects of stops relative to the
effects of stopped delays, i.e. high stop penalties
would be implied.In addition,this would cause the
PKEmodel(eqn ('15)) to fail to explainluel consumption differencesdue to extra idling time for a given
stop pattern (see Part 2).
Now have a ciose look at the PKE, and PKE,

variablesin eqns (22a) and (22c), irrespectiveof the
problemwith eqn (22b).The speed fluctuationsduring cruise,which contributeto PKE,in eqn (22a),are
due to the internalfrictionof the trafficstreamas well
friction factors
as various road-side (environmental)
as discussedin Part 1 of this reoort.These fluctuations can be considered to be around the average
c r u i s es p e e d ,v " , a n d
P K E , : [ ! ( v " 2- v " 2 )
* I(v"2 - vorlll(12960x")
(23)
wherethe speeds vq, v6, v6 are in km/h,the distance
x. is in km, and PKE is in m/s2.The speed va represents the local peak speed during a speed-up
manoeuvre(v" - v" - y"), e.g. passing a slower
vehicle. and the speed yb represents the local
minimumspeed duringa slow-downmanoeuvre(v" v o - v " ) . A n e x a m p l ei s g i v e n i n F i g . 1 w h i c h i l l u s t r ates travel in SectionA on a roadof lengthx,c: 1 km.
The speeds are vc : 48 km/h, v" :64 km/h and vo
: 32 km/h, and hence
PKE. : [(0+, - 482]|+ (482 - 32rll /12960
: 0.237 m/s2
is found.
Using Claffey's(1971) data, f : 1O4mL/km (at 48
"
km/h), Af : 14 mL for (48-64-48)
cycle assuming
this is equivalentto (64-48-64)cycle, and 13 mL for
(48-32-48) cycle. Fuel consumedper unit distance
w h i l ec r u i s i n gi n S e c t i o nA i s
t , : f I 2 A , f/ x 4 : 1 0 4 + 1 4 + ' 1 3 : 1 3 1 m l / k m .
"
S i n c ek . P K E . : 2 l t / x o ,
R.,: 27/0.237 : 114 mL-h2/kmz
is found.The ratio of the consumptionallowing for
speed fluctuationsto the steady-speedconsumption
f o r t h i s e x a m p l ei s 1 3 1 / 1 0 4: 1 . 2 6 .
The speed change cycle (yc-0-yc)representsa
completestop from cruise speed.Puttingvt : vc, vi
: 0 in eqn(16),
2v2
PKE2 =
(241
12960x,
is found. Assumingh identical 'effective'stops per

v e h i c l e ,I v " , :
h v " z , a n dh e n c eP K E ,: h v " 2 / 1 2 9 6 O
is found.From eqn (22c),
ku r"'
(25)
f3'
12960
is obtained.For example,during travel in Section B
(xe : 1 km) of Fig. 7 , there is a full stop from 48 km/h.
Using Claffey's (1971) data {, : 37 ml/stop, f._:
0.610 mL/s, and dn : 10 s fromFig. 1 (a6: 4.8
- 0 . 6 1 0x 1 0 : 3 1
k m / h / s ) f, ' t : 3 7
ml/stopis
found.The PKEvalue from eqn (24) is PKE2-- 0.178
m/s2,and from eqn (25),
kn : 31 x 12960/482: 174 ml-h2/km2
is found.From eqn (13a), fuel consumptionper unit
distancein Section B is
f, : 1 O 4+ 0 . 6 1x 3 0 * 3 7 x 1 : 1 5 9 m l / k m
(note
d: 40s,4 : so s,tr": t ).
In this example,
the fuelconsumption
ratefor
ARRNo. 124
23
travel in Sections A and B together is

f , : ( 1 3 1 + 1 5 9 1 / 2: 1 4 5 m l / k m .
lf an attemptis made to combinePKFs for cruise and
for stops.
P K E : P K E .+ P K E 2 : ( 0 . 2 3 7+ 0 . 1 7 8 ) / 2 : 0 . 2 0 8
m/s2
i s f o u n d .T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n gf u e l c o n s u m p t i o n
is
( 1 4 + 1 3 + 3 1 l . / 2: 2 9 m l / k m .
W r i t i n gk t P K E : 2 9 a s i n e q n ( 1 5 ) ,
k r : 2 9 / O . 2 O 8: 1 4 0 m L - h 2 / k m 2
Linearregressionsof f'ron v"2/12960 (allforced

t h r o u g ht h e o r i g i n )h a v eb e e n c a r r i e do u t i n o r d e r t o
estimatethe value of coefficientkn in eqn (25). The
resultsare given in Table /, and are shown in Figs 2
and 3. In termsof R 2 values,eqn (25) appearsto prov i d e a g o o d b a s i s f o r p r e d i c t i n ge x c e s s f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nA. t t h e s a m et i m e ,t h e r e s u l t si n d i c a t et h a t
coefficient(, is dependenton the decelerationand
accelerationrates.The tendencyis for k^ to increase
as ar , a2 or ah increase.lt has been found that the
relationbetweenk,,and an could be describedby
is found.However,the combinedPKEandthe corresp o n d i n gk , d o n o t d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e ns p e e df l u c t u a tions during cruise and stops due to traffic controls.
k,,: 222 - (248/ah) (F, : 0.97).
4" EFFECTOF ACCELERATION

AND DECELERATION
RATES
An importantquestionarises fromthe above analysis
aboutwhetherk-,and (, are the sameand constant,or
whetherthey depend on the amountof speed change
and/or decelerationand accelerationrates and oatterns. There is insufficient data for a complete
a n a l y s i so f t h i s q u e s t i o n .H o w e v e r ,a n a t t e m p t i s
made below to investigatethe coefficientk,, and its
relationto the elementalmodel coefficientli, as expressed in eqn (25) using data given by Claffey
(1976).
The excess fuel consumptiondata for stops, 1.,,
have been taken from Claffey's(1976) Tables41 and
43. The data are lor a 1972 Chevroletsedan (V-8,
6 . 5 L , a u t o m a t i c )f,o r a l e v e lr o a d ,a n da r e l i m i t e dt o a
range of cruise speeds from 16 km/h to 64 km/h.
Eight sets of excess fuel consumptiondata, ll,, are
given by Claffey for the different combinationsol
decelerationand accelerationrates (km/h/s)given in
T a b l el ( a , c a l c u l a t e df r o me q n ( 1 0 )) . T h e a d j u s t e d
e x c e s s f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nv a l u e s , f | , , h a v e D e e n
calculated from eqn (5) using f, : 0.883 mL/s
( C l a f f e y1 9 7 6 ,p . 2 1 0 ) a n d d , ( ' e x c e s st i m ec o n s u m p tion') data given in Claffey'sTables 44 and 45.
This is illustratedin Fig. 4. This relationgives kn :

1 0 9 a n d 1 9 4 f o r a 6 : 2 . 2 a n d 8 . 8 k m / h / s ,r e s p e c tively.The differencesbetweenthese valuesand the
c o n s t a n vt a l u eo f k , , : 1 5 7 ( n e g l e c t i n g
acceleration
and decelerationeffects)are -34 per cent and +24
per cent, respectively.These resultshave important
i m p l i c a t i o n so n t h e u s e o f t h e P K E m o d e l i t t h e
equivalencebetween fi, and PKE, (eqn (22c) ) is
valid.Furthermore,lumpingtogetherof k-,and kn may
resultin similarproblemsif k. is differentfrom k,,, and
k-,varies with speed and accelerationvalues.
T h e r e l a t i o nb e t w e e nk , a n d a 6 i m p l i e sa f u n c t i o n
for fl, which is of the form
f r '= o , " '
-P':
(26)
w h e r er r : 0 . 0 1 7 1 a n d p : 0 . 0 1 9 1 f o r t h e C l a l f e y
(1976) data analysed.Eqn (26) means that excess
fuel consumptionis zero for arraveragedecelerationaccelerationrate of a1,: p/o, irrespectiveof the
c r u i s es p e e d .S u c h i m p l i c a t i o n so f t h e d e p e n d e n c e
of excess fuel consumptionper stop on deceleration
a n d a c c e l e r a t i o nr a t e s n e c e s s i t a t e sf u r t h e r i n vestigationo
s n t h i s s u b j e c t .F u r t h e rd i s c u s s i o nw i t h
referenceto Bayley's (1980) work is given below.
TABLEI
REGRESSION
RESULTSFOREXCESSFUEL CONSUMPTIONCOEFFICIENTf',
Decelerction
Rate
al
tl
Il
IV
VI
vtl
vill
t-tv
v-vill
Acceleration
Rate
d.,
8.8
8.8
8.8
8.8
4.4
6.6
8.8
2.2
2.2
2.2
4.4
o.o
2.2
8.8
f ', : k,,v"2/ 12960
Average
Rate
?6
&'
R2
3.52
5.87
7.54
8.80
1(e
194
198
0.99
0.98
0.99
0.98
2.20
2.93
3.30
3.52
r13
137
142
148
0.97
0.98
0.98
0.96
170
135
0.97
0.96
157
0.95
24
A R RN o . 1 2 4
S p e e d ,v { k m / h }
SectionA
64
"a
vc
"b
48
32
138 146
Fig. 1 - Cruise spEed fluctuations and inlersoclion stops {an example)
ARR No. 124
25
100
f - = 0 . 0 1 5 3v . :
at
-r- eo
E
o
o
(km/h/s)
(km/h/s)
2.2
8.8
2.2
8.8
8.8
8.8
2.2
2.2
f . = 0 . 0 11 8 v " r
f , = 0 . 0 1 1 4v " r
c60
f': = 0.0087 vcr
l:
E
f
E40
820
Fig. 2 - Adiusted excess fuel consumption rate per slop, f', , as a function ot the cruise speed, vc
,
for indiyidual data sets
<80
f 3 = 0 . 0 1 2 1v " 2
tr
qt
c60
{:
Number of data points
o
840
\,
Ezo
Fig. 3 - Adjusted excess fuel consumption rate per stop, f';t , as a function of the cruise speed, vc ,
for all data
26
ARRNo. 124
180
o
N
teo
.v,
tl
i rco
.9
E
(J
120
2.00
4.00
6.00
Average deceleration-acceleration rate, a,", (km/h/s)
Fig, 4 - Coefticient k,;in f 'l : k,,v"2/'l 2960 as a f unction of the average deceleration-acceleration rate, ah
5. AN ANALYSISOF BAYLEY'S
EXCESSFUELCONSUMPTION
FORMULA
B a y l e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) u s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t a n t e o u sf u e l
consumptionfunction to derive an excess fuei consumptionfunction.
t - - d F/ d t :
where
,
a
c, to c,
c, * clv + c\v2 * c, a
e7l
instantaneousfuel consumption
p e r u n i tt i m e ( m l / s ) ,
instantaneousspeed (km/h),
d v / d t : i n s t a n t a n e o u sa c celerationrate (km/h/s),and
constants dependenton vehicle
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s( c r : i d l i n g f u e i
consumptionrate).
F o r c o n s t a n t - s p e e cd r u i s e ( a : 0 , , : , " 1 , e q n ( 2 7 )
gives a functionwhich is equivalentto eqn (17) with
kl : 3600 cz , kz -- 3600 c, , k.r: 3600 c.,for correct
units.However,Bayley suggeststhat the coefficients
k, , k, and (, for the steady-speedfuel consumption
relationship (eqn (17)) can be found deterministically.lf the minimum-fuel
speed,vo,the correspondingfuel consumption,/o, and the idling fuel consumptionk, are known, coefficientsk, and k, can be
found from eqns (18) and (19) (see eqn (34) in Section 9). For example, Watson's (1980) regression
equation gives vo : 49 km/h and fo : 88 mL/km, and
the measuredvalue of k, is 2640 mLlt as discussed

i n S e c t i o n3 . U s i n gt h e s e v a l u e s ,k , : - 1 9 . 8 a n d k ,
: 1.10 are found.The differencebetweenthe predictions of l" from eqn (17) with these coefficientsand
those from regressionhas been foundto be negligible. The advantageof the deterministicmethod cver
the regressionapproach is to use the rneasuredidling luel consumptionrate unchanged(inter-coefficient transferproblem is avoided).
Bayley (1980) eqn (7) for excess tuel consumption per stop can be shown to be equivalentto
v'
fr' = erv;'-ez
-
--
d ,
(28)
where er and e, are constants (e, , however,is dep e n d e n t o n t h e d e c e l e r a t i o na n d a c c e l e r a t i o n

profilesas discussed in detail by Bayley).
For Claffey'sdata, regressionanalysishas given
e , : 0 , 6 5 a n d e , : 0 . 6 6 2x 1 0 - 5 w i l h F 2 : 0 . 9 3 b u t
the second term of eqn (34) has not been found
statisticallysignificant.Furthermore,the prediction
of llr by this formulahas not been foundsatisfactory
due to consistentoverestimationfor low speeds and
underestimation
for high speeds.Similarto eqn (26),
eqn (28) meansthat excess fuel consumptionmay be
: 2 ve2/
zero,but it is dependenton the speed: d11
e r a h i n e q n ( 2 8 )w i l l g i v e l ; : 0 . I n v i e w o f t h e i n conclusiveresults of this investigation,furtherwork
is recommendedsince the findingswould be useful
for both the PKE and the elementalmodels.
A R RN o . 1 2 4
27
6 . O N C O M P O S I TV
EE H I C L E
MODELS
Trips A and I can be repeatedseveraltimes (say n

t i m e s )a n d t h e f o l l o w i n gc a l c u l a t i o n cs a n b e c a r r i e d
out.
T h e a b o v ed i s c u s s i o na p p l i e st o t h e b a s i c m o d e l l i n g
questionfor a single car. Whatevermodel is chosen
for use, it is necessary to apply it to a number of
diflerentvehicle types and add the resultsaccording
to the proportion of ditferentvehicles in the traffic
stream.The amountof calculationscan be decreased
by developinga single fuel consumptionformulafor a
'composite vehicle' representingthe traflic stream.
F o r t h e e l e m e n t a lm o d e l , e . g . e q n ( 3 ) , t h i s c a n b e
done by calculatingthe modelcoefficientsfr (l : 1 to
3) from
T h e s t e a d y - s p e e d f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nr a t e
(mL/km)is
(30)
\Fo/n X
The use ol f , : f" shouldbe adequatefor most pract i c a l p u r p o s e s .l f d e s i r e d ,T r i p A c a n b e s p e c i f i e d
with speed fluctuations representativeof real-life
d r i v i n gc o n d i t i o n s .
The excess fuel consumptionper stop (mL) is
( 3 1)
| r : 2 ( F s - F o l / nN
The average deceleration-accelerationdelay per
stop can be calculatedfrom
dn:I(ts-t^)/nN
(32)
and the adjusted excess fuel consumptionrale can
be calculatedfrom eqn (5).
lf it is desirable to idle for a while when stopped
beforeaccelerating,the samemethodcan be applied
by reducingFsby fr Id", and ta by 14, where Id" is
t h e s u mo f i d l i n gt i m e sd u r i n gT r i p B ( h e n c ed d u r i n g
each stop needs to be recordedseparately).Experimentscan be repeatedat variouscruise speeds.
r, =
where
fi
fii
Pi
ei
g
,!r
o1r'1
(29)
fuel consumption rate for an

average or 'composite' vehicle
duringa manoeuvreof type i (i :
1 f o r c r u i s e ,i : 2 t o r i d l i n g ,I : 3
for stops),
fuel consumptionrate for vehicle
type i duringa manoeuvreof type
i (total K vehicletypes),
Qi/q : ProPortion of vehicle
type i in the trafficstream,
flow rate for type i, and
:,gl: total flow rate.
Thus, the fuel consumptionby all vehicles in the

traffic stream can be calculatedas (Fg) where F is
the fuel consumptionper vehicle and g is total flow
rate (or volume).
Experimentation
similarto the above can be carried out to obtain fuel consumptionrates for partial
stops and multiple stops. The same method can be
used for theoretical work using well-defined
deceleration/acceleration
rates and patterns.In the
simple experimentationdescribedabove, deceleration
and accelerationpatternsand rates observedat traffic
control devices should be duplicated as far as
oossible.
8. OTHERISSUES
7. SIMPLEMEASUREMENTS
TO
PRODUCE
ELEMENTAL
MODEL
DATA
The discussion in Sections 3 to 5 in search of a
g e n e r a l f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nr e l a t i o n s h i pi s r a t h e r
theoretical.In practice, coefficientsfor the elemental
m o d e lc a n b e d e t e r m i n e de a s i l yb y c o n t r o l l e de x p e r i mentation.Measurementof the idling fuel consumption rate (f, ) is straightforward.The cruise and stops
coefficients(1,and l ) can be measuredby meansof
a pair of trips over a specified distance X as
described below.
TRIPA:
Travelalong distanceX (km)at a

nearlyconstantspeed,v" (km/h)and
measurethe fuel consumptionFo (mL)
and travel time tr (s).
T R I PB ;
ExecuteNcompletestop cycles within

distanceX, travelat steady-speed,v",
otherwise.A completestop cycle
consistsof a decelerationfromspeed
vc to zero (or near-zero,e.g. 2 to 5
km/h) speed and an accelerationback
to speed v" with no idlingtime.Record
luel consumptionF" and traveltime t6
at the end of the trip.
There are various questions which need to be investigatedfor improveduse of the elementalmodel.
These are briefly as follows.
(a) As discussed in Section 2, the elementalmodel
relies on the predictionof the numberof stops by
a traffic model in terms of 'effective'stops imposedby trafficcontrols.Considerlor examplea
partial stop (slow-down) cycle, v"-v,-vc, ar a
multiplestop (speed-up)cycle O-v,-0,where v,
is less than v". lf the excess fuel consumption
rate for such a manoeuvreis fi,, and the excess
fuel consumptionrate for a completestop cycle,
v"-O-v",or 0-v"-0, is fi,, then the effectivestop
value of the manoeuvreis (t'.r,/f'.,
) which is less
than 1. Formulationof an effectivestop relationship should be examinedin the light ol the discussion in Sections 3 to 5.
(b) In the TRANSYTprogram(Vincentet a/. 198O)for
co-ordinated signals, the elemental model
c o e f fi c i e n t s a r e a p p l i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
average platoon speed. However, delays and
stops are calculated allowing for different
speeds in the platoon (throughthe 'platoon dispersion'process).Errorswhich resultfrom using
the average platoon speed as the cruise speed
need to be investigatedin this type of application.
28
ARR No. 1 24
( c ) A g a i ni n a p r o g r a mt i k eT R A N S Y Te,x i t s p e e d ,v " ,
may be differentfrom the approachspeed, v, , in
w h i c hc a s e a s t o p c y c l e i s v , - O - v rw
, h e r eb o t h v ,
> v,,and vt 1 vt are possible.The errors due to
c a l c u l a t i n gf u e l c o n s u m p t i o na c c o r d i n gt o t h e
s t o p c y c l e v , - O - v ,s h o u l db e i n v e s t i g a t e dc o n s i d e r i n g t h a t a s u b s e q u e n ts p e e d - c h a n g e
manoeuvreyr-y, (speed-upor slow-down)would
normallybe countedas part of the cruise component of the fuel consumptionon the exit link
(becausethis change is to occur irrespectiveol
t r a f f i cc o n t r o l s ) .
9. CONCLUSTON
The work reported in earlier papers by Watson,
M i l k i n sa n d M a r s h a l l( 19 8 0 ) a n d B a y l e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) h a s
been usefulin the analysestowardsderivingexplicit
functionsfor the elementalmodel oarameters.There
is an agreementbetween Bayley'smethodand Watson el a/.'s method about the lorm of the steadys p e e df u e l c o n s u m p t i o nf u n c t i o nT. h i s i s
f":k,+k"/vc*k.,v"
(33)
The parametersk, to k, can be determinedusing the
deterministicmethodsuggestedby Bayley.To implement the method in practice,
(a) measureidling fuel consumptionrate k, in mL/h
(: /.,using elementalmodel notation)directly,
( s e ee x a m p l ei n S e c t i o n5 ) . T h e p r " O i " t i o na b i l i t yo f
eqn (33) using this methodshouldbe comparedwith
that when it is used as a regressionequation,using
actual (ideally on-road) data for a wide range ol
s p e e d s( e . 9 .1 0 t o 1 2 Ok m / h ) .
The discussion presented in this paper is inconclusiveregardingthe equivalenceof the pKE and
elementalmodels. Further analysisand research is
requiredto resolve some fundamentalproblems. In
p a r t i c u l a r ,t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s n e e d t o b e
answered.
(i) Are the coefficientsof the separatePKE variables lor speed fluctuationswhile cruisingand lor
stops due to traffic controlsthe same and constant, or do they depend on the amountof soeed
change and/or deceleration and acceleration
rates and patterns?
(ii) What is the form of the functionwhich expresses
the elementalmodel coefficientfor excess fuel
consumption,/ij, in relationto the cruise speed
and the average deceleration-acceleration
rate
(see eqns (26) and (28) )?
A thoroughanalysisof the subject is necessaryusing
extensive fuel consumption data representing
different deceleration/accelerationrates and patterns,and a wide range of speeds includinglow and
high cruise speeds.
(b) measurevariousvaluesof l" tor cruise speeds in

the range 40 to 70 km/h using the method
described in Section 7, and determinethe opt i m u ms p e e d , v " ( k m / h ) ,a n d m i n i m u mi u e l c o n sumptionfo (mL/km),and
In conclusion,the coefficientsof the elemental

modelneed to be determinedseparatelyand by controlled experimentationin view of varlous problems
raisedin this paper.The use of regressionequations
whose coefficients are determinedsimultaneously
may result in mis-calculationof the effects of delays
and stops due to traffic controls relative to the
effects ol factors unrelatedto trafficcontrols.
( c ) c a l c u l a t ek , a n d k , f r o m
k, - lo - 2k" /vo
k, : k.,/voz
Dependingon the answersto the basic questions

raised in this paper,other issuessuch as fine-tuning
of traffic models for better predictionof partial-stop
and multiple-stopeffects can be resolved.
REFERENCES
(34a)
(34b)
AKCELIK,R. (1981 a ). Fuel efficiency and other objectives in trafiic system management.
Trafiic Eng. Control 22(2',, pp. 54-65.
(1981b). Traffic signals: capacity and riming Analysis.AustralianRoad Research
Board. ResearchReoort ARR No. 123.
BAYLEY,c. (1980). Energy implicationsof co-ordinated signals. Aust. Rd Res. 1o(2), pp.
16-24.
CLAFFEY,P.J. (1971). Runningcosts of motor vehicles as afiected by road design and
tratfic. Highway ResearchBoard, NCHRpRep. 111, Washington,D.C.
(1976). Passengercar fuel conservation.U.S. Fed. Highw. Admin.Rep. No. FHWA_
PL-77009. Washington,D.C.
vlNcENT, R.A.,MlrcHELL, A.l. and ROBERTSON,
D.t. (t 9go). tlser guide to TRANSyTversion L Transp.Road Res. Lab. (U.K.).TRRL Lab. Rep. LR 888.
WATSON,H.C. (1973). lnfluenceof vehicle driving pattems on localised urban emissions
suurces. Society of AutomotiveEngineers(U.S.A.)paper No. 730556.
(1980). Sensitivityol fuel consumptionand emissionsto drivingpatternsand vehicle
design.Paperpresentedat ihe sAE/ARRBseminar and workshop 'can TrafficManagement Reduce Vehicle Fuel Consumptionand Emissions?',Melbourne,July 1990.
, MILKINS,E.E.and MARSHALL,G.A. (i980). A simptitiedmethod for quantityingtuel
consumptiono{ vehicles in urban traffic.SAE-Aust.4O(1), pp. 6-13.
Part 4
CALIBRATION
AND APPLICATION
OF
TWO FUELCONSUMPTION
MODELS
by
H.C.WATSON
Readerin MechanicalEngineering
Universityof Melbourne
A R RN o . 12 4
29
1. INTRODUCTION
T h e r ee x i s t s a c o n t i n u i n gn e e d f o r f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n
models which can accurately forecast fuel usage
f r o mv a r i a b l e sr e a d i l ya v a i l a b l et o t r a f f i ce n g i n e e r sl.t
i s d e s i r a b l et h a tt h e m o d e lc o e f f i c i e n t as r e e a s i l yo b t a i n e df r o m e x i s t i n go r s l i g h t l ym o d i f i e dv e h i c l et e s t
p r o c e d u r e sM
. o d e l ss h o u l da l s o b e a m e n a b l et o e x t e n s i o nf o r e s t i m a t i n ge x h a u s te m i s s i o n s .
H e r e i n f, u r t h e rt h o u g h t sa r e d e v e l o p e do n t w o o f
t h e c u r r e n t l ya v a i l a b l es i m p l em o d e l sa n d s o m e p e r formancecomparisonsare made.lt is hoped that the
p a p e r w i l l s t i m u l a t ed i s c u s s i o nr a t h e rt h a n o r o v i d e
completeanswers.
2 . M O D E L SC O N S I D E R E D
A l m o s tt h e e n t i r er a n g eo f m o d e lt y p e s a p p l i c a b l et o
l u e l c o n s u m p t i o na n d e m i s s i o n sm o d e l l i n gc a n b e
f o u n d b y c a r e f u l i n v e s t i g a t i o no l t h e p a p e r s i n
S A E / A R R B( 1 9 8 0 ) . l t i s a p p r o p r i a t et o l i s t t h e s e i n
a p p r o x i m a t eo r d e r o f d e c r e a s i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s
p l a c e do n d a t a i n p u t( r e f e r e n c ecsi t e d a r e i l l u s t r a t i v e
o r r l yo f m o d e lt y p e s ) :
( 1 ) e n g i n e m a p p i n g m o d e l s ( M i l k i n sa n d W a t s o n
1977)"
( 2 ) v e h i c l em a p p i n gm o d e l s ( K e n t ' 1 9 8)1;
(3) regression surlaces (Kunselmanet al. 1974',
B u l a c h1 9 7 7 1 ;
( 4 ) e l e m e n t am
l o d e l s ( W a t s o n1 9 7 3 ,A k c e l i k 1 9 8 1) ;
and
(5) travelspeed (or time) models (Evansand Herman
1976; Watson '1980; Johnston and Trayford
1980).
i J
-!
AccLtRArroi (m/rz )
r
ICCEL
In the present examination,considerationof models

( 1 ) , ( 2 ) a n d ( 3 ) i s o u t l i n e do n i y s i n c e t h e y r e q u i r ea
representativeand continuousvelocity-timerecord.
F o r m o d e l s( 2 ) a n d ( 3 ) ,a j o i n t v e l o c i t y - a c c e l e r a t i o n
probabilitydensity functionof the type illustratedin
Fig. 1 will suffice.This shouldnot be interpreteoas a
statementthat they cannotbe employedin evaluating
the effects of traffic managementchanges.lf the required driving pattern data are available for the
before-and-after
change,it is possiblethat they may
adequately forecast results of the change. Those
m o d e l s ( ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) ) w h i c h e m p l o ym e a s u r e m e n t s
d i r e c t l y ,w i t h o u tr e c o u r s et o r e g r e s s i o na, r e l i k e l yt o
b e s u p e r i o ri n f o r e c a s t i n ga b i l i t y .
2.1 OBJECT
The presentexaminationol the calibrationof the remainingmodels ( (4) and (5) ) is directedtowards the
predictionof fuel consumptionin:
(a) traffic simulationstudies,and
(b) the results of before-and-afterstudies.
It is not expectedthat predictionscan be madeat the
microscopic scale (second-by-second)as can be
a c h i e v e db y m o d e l s( 1 ) , ( 2 ) a n d ( 3 ) .A c c u r a t ep r e d i c tion at the macroscopicscale is desirable.This scale
c a n b e c o n s i d e r e dt o b e o n a l i n k - b y - l i n kb a s i s o r a
distanceof about 1 km and containingan intersection
or intersectionswith a roundabout,tratfic signal or
other control.In Part 'l of this report,Richardsonand
Akcelik (1982) argue that it is more importantto predict the correct sensitivity of fuel consumption
responseto traffic engineeringinitiativesratherthan
absolutevaluesol fuel consumption.
This argumentis
only valid when the absolutevaluesof fuel usage in a
comparisonare of similar magnitude.Clearly,an initiative bringing about a 10 per cent reductionfrom
200 mL/km is preferredto a 10 oer cent reductionat
100 mL/km,provided that all other factors in the example comparisonare equal. Thus it may be important to achieve accuracy in both fuel consumption
level and response.
2,2 THEELEMENTAL
MODEL
W a t s o n( 1 9 7 3 ) e m p l o y e da ' m o d a l ' m o d e li n w h i c h
driving was subdivided into acceleration, cruise,
decelerationand idle modes,the so called ACDI cycle seen in Fig.2. it was foundthat exhaustemissions
rates could be expressed with some precision as
functionsof velocity and acceleration.In an illustrative examplepredictionswere made for driving conditions in Edinburghon the basis of derived average
accelerationand decelerationrates, stopped delay
time, total travel time and numberof stops. Cruise
speed and cruise time could then be directly calculated.
8so
iOTt
r.lbour^.
h.o.ui.d
orpror'6cr.ly
rlehnd
ro vxl
r^ fr.r,otoirro^
SOURCE
w.rDn,r
ltr^.
o.d
doto
.ccordrng
or.. on .oci
.n 25
a!lo.n(196)
u20406080
Time (s)
Fig. 1 -Comparison between Melbourne driving and ADR27A
cycle presented as bi-yariate trequency distributions
Fig. 2 - Typical acceleration-cruise-deceleration-idle

(ACDt) cycte
ARR No. 1 24
30
Bulach(1977).was unableto overcomethe major
defects of this method:generationof negativecruise
time on some links;sensitivityof resultsto acceleration rates; and the problemsof weightingfactors requiredin derivingaccelerationrates (Watson,Milkins
and Bulach 1974). Bulach (15771demonstratedthe
superiorityof the instantaneous
emissionsrate model
as a polynomicalfunction ol instantaneousvelocity
and acceleration.
A model of the above family has been renamed
'elemental'
by Akcelik (1981) and also used by
Robertson,Lucas and Baker (1980) lor estimating
fuel consumedas follows:
F:t,x"+f2d"+tth
where
( 1)
average fuel consumptionper

vehicle(mL),
totalsectiondistance(km)
averagestoppeddelay,i.e. idlingtime(s),
F
xs
4
h
average number of (effective)

stops per vehicle (stop rate),
l,
f,
f,
fuel consumption rate while

cruising (mL/km),
fuel consumptionrate while idling (ml/s), and
excess fuel consumption per
v e h i c l es t o p ( m L ) .
It is important to recognise that the terms in this

equation are associated with easily discernable
(though often difficult to mathematicallyquantify)
f e a t u r e so f t h e d r i v i n gp a t t e r n n, a m e l yc r u i s i n g i,d l i n g
andstopping.
2.3 TRAVELSPEEDMODELS
The travel speed model presentlyunder consideration was developed by Watson,Milkinsand Marshall
'lurnped'coeffi11980) and has been referredto as a
cient model (Watson1980). Fuel consumptionis expressedas:
.k2
lx = Kt + v
s
+ K 3 V s + ko PKE
{21
where k, to k, are constants,

PKE
Avz/x",
Avz
2 { v r 2- v , 2 ) ,
final and initial velocities in an
acceleration manoeuvre.
respectively,and
xs
total sectiondistance.
The coefficientsresult from regressionanalysis,but
can be associated with, but do not directly quantify
(hencelumping),fuel use to overcomethe following
combinedetfects:
k1
ki
kj
kt
rollingresistance,transmissionlosses,engine
efficiency,
idle consumption(no load,or baseengine
friction),
aerodynamicdrag,transmissionlosses,engine
efficiency,
, ngine
v e h i c l em a s s ,t r a n s m i s s i olno s s e s e
efficiency.
2.4 COMPARISON
BETWEEN
MODELS
Eqn (2) can be employedto calculatethe fuel used
over the distancex, and time t.. As
(3)
v" : xrll.
then eqn (2) can be rearrangedas
F = ktx"
* k 2 f " * kt
x2
s
,'s
+ ka,Lv2
(4)
TABLEI
Valuesof Coefficientsk in FuelConsumption
Eqn(2) for the MelbourneUniversityTest
Car* at SteadySpeed
(f, in ml/km, v" in km/h)
Rl
Regression
But k, : idle
-30.7
- 9.t7
k.,
k',
R2
2903
2640
1.216
0.922
0.994
0.927
' 4.1 L, 6-cylinder

automatictransmrssionFord Cortina Wagon
The term krt. may be expandedto

krtr: (kri + k2')fs
(5)
where kr' is the idle fuel flow rate and kr' represents
the incrementin the time-dependentfuel flow which
is the resultof the averageincreasein enginefriction
when operating at above idle speeds and load (or
torque).For the Universityof Melbournetest car the
value of kr' is about 264 ml/h. Table ldemonstrates
that forcing k" : kri reduces the correlationcoeffic i e n t b y a b o u t4 p e r c e n t .
Now the total travel time t, is comprisedof the
idle time (or stopped time) d and the running (or
moving)time fr. Thuseqn (4) maybe writtenas
x!
F = kt x, * kzds + k2t, + kt
t-
+ kqAv'? {6}
The positive acceleration kinetic energy cnange

term Ay2 may be associated with two components
that arise from acceleration after a stop, Av"2 per
stop and cruise speed perturbationsAv,2.Henceeqn
(6) may be expanded to
F = krx, * k:ds + k4Lvj h + kzt,
x!
+ kt ,
's
+ ko\vf
0l
whereh is the numberof stops.

Comoarison
of coefficients
withthoseof theelementalmodel(eqn(1)) yields:
f,: k,
f": kt
fr: krL,v"z
,t
x2
+ ka Lvl
kzt, + k, 's
(8)
(e)
(10)
is non-zero,
then
theeffectof thesecorrectivetermsmustbe incorporatedin thecoetficients

f, and f, andeqns(B)and(,t0!
no longerhold.
ARR No. 1 24
31
3. MEASUREMEN
OTF F U E L
CONSUMPTION
The calibration of the coefficientsfor a model requires measurementof fuel consumption.Errors rn
measurementcan have three mainsources:
( a ) m e t e rd e f i c i e n c y ,
( b ) m e t e r i n s t a l l a t i o na,n o
( c ) v e h i c l ev a r i a b i l i t y .
Johnstonand Rogers (1979) have reviewed the
performanceof some commonlyavailablefuel flow
meters.No existing fuel flow meter is faultfree. Even
those havinggood (+- 1 per cent full scale) accuracy
d u r i n g s t e a d y - s t a t ec a l i b r a t i o nm a y l o s e p r e c i s i o n
u n d e rd y n a m i co p e r a t i n gc o n d i t i o n sT. h e s ep r o b l e m s
may range from major deficiencies,such as leaking
'overshoot'
Seals to
when fuel flow rate is suddenly
diminishedand 'undershoot'when the fuel flow suodenly increases.
3.1 INSTALLATIONPROBLEMS
T h e s e a r i s e p r i n c i p a l l yb e c a u s eo f t h e o r e s e n c eo f
fuel vapour in fuel lines or in the meter itself.Underbonnet conditions are severe enough to frequenily
cause the lighter fractions of the fuel to vaoounse.
O r d i n a r i l y ,a m o d e r n c a r b u r e t t o r w i l l f e e d b o t h
vapour and petrol into the engine should vapourisat i o no c c u r i n t h e f u e ll i n e .F u r t h e r , s i g n i f i c acnht a n g e s
in fuel temperaturelead to changein fuel density and
incorrectmassflow when the usualvolurnetricmeans
of measurementis employed.
ldle neurral luel ttow -
Ac.el.'ation
0 [m/h
3.2 VEHICLEVARIABILITY
T h e r ea r e t h r e e m a j o r s o u r c e so f v e h i c l ev a r i a b i l i t v
when makingfuel flow measurements.
(a) In a typical carburettedenginethe float bowl or
chamberof the carburettoracts as a 'buffer'and
fuel inflow is usuallyintermittentat low flows and
fluctuatingat high flow rates as demonstratedin
Flg.3. Whenundertakingon-roadmeasuremenrs,
'g' forces
d u e t o a c c e l e r a t i o nc, o r n e r i n go r g r a d i e n t c o n s i d e r a b l y i n f l u e n c ef u e l f l o w . T h u s
micro- (second-by-second)measurementof fuel
flow is often not meaningful.
However,integrated
r e s u l t s f o r m a c r o - s c a l ea n a l y s i sa r e o f t e n
repeatablewith coefficientsof variabilitvas little
as 0.3 per cent.
( b ) T h e s e c o n d s o u r c e o f v a r i a b i l i t yi s t h e c h a n g e
w h i c h o c c u r s t h r o u g h o ut h e l i l e o f t h e v e h i c l e .
This is illustratedin Fig. 4, where it can be seen
that at about 16 000 km a minimumwas reached
and from then on the fuel consumptionrate increased.
(c) Variabilityas the result of enginetune up or the
replacementof worn or defectiveoarts. The infiuenceof a majorretuneand mufflerreplacement
on the Hot start ADR27Atest cycle fuel use rs
demonstratedin Fig. 4.
3 . 3 E X H A U SA
TN A L Y S I S
It will be recognisedthat, when the measurementof
carbon dioxide CO, is added to the measurementof
HC, CO and NO" (the usual pollutantsmeasuredin a
v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n st e s t f a c i l i t y ) ,i n s t a n t a n e o u lsu e l
flow rates can be deduced by the carbon balance
method.Unfortunately,
fluctuatingexhaustflow rates,
with varying engine operation,give rise to variable
exhaustgas residencetimes in the exhaustsvstem.
in
'sequenadditionto the problem that some mixingof
'
s
l
u
g
s
'
tial
o f e x h a u s ta l s o o c c u r s .
2 5 L/h
fiom
Recommendedpractice includeslocationof the

flow meter away from the under-bonnetenvironment
( u s u a l l ya h e a do r t o o n e s i d e o f t h e e n g i n ec o m p a r t m e n t )a n d f u e l l i n e sm u s t b e c o n t i n u a l l yu p w a r dt r a vellingfromflow meter to carburettorto avoid errors
a r i s i n gi n t h e v a r i a b l ev o l u m eo f v a p o u rt h a t m a y b e
trapped in the line downstreamof the flowmeter if
'humps'
o r v e r t i c a ll o o p s i n t h e f u e l l i n e o c c u r , e . g .
suddenfuel vapourisationmay temporarilycause the
flow of fuel through the meter to cease, conversely
s u d d e nc o n d e n s a t i o no f v a p o u r w i l l s p e e d u p f u e l
flow.
to
tO0
km/h
Both the luel delivery float bowl and the exhaust

systemserve to frustrateaccurate,dynamicfuel consumptionmeasurement.
3.4 ROUTINECALIBRATION
The problems with fuel consumptionmeasurement
necessitateroutinecalibrationof the entire fuel flowmeter-vehiclesystem and the use of correction factors to eliminate any long-time scale dependent
variabilityin a long series of tests. lf correction factors greater than about 5 per cent are needed then
the measurement procedure/test system warrant
carefulscrutiny for sources of error.
Fig. 3 - Typical fuel tlow rate to carbureted engine at yarious

driving speeds
(4.1 L, 6-cylinder Ford engine; pLU 106 flow meteranalogue
output)
Steady-speed tests over the range idle to

1OOkm/h at say 10 km/h speed incrementscan form
the basis for routinechecking of vehicle/equipment.
For on-road checking care should be exercised in
selectingroads which are level, straightand smooth
32
ARR No. 1 24
-J
t.5
r.o
o
F ou
Fig. 4 - Variation of fuel used per ADR27A test with vehicle trayel
(to avoid effects of bumps on fuel float chamber

levels) and wind speeds should be less than about
1 0 k m / h .A t w o - w a y ( i d e a l l ys q u a r el a w w e i g h t e di n
accordancewith vehicle air speed) average of fuel
consumption
s h o u l db e u s e d .
At present it can only be speculatedthat some
differencemight be observed in fuel consumptionon
the road and that achieved on the chassis
dynamometervehicle test facility, even when the
dynamometercorrectly reproduces the road load.
(Few of the presently employed dynamometersare
capable of replicating an aerodynamicdrag force,
sguare law, curve passing throughzero load at zero
speed.)This differenceis likely to arise throughfloat
chamber level differences,componenttemperature
v a r i a t i o n( e . 9 .g e a r b o xo i l ) , e t c .
The average acceleration or decelerationrate observed for each mode in the Los Angeles basin is
used during the operation of 20 of the 26 transient
modes. The remainingsix transientsare repeated
using average accelerationrates higher (1.07 m/sr)
or lower (0.58 m/sr) and similarlyaveragedeceleration rates higher (- 1.34 m/s2) and lower (- 0.56
m/s2) to determine the effect of acceleration/deceleration rates on emissions. These accelerationsand decelerationswere chosento representthe full rangeof accelerationsand deceierations
observed in the CAPE-10 project (Scott Research
L a b o r a t o r i e s1 9 7 1 ) .
3,5 CALIBRATING
THEELEMENTAL
MODEL
Thereare considerablephysicaldifficultiesin instrumentingand operatinga vehicle to follow prescribed
velocity changes with time on the road: it is
dangerousfor the driver to follow 'head down' the
'drivers
aid'chart whilst attemptingto simultaneously
steer the vehicle. Even with a 'head up' display, on
the windshield,the steeringtask will detract from the
driver's ability to keep to the prescribedschedule.
3.6 SURVEILLANCE
DRIVINGSCHEDULE
A test cycle, suitable for collecting 'mode' data for
the elemental model for tests on chassis
dynamometeris the SurveillanceDriving Schedule
(SDS).The SDS was developed in 1974 by the U.S.
Environmental
ProtectionAgencyto measurevehicle
emissionsover a variety of steady-stateand transient driving conditions (Kunselmanet al. 1574b',.
The acceleration and deceleration modes represented in SDS consist ol all possiblecombinationsof
the followingfive speeds:O, 24, 48,72 and 96 km/h.
100
200
7m
800
Time ld
3m
Time {rt
400
9m
1000
500
!m
eao
m0
Fig. 5 -Surveillance Driving Schedule (SDS) cycle used tol

modal emissions analysis
The cycle has been plotted in Fig. 5. The stand a r d a c c e l e r a t i o n / d e c e l e r a t i o nc o m b i n a t i o n sa r e

from time 0 to 618 s. The special acceleration/decelerationcombinationconstitutethe remaining componentof the cycle to 1054 s total. The joint
33
A R RN o . 1 2 4
t.lghl.a
.'--_
sur'rrttontr
tl 4
x.lbouh.
Su.v.y
0rrv,nq
4. APPLICATION
OF THERESULTS
TO ELEMENTAL
MODEL
sch.dut.
70 r.lbou.n.
E5
4.1 CRUISE
E
9
a
aj
L J V I T S O FA C C E I E R A T I O N
BOUNOARIES
t7
o9prorr6.l.lt
vxl
on Eng.
The questionmay be asked,at whatnon zero acceleration does acceleration/decelerationbecome

c r u i s e( 0 . 0 5 ,0 . 1 , 0 . 2 , 0 . 5 m / s 2 ) ?T h e d e c i s i o nh a s a
significanteffect on the proportionof cruise to acceleration/deceleration
time.
io t.rl.cl
ol rdd
Richardsonand Akcelik (1982) in Part 1 ol this report

rightly point out the difficulty in assigningsteadyspeed fuel consumptionvalues to cruise fuel usage
rate, since even under low traffic flow conditions
steady-speedcruising does not occur. Fig. Z illustrates typical velocity time tracesfor a rangeof driving
conditions.Further discussionof the task and what
the concept of cruising speed represents is
describedin AppendixA.
lrF.
i
b -i
-z t.z.zl
Fig. 6 - Comparison between ioint velocity-and-acceleration

tiequency distributions of Surveillance Driying Schedule (SDS)
and observed Melbourne driving
velocity and accelerationprobabilitydensityfunction

for the cycle is compared with Australiandriving in
Fiq.6.
Applicationof the modal emissionsdata permit
the specification of regression coefficients in an
equation.These coefficientspermitthe predictionof:
(a) emissionsrates at steady speeds,and
(b) fleet average emissions rates, given the appropriate weighting (for population, vehiclekilometrestravelled etc.) of the coefficientsand
their summation.
It will be noted that emissionrates for acceleration
are calculatedas deviationsfromthe steadystate for
i n d i v i d u avl e h i c l e s .
The model worked satisfactorilyfor HC and CO
(predictionerrors less than 20 per cent), but errors
for NO, predictions were large (as much as 40-60
per cent), and this, in the author'sopinion,arose not
in the experimentaldata and associatederrors with
the experimentalmethods,but rather in the way in
which the emissions rate integral was lumped to
describethe per mode emissions.Bulach('l977) has
shown the regression of instantaneousrather than
modal emissionscan lead to good NO, predictions
(maximumerror 20 per cent) and it was shown that
poor correlation (R, : 0.58) exists between modal
model predictionsover a transientcycle, compared
to the use of a modal model appliedto a modalcycle
(R, : 0.83).Best predictionis achievedwhen a transient model is applied to a transientcycle.
It must be stressed that the applicationof the
SDS cycle and analysismethodimplies:
(a) a fully warmedengine,and
(b) mode sequence independenceof the vehicle's
fuel usage or emissions (not true for systems
'hang
w i t h p h y s i c a lo r c h e m i c a l
u p ' ,e . g . e x h a u s t
catalyst systems).
Flg. 8 illustratesthree of severalsimpleelemental approximationsthat may be employed.Method 1

complieswith the concepts developedin eqn (7):
v, is the average runningspeed which corresponds
to the runningtime t,. Fuel used during stops is accommodatedseparately.Method 2 breaks the travelling time into accelerationtime ta, cruise time tc
and decelerationtime t6. The cruise time, t" may be
determinedby some lixed criterionsuchas when a <
0.1 m/s2,or by 'eye balling'the velocity or distancetime diagramto assign end-of-elements.
Method3 is
a modification of Method 1 in that all travel is
assumedat constant speed over the travellingtime
less the stop/start delay. In Method2, the acceleration rate a- corresponds to the mean acceleration
over the time ta; similarly,the decelerationrate d is
the mean value over 16.The methodassumesconstant accelerationand decelerationrates.
Figs 9and 70 illustratethe variabilityin our test
car's cruise luel consumptionand exhaustemissions
as deduced from measurementsfor three driving
cycles. Flg. 9 also includes some results for 'synthetic' linear speed peturbations,i.e. constant accelerationsand decelerationsaboutthe meanspeed.
The range of deviation from the steady-speedfuel
consumptioncan be seen as about *50 per cent to
-7 pet cent. (Negative values are possible il the
speed leavingthe cruise time is less than the entering speed.) The maximumpossible deviation is illustratedat 32 km/h to be *350 per cent in synthetic
driving.
4,2
ACCELERATION/DECELERATION
A comparisonhas beenmadebetweenthe fuel used

lor the constantaccelerationapproximation,
when
acceleration
timesare known,andactualfuelusage
in thesametimeduringtheprescribed
accelerations
of about30 segments
or micro-trips(stopto stop)of
thedrivingcyclesshownin Fig.11.Fuelusageduring
constantaccelerations
of vauesfor eachmicro-trip
was obtainedfrom speciallyconductedtests, the
resultsfromwhichare documented
in AppendixB.
Theresultsare describedgraphically
in Fig.12.The
constantacceleration
approximation
describesonly
50 per centof the observedvariance(R, : 0.50)in
fuelconsumotion.
34
ARR No. 124

ttl
km/h
I n n e rs u b u r b s P e a kh o u r
rv
^l I
\
U
52
t'l l
39
/I
It
I\
Il l.|
ll
<__
r\
l:^
'4,\
/-,
Jt
/ \
v 1""V
Outer suburbsOff-peak
l.
L
llU
Time
\
\
*-
km/l
r*
65-
I nner suburbs.
Off -peak
52.
/\
A
vl
\,,
AU
Time F
Fig. 7 -Typical
26
13
\J
---lzos l+-
speod-time trace! on artorlal ?oad3 tor pak and off .peak perlods
*.
,,g,
ARR No. 124
35
Correspondinganalyses for decelerationsare

d e s c r i b e di n F i g . 1 3 . l t s h o u l d b e r e c a l l e dt h a t t h e
smallerfuel usage during decelerationincreasesthe
error in measurement.
However,underclosed throttle
d e c e l e r a t i o n t h e f u e l u s e d i s i n d e o e n d e n to f
d e c e l e r a t i o n r a t e , a n d d e p e n d e n to n l y u p o n
decelerationtime td. lt is thereforenot surprisingto
find that more of the variance is explained (Re :
0.67).
sp*d
method
1{
tu
ra
Id
An alternateapproachto Method2in Fig.Swould

be to assumeconstant accelerationto v.. However,
this would lead to variationin the distancetravelled
during acceleration.ThereforeMethod 2 is likely to
be the most realistic of the linearisationtechniques,
yet it is seen to perform poorly in practice for elemental(or modal)analysis.
5. EXTENSION
OFTHEPKE
METHODTOWARDS
THE
MICROSCALE
Fig. I - Three 'elemental' approximationsto actual driving

patterns
As reportedby Watsonet al. (1980)and Poyntonand

Dawson (1980), the coefficientsin eqn (2) may be
determinedfrom fuel consumptionper unit distance
for steady-speeddriving and micro-trip analysis of
the ADR27A driving cycle. The regression for the
coefficientsk,, k, and k.,is performedon the steadyspeed resultsand k, is foundby furtherregressionfor
the 18 micro-tripfuel consumptionsin the equation
tf ,: h PKE
( 11 )
wnere
(12l'
a,f,: f,- f"
and l" is the steady-speedfuel consumptionper unit
distance.
(Maximum possible)
ADR 27A
tr
t
Melb. Init.
q
t\
J\
\\r
ilr
i'.\
E
J
E
E
c
200
)\\,
)\
Sydney
Steady speed
tr
I 5 km/h speed fluctuations
r 1 5 km/h speed fluctuations
r,,
)1.'t..
L
Speed {km/h}
Fig. I -
Cruise fuel consumption
y. speed for driving cycles and
,synthetic,
driving
A R RN o . 1 2 4
36
1.6
0.8
Steady speed
E 1.2
ll
;
o
z
Fig. 10 - Emission ralos during cruise elgmgnts ot AOR27A drlye cycle compated io steady speed
A R RN o . 1 2 4
37
Cycle
cygl9 Dqtg
roo
B
s0
e
-o
ECE (ADR27)
Average
Speed
Max
knr/h
18.8
km/h
50.0
Speed
Max/
Mean
Accel.
m/s2
1.05
0.64
Max/
Mean
Decel.
m/s2
-1.05
-0.71
ldle
Time
PKE
%
28.7
m/sr
o.244
-3.04
-0.68
32.O
0.357
-'t.62
-0.69
17.8
0.406
Time (s)
Melbourne Initial Cycle
100
3s0
0
91.2
100
1.63
0.58
H'uo
Time {s)
1371
80.9
2.73
0.78
-3.31
-0.76
96.3
1.53
0.26
-r.60
18.4
0.505
Time (s)
,
100 _.1
77.6
U . S .H i g h w a y
alsoAS2077
0.138
-0.31
E;:
Time (s)
Fig. I 1 - Oriying cycles employod in the simulation studies
o
lfl
120
'o
3m
t^
lKoy: *
Fig l2l
'
40
120
Fig. 1 2 - Constanl acceleration tuel consrmption v. driving

cycle tuel consumption
lm
Fig. 1 3 - Constant deceleration fuel consumption v. driving

cycle fuel consumptlon
38
A R RN o . 12 4
TABLEII
MEASURED
v. PREDICTED
FUELCONSUMpTTON
DURTNG
STOP.STARTS
End of
MicroTrip
.\t
(s)
lx
(km)
PKE
(m/sr)
Measured
FC
(mL/km)
Predicted
FC
(mL/h)
69
23
39
48
0.258
0.156
0.052
0.028
0.430
o.273
0.905
1.09
1.00
1.00
1.10
0.75
0.70
172
'I
84
215
317
953
157
149
171
188
221
331
939
150
152
0.469
0.231
0.114
0.165
0r70
0.69
0.63
0.82
1. 1 6
o.56
SydneyCycle
1
4
5
6
7
2t
48
34
U.IOJ
M e l b o u r n eI n i t i a C
l ycle
1
60
b6
4
5
40
70
E
o
-U
[-
tc6
tf o
ItJ
173
208
218
185
204
213
177
where Al, is in ml/km and pKEis in m/s2.Therefore,

eqn (2) can be written as
f, : - 3 O . 7 * 2 9 O 3 / v "+ j . 2 1 6 v " - f 7 2 . 0 7 p K E ( 1 4 1
where v. is in km/h. Applicationof eqn (14) to pred i c t i n g t h e f u e l c o n s u m e di n t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n - a c celerations of the Sydney and Melbourne initial
cycfes is given in Table//. Theseresultsindicatethat
in excess of 98 per cent of the observedvariancern
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o ni s e x p l a i n e da n d t h e m e a np r e d i c t i o n e r r o r i s 1. 9 p e r c e n t .
6. COMPARISON
BETWEEN
METHODS
6.1 COEFFICIENTS
FORTHEELEMENTAL
MOOEL
Fig. 1 4 - Generalised f uel consumption or emission surlace on

average speed and positive kinetic energy pe. unit distance axes
(v", pKE)
Jl, represents the incrementalor excess fuel

used over the steady-speedconsumption.lt should
be noted that this equationis an approximationto the
surface shown in Fig. 14. Jf, should often invotve
more terms in PKE and PKE/v", especiallyfor emissions rates.
Nonetheless,for the MelbourneUniversitytest
car (Ford Cortina wagon) results of Af, for both
micro-tripsand the constant deceleration-acceleration experiments(i.e. stops) for the speed changes
30-0-30, 60-0-60 and g0-0-90 km/h at five acceteration rates are presented in Flg. 75. Most pleasingly
the results overlay. Regressiongives
tf , : 72.07 PKE(R'?: 0.83)
(13)
Whenthe elementalmodel is expressedas in eqn (1)

in terms of distance related fuel l, x' stop time fuel
/,,,d" and stopping fuel l, h , the coefficientsmay be
d e r i v e d f r o m f u e l u s a g e i n v a r i o u sd r i v i n g c y c l e s
whenthe idle and cruise or distancerelatedfuel consumptionis known.Use oi data in Table land Append i x B , t o g e t h e rw i t h t h e n u m b e ro f h a l t s p e r d r i v i n g
c y c l e ,a l i o w sc a l c u l a t i o no f t h e f u e lp e r s t o p a s q u a n t i f i e di n T a b l e l l l f o r t h e t e s t c a r .
TABLEIII
FUELUSAGEPERSTOP
TestCycle
AOR27A
Sydney
M e l b .l n i t
AOR27
ys
(km/h)
?I
Numberof
Stops
18
JJ.5
26.7
18.8
Fuel/Stop
(mL)
23
42
28
Theextremevariabilityin fuel/stopleadsto the

observationthat the distancerelated fuel used
shouldnotbe thesteadycruisespeedfuelusage,but
rathersomehighervalueto allowforspeedperturbations,but how much larger?Further,it has been
A R RN o . 12 4
39
t
D
;o
i60
oo-o-oo I
acceleration
.o-o-.0-J
-l
nonzzn
Melb.lnit.
Sydney
80
oo-o-so C o n s t a n t
I deceleration-
Micro
trins
I
)
t
c
oj.
o
-a4 0
E
V
T
0.8
P K E ( m / s 2)
Fig. 1 5 - Incremental fuel consumptionoyer average-speed fuel usage for stop-starts with
constant deceleration-accele.ation and for driving cycle micro trips
ra
tc
td
ACDI micro{rip
ADR274 (measured)
,r-*-,
/
Non-identil ACDI
mrcrc lnps
_"/
"J
a
ldentilACDl
mrcro lnps
200
300
400
500
Meai!rdtoelcon3umption
{mL/kml
*
ADR27A ratio
o20406080100
Cruase
time/runningrime, tc/lt l%l
Fig. 1 6 - Comparison between predicted lqel consumption using

ACDI elemental model and measured fuel consumption lor
AOR27A cycle assumed to consist of (a) 1 7 identical micro trips
and (b) 1 7 non-identical but linearised micro trips
Fig. 1 7 - Comparisonof predicted y. measuredfuel consumption

for La Trobe Street/Victoria Parade on a link-by- link basis
(PKE predictive equation based on Swanston Street regression)
40
A R RN o . 12 4
d e m o n s t r a t etdh a t t h e f u e lu s e d i n a s t o p i s r e l a t e dt o
the speed from which the stop was made (or rather
t h e s p e e d r e g a i n e da f t e rt h e s t o p ) ( W a t s o n1 9 8 0 ) .
I t s e e m s u n l i k e l yt h a t t h e s p e e d f r o m w h i c h a
stop is made can be accuratelyforecast,on a linkb y - l i n k b a s i s ,b u t m o r e l i k e l y a n e s t i m a t ec o u l d b e
m a d ef o r c r u i s es p e e df o r s e v e r a l i n k s ,I n t h i s c a s e i t
is expected that the stop fuel coefficientf, would be
constant.
6 . 2 I N C L U S T OONF
ACCELERATION/DEC
ELERATION
The best one could exoect for an elementalmodel is
s o m e e s t i m a t e o f t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n ,c r u i s e a n d
decelerationtimes la, lc and td. With knowledge of
the stop time ds, the numberof stops h and the distance travelled x" the fuel used can be calculated
from the data in AppendixB.
F o r e x a m p l e ,i f w e e x a m i n et h e L o s A n g e l e st r i p
which is the basis of ADR27Aand removethe second
micro-tripwhich representsfreewaydriving,then
x . : 8 . 7 5k m ,
.1
h:
7 stops,
t r i p t i m e : ( 1 3 7 2s l e s s 2 n d m i c r o - t r i p2 0 8 s ) :
1 1 6 4s ,
i d l e ( s t o p )t i m e : 2 2 4 s , a n d h e n c er u n n i n gt i m e f o r
a n a v e r a g em i c r o - t r i pw i t h o u ti d l e t i m e :
l , : ( 11 6 4 - 2 2 4 ) / 1 7 : 5 5 . 3 s
lf we assume t" : t, : t6, then the cruise speed is
{oundas 51 km/h. Fuel consumptionfor this speed is
88 mL/km.
Total fuel is the sum of the acceleration/cruise/deceleration/idlecomponents.From App e n d i xB , a c c e l e r a t i o n / d e c e l e r a t i o
f une l : 1 7 x 4 1
: 697 mL.
crurse
1 7 x 2 2 . 7: 3 8 8m L
idle
224 x264O/3600: 164 mL
m i c r o - t r i p2
355 mL
t o t a lf u e l
1604 mL
fuel cons. rate
134ml/km
Assumingt" : ta always the effect of t" varyingfrom
zero to 75 per cent of the possible maximumvalue
(55.3s) is shown in Fig. 16.Examinationof ADR27A
indicateslhat t"/t,: 60 per cent approximately,and
the predicted fuel usage is 8 per cent low (v" : 42
k m / h p r e d i c t e df o r t h i s r a t i o ) .
W h e na l l t h e 1 7 m i c r o - t r i p sa r e n o t a s s u m e dt o
be the same,but fuel consumptionis based on constant accelerationand decelerationrates.the orediction is seen to improve but 5 per cent less than
measured.
6.3 COMPARTSONS
ln Table /VMethod 2 is furthercomparedwith other
modelsfor the case when t" : ta : l" for three driving cycles for which we have measuredluel cons u m p t i o n .O t h e r e q u a t i o n s i n c l u d e dt h e P K E - v "
method (eqn (2) ) and the simpletravel time expression employed by Evans and Herman(1976) using
data from Marshall(1979).
Comparisondata are also given in Table lV tor
Method3, lor values computedusing eqn (1) with d"
as the total delay, i.e. sum of stopped time and acceleration-deceleration
delay. For each driving cycle (exceptADR27Awhich had the secondmicro-trip
excluded)the meanacceleration-deceleration
delay
w a s c o m p u t e d a s 1 0 . 6 , 1 5 . 4 a n d 1 3 . 3s f o r t h e
A D R 2 7 A ,S y d n e y a n d M e l b o u r n eI n i t i a l c y c l e s ,
respectively. Fuel consumed during cruising was
computedusing data from fable / and stop-startfuel
from interpolationof AppendixB results. Fuel consumption estimates appear to be low, and the
assumptionof constant speed cruise and linear accelerations clearly leads to an underestimationol
fuel usage.
6.4 APPLICATION
TO ROADDRIVING
SKAZASof our researchgroup has been findingthe
correlationbetween PKE/v" and a functionsuch as
f (h , ds,intersectionfrequency,vehicledensityetc.;.
Unfortunately,
no uniquerelationdescribingall roads
exists.
The presentstatuscan be illustratedwith an example.A regressionequationbased on data lor driving in SwanstonStreet, Melbournehas been applied
t o p r e d i c t i n g f u e l c o n s u m p t i o ni n L a T r o b e
Street/VictoriaParadeduring a single trip on a linkby-link basis. In Fig. 17, predicted v. measuredfuel
consumptionare compared.Also shown are results
using the elementalmethod (eqn (1) ) for which t, :
42 mL was used and f, derived lrom Table I and f" :
0.767 ml/s. The PKE method under-predicts the
overallroute fuel consumptionby just over 3 per cent
and explains85 per cent ol the observedlink-to-link
variance.The elemental method over-predicts fuel
usageby 1 1 per cent and explains72per cent of the
observedvariance.
TABLEIV
PREDICTED
(mL/km)
FUELCONSUMPTION
Cycle
Method
ADR27A
Sydney
Melb. lnitial
Measurement
TravelTime
PKEMethod
Elemental(ACDI)
Method2 (t" /t, : 50%)
142.O
152.4 (7\
1 4 0 . 2( - 1 )
r 46.3
(1)
147.9
146.4(0)
157.7
1 6 6 . 6( 6 )
1 6 0 . 8( 2 )
1 3 0 . 8( - 8 )
1 3 4 . 5( - 5 )
1 2 7 . 7( - 1 3 1
1 2 4 . 3( - 1 5 )
1 4 1. 5 ( - 1 0 )
1 2 8 . 1( - 1 8 )
ElementalMethod3
percenlageerrors are shown in brackets.
41
A R RN o . 12 4
7. FURTHERESEARCH
A m a j o rp r o b l e mw i t h t h e p r e s e n tp r e d i c t i o n so t P K E
i s t h a tt h e y r e l y o n v a r i a b l e ss u c ha s i n t e r s e c t i o fnr e q u e n c yw i t h n o a c c o m m o d a t i oonf t r a t f i cs i g n a lc o n t r o l v a r i a b l e ss u c ha s c y c l e t i m ee t c .T h i s i s b e c a u s e
'worm's
of the
e y e ' n a t u r eo f o u r p r e s e n td r i v i n gp a t tern samplingprocess. More data collection is
n e e d e di n w h i c hd r i v i n gp a t t e r n sa r e r e l a t e dt o s i g n a l
s t a t u s .T h i s s h o u l de n a b l et h e s t a t i s t i c adl e t e r m i n a tion of the relationshipbetween PKE and with signal
s e t t i n g s a n d o t h e r a c c e p t a b l ev a r i a b l e si n c l u d i n g
p o s i t i o ni n p l a t o o na s w e l l a s t h o s ed e s c r i b e da b o v e .
H o p e f u l l yt h e s t a t i s t i c a rl e l a t i o n sm a ya v o i dt h e n e e d
f o r s u b l e c t i v ee v a l u a t i o no f r o a de n v i r o n m e nats p r o p o s e db y R i c h a r d s o na n d A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 2 )i n P a r t 1 o f
thisreoort.
F u r t h e rt,h e p r o p o s e de x p e r i m e nct o u l d p r o v i d e
data to determine 'cruise' speeds for the elemental
model and provide measureddata for back-to-back
e v a l u a t i o no f e a c h o f t h e m o d e l st o e s t a b l i s ht h e i r
s u i t a b i l i t yf o r f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n
estimation.
(e) Even when the numberof stops term in the elem e n t a lm o d e l i s e x t e n d e dt o i n c l u d ef i n i t e ,b u t

constantaccelerationsand decelerations,it has
been shown to per{ormless well than the travel
soeed based moder.
(0 In urban driving non-freewayconditions results
indicatethat steady speed does not often occur.
This meansthat it is difficultto orescribe'cruise'
speed fuel consumption.
9. FURTHERINVESTIGATION
WhereasRichardsonand Akcelik (1982) have proposed that fuel consumptionmight be related to the
cruise speed and environment,and fuel usage identified for speed changes including those to rest
(stops),it is proposed that uninterruptedtravelling
speeds (link distances/travellingtime) and speed
perturbations(PKE) may be statisticallyrelated to a
vehicle'spositionin a platoonand its surroundingenvironment.
8. CONCLUSTONS
A new series of experimentsshould be conducted using instrumentedvehicle(s)in which position and time of the test vehicle(s)is recordedalong
with a log of signal status.The resultsof regression
a n a l y s i sc o u l d b e p r o v i d e da s l o o k u p t a b l e s o r a s
explicit functionsof the correlatingvariable.
(a) The PKE-averagespeed modelfor fuel consumption, has associatedwith each of its coefficients
a p l a u s i b l ep h y s i c a lc o n c e p to f v e h i c l ed e s i g n .
(b) B y e l i m i n a t i o n
o f s o m en o n - t r i v i atle r m si t c a n b e
Fuel usagecan then be accuratelyforecastfrom

coefficientsfor averagespeed and PKEtermsderivable from routine tests to AS2077 and steady-speed
drivingfor which a wide range of data alreadyexists
withoutrecourseto special tests. The presentuse of
averagespeed,ys,can be modifiedto runningspeed,
v,, and to explicitly include the stopped delay {idle)
fuel flow rate as follows:
s h o w n t h a t t h e P K E - a v e r a g es p e e d m o d e l
reducesto the elementalfuel consumptionequation.
( c ) The coefficientsfor the PKE-basedequationmay
be derivedfromsimplelaboratorytests including
steady-speed driving and a micro-trip or segmental analysis of standard ADR27A (and
A S 2 0 7 7 )d r i v i n g .
(d) T h e e l e m e n t aal n a l y s i sc a l l sf o r h i g h e rr e s o l u t i o n
f, = b, + bzlv, t bt v,
of fuel flow measurementsand is likely to suffer

from errors arising in the fluctuatingfuel flow to
the carburettor and restrictedsensitivityof the
fuel flow meter.
+ badrlx, + bsPKE
TABLEV
(ml/km)
REGRESSION
COEFFICIENTS
FORFUELCONSUMPTION
F O Re q n s( 1 5 ) A N D( 1 )
(a) Equation15
Data Regresslon
Source
Method
DYNO.
DYNO.
ROAD
2-STEP
MULT.
MULT,
b,
b!
"30.7
-34.2
19,4
29@
2960
2480
Coeflicients
b,,
br
1.22
1.20
0.975
2640
2700
2740
b-,
R2
94.8
93.6
115.6
0.990
0.990
0.897
(b) Equation1
Data
Source
Fegresslon
Method
DYNO
ROAD
MULT
MULT
t,
f2
108.7
2400
2320
lAea
, K E ( m / s ?h) ,( s t o p s / k m )
U n i t sv r ( k r n / h )d, . ( h ) ,x " ( k m ) P
' Falls to 0.796 when steady speed results included
R2
15.40
8.44
since f, is treatd as a constanl.
0.901'
o.764
(15)
42
A R RN o . 1 2 4
Examples of regression coefficients are given in

Table V for this new expressionfor the Ford Cortina
t e s t v e h i c l e . T w o e q u a t i o n sa r e p r e s e n t e d f o r
dynamometerresults.In two-step regression,coefficients br to b.,for cruise and b, for idling are determined separately in step 1, followed by stage 2 to
obtain incrementalfuel usage associatedwith PKE.
The second equation is obtained from multiple
regression. The data base is a combination of
ADR27A,Sydney and MelbourneInitialCycle microtrips plus 15 steady-speedresults over the range 7
t o 1 1 3 k m / h ,a l l d a t a b e i n g m e a s u r e di n e a r l y 1 9 7 9 .
For comparison regression to 1463 measurementsmade in 1978 on links on Melbourneroads are
REFERENCES
included.The amount of varianceexplained (Rr) is

a b o u t 1 0 p e r c e n t l e s s , p r o b a b l ya s t h e r e s u l t o l
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o n t h e l i n k - b y - l i n ka n a l y s i s .
A l s o g i v e na r e m u l t i p l er e g r e s s i o nr e s u l t st o e q n
(1) for further comparison.lt will be noted that eqn
(15) explainsmore of the fuel consumptionvanance
than eqn (1) (however,the use of eqn (1) for regression analysisdoes not representthe normal use of
the 'elementalmodel' approach).lt is concludedthat
eqn (15) in explaining99 per cent of the
dynamometerresults,away fromadditionalvariability
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Research council and U.s. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. cRc ApRAc project
CAPE- 10-68,Vols land ll.
WATSON, H.C. (1973). Influence of driving patterns on the localised urban emissions
sources. Society ol AutomotiveEngineers(U.S.A.)paper No. 730556.
(1980). Sensitivityof fuel consumptionand emissionsto driving patternsand vehicte
design.,nSAE/ARRB(1980).
, MILKINS,E.E.and BULACH,v. (1974).The retationshipbetween roads,traffic patterns,vehicleemissionsandemissionslegislation.Deptof Mech.Eng.,Univ.Melbourne.
Reg.T18/74.
wATsoN, H.c., MILKINS,E.E.and MARSHALL,c. (1980). A simplifiedmethodfor quantitying
fuel consumptionof vehicles in urbantraffic.SAE-Aust.40(1), pp.6-1 3.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author wishes to record his appreciationto his colleagues E. Milkins,M.o. preston and
P. Beardsleyfor their assistancein preparingthis paper, and to J. Skazasfor providinginformationfrom his M.Eng.Sci.thesis.Fundingfromthe AustralianRoad ResearchBoard (project
369) and NERDDC(Project 7919239)made this paper possible.
43
ARRNo. 1 24
A P P E N D I XA
D E F I N I T I OO
NFC R U I S E ,
A C C E L E R A T I OANN D
DECELERATION
W h e nd e s c r i b i n gf u e l c o n s u m p t i o nb y m e a n so f e l e m e n t a lm o d e s ,i . e .a c c e l e r a t i o nc, r u i s e ,d e c e l e r a t i o n
and idling, we are attempting to approximatethe
variablemanoeuvresexecuted by vehicles in traffic
flow to morerigidbehaviour.
Fig. 18 describesthe frequencyof occurrenceol

velocity in the distance domain of hypothetical
b e h a v i o u ra t a s i g n a l c o n t r o l l e d i n t e r s e c t i o nf o r
t r a f f i cf l o w i n o n e d i r e c t i o n .
ln the free flow situationdistant from the inters e c t i o ni t m i g h tb e e x p e c t e dt h a t a n o r m a ld i s t r i b u tion of speed would be found.This normaldistribution
o r i g i n a t e si n v e h i c l e st r a v e l l i n ga t d i f f e r e n ts p e e d s
w h i c h r e f l e c tc a p a b i l i t y ,v i z . l a d e nt r u c k s ,a n d m i l d
a c c e l e r a t i o n / d e c e l e r a t i o nssi n c e s t e a d y - s p e e d
driving rarely occurs in practice. Cruise speed
reductionsfrom the free speed may be expected to
occur as tratfic flow increases (Freeman,Fox and
Associates 1972l..At the intersectionthe range of
situations from complete stops, partial stops and
uninterruptedflow will be found.Greatestfrequency
of stoppingis foundat the stop line and the maximum
queue lengthcan be observed.
It is the spectrumof speed variationremotefrom
the intersectionthat Richardsonand Akcelik (1982)
suggestmay approximateto a constantspeed cruise,
with factors applied to fuel consumptionto allow for
the deviations in speed from the mean. In contrast,
actual deviationsare accommodatedin the driving
cycle approachand can be shownto be statistically
representative(Braunsteins1981).
Fig. 1 I - Joint velocity -distance probability function for one

directional flow without turns at a signal
Representationof the fuel used in accelerating

and deceleratingby a single value, independentof
drivingpath must only be an approximationto reality,
since a large numberof factors,particularlyposition
'l
in platoon(Herman,Lamand Rothery 971) affect the
path.Even a linearisedpath is a poor approximation
to reality as can be seen in Flgs Tand 8 in the main
text.
44
A R RN o . 12 4
APPENDIB
X
FUELUSAGEDURINGCONSTANT
ACCELERATION
AND
DECELERATION
The results given in Table Vl were obtained from
chassisdynomometertests on the MelbourneUniversity test car (4.1 L, 6-cylinder Ford Cortina Wagon
with automatic transmission).The results are the
average of at least three tests. Steady-speedfuel
usagecan be deducedfromFlg. 9or Table/. ldle fuel
flow rate was 0.700 mL/s.
TABLEVI
Accel./
Decel.
(kmlh-s)
lnitial
Speed
(kmlh)
Final
$peed
(kmlh)
0
30
0
60
o
90
30
0
0
30
0
60
o
90
30
0
60
0
90
30
30
0
60
OU
0
90
o
o
o
60
0
90
90
0
30
30
o
60
60
0
90
90
0
30
30
60
60
o
90
90
0
Fuel
Used'
(mL)
zo
17.7
71.5
43.7
152.5
86.5
r 5.5
t.3
46.5
21
97.5
39
12.8
6.3
38.3
13
79
24
10
5.5
34.5
9.3
75
16.5
9.O
4
34
7
7 1. 5
14.3
' Valuesless than

15 mL are estimaledto be subiect to errors
greaterthanapproximately
tO per cent.
Part 5
RELATIONBETWEEN
TWO FUEL
CONSUMPTION
MODELS
by
R. AKCELIK
and
A.J.RICHARDSON
SeniorLecturerin Transport
Department
of Civil Engineering
MonashUniversity
and
H.C.WATSON
Readerin Mechanical
Engineering
Universityof Melbourne
(Firstwrittenin May 1982)
ARRNo. 1 24
45
1. INTRODUCTION
At the AustralianRoad ResearchBoard Seminaron
F u e l C o n s u m p t i o nM o d e l l i n g f o r U r b a n T r a f f i c
Management,October 'l 981, where the preceding
papers were presented,the authorsagreed to place
on record the resolution of differencesin the approachesadoptedby themfor developingsimpleluel
consumptionmodels. This paper presents a joint
statementon this question,paying particularattention to the relationbetweenthe two simplemodelsof
interest,namely the elementaland the PKE-average
speed models.Establishingthe relationaids the collection and analysisof data on a standardbasis and
allows the conversionof the resultsfor use with the
elementalmodel.
T h e d i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e n t h e a p p r o a c h e s
adopted by the traffic engineer and the vehicle
designengineerstem from differentmodellingneeds,
that is:
(a) the traffic engineer needs to employ models
which make an explicit allowancefor the effects
of traffic management/control
actions on easily
discernablecharacteristicsof traffic movement.
namelycruise, delay and stops; and
( b ) t h e v e h i c l e d e s i g n e n g i n e e rn e e d s t o m o n i t o r
vehicle performancecharacteristicsby employi n g m o d e l sw h i c h c a n b e c a l i b r a t e df r o mv e h i c l e
tests using standarddriving cycles.
However, it is to be expected that the models
developed from a traffic movementviewpoint and a
single vehicle viewpoint agree to some extent. The
relation between the elementalmodel representing
the former approach and the PKE-averagespeed
model representingthe latter approachis discussed
in Part 3 of this report.This paperpresentsa discussion of the relationbetweenthe elementalmodel and
the modifiedversion of the PKE model proposed in
Part 4 of the report.
2. RELATIONBETWEEN
MODELS
To establishthe relationbetweenthe two models,an
understandingof the differencesbetweenthe following speed definitionsis necessary(seeFigs 1 and2\:
(a) cruise speed, v", which is the average speed
while travelling uninterruptedby traffic control
devices,
(b) runningspeed, v,, which is the averagespeed including the effects of deceleration-acceleration
delays due to traffic control devices,but excluding stopped delay time; and
(c) interruptedtravel speed, v", which is the average
speed includingthe effectsof both decelerationaccelerationdelays and stopped delay time rmposed by traffic control devices.
The relationshipsbetweenthese three variables
and the elementalmodel variablesof delay and number of stops are described in detail in the Appendix.
. The following expression is the PKE-v" model
discussed in the preceding papers:
k2
f ^, v=-ks r + - - + k z v ,
+ k4 PKE
(1)
wnere
lx
k, to k,
ys
PKE
fuel consumptionper unit distance (mL/km),

model coefficients(constants),
averageinterruptedtravel speed
(km/h),and
a variable related to positive
kinetic energy changes, and
g i v e nb y
pKE=
>tui - vil
36ooxs
Ql
where y, and v, (km/h) are the final and initial

velocitiesin anacceleration,
xs (km)is thetotalsection distance,
and PKEis in km/h/s.
An examplegivenin Part2 of this reportillustrates a deficiencyof the PKE-ysmodelin that the
modelfailsto predictaccuratelythe changesin fuel
consumption
due to changesin stoppeddelaytime.
Thefollowingformulaproposedby Watson(eqn(16)
in Part4) overcomesthis deficiencyby treatingthe
stoppedtimeas anexplicitvariableandby replacing
the averageinterruptedtravel speed (v") by the
averagerunning
speed(v,):
f^ = b, + bzlv, + btvr 7 boa, + bs PKE (3)
wheref' v,, PKEare as describedabove,4 is tne

stoppeddelaytimeperunitdistance(s/km),andb, to
b.,are the modelcoefficients(constants).
By measuring
traveltime t" and stoppeddelay
timed alorgthetotalsectiondistancex., thevalues
of v, and d" can be easilycalculated(v, : 3600 x"/
(t" - 4) and d" : 4/x", where1", d. are in seconds,x" is in km). Coefficientsb, to b., can be
derivedby regression
of measured
valuesof steadyspeedfuelconsumption
withconstantcruisespeed,
v", as for the PKE-v"model,althoughcare shouldbe
takento accountfor correlationbetweenindeoendentvariables.Coefficientbn is the idlingfuel consumptionrate (mL/s)obtainedby direct measurement.Coetficient
b, is foundby regression
of the ex(calculated
cessfuelconsumption
as the actualfuel
consumption
lessthesumof steady-speed
andidling
fuel consumption)on PKE.The units of the coefficientsare as follows:b, (mL/km),
b, (ml/h),b, (mLh/kmr),b. (ml/s),andb-,(mL-h-s/km2).
To showthe relationwiththe pKE-v,model(eqn
(3)), considerthe followingform of ttie elemental
model(seePart3):
f, : f , * f r d " + f , r F
(4)
ARR No. 1 24
46
(al An uninterruptedtrip:
no stops
no delay
avragespeed:
3600 x g
t"=
,' u
I
o
I
An interruptedtrip:
h stops
no stoppeddelaytime
d e l a v= h d n
averagespeed:
x
o
-qqqgfs= 3600xs
tu+hdh
,,
I
I
xh = deceleration-acceleration distance
th = deceleration-acceleration time
dn = deceleration-acceleration delay
d, = Idr;
(c) An interruptedtrip:
E
h stops
stoppeddelay time : ds
o
o
delay:d-ds+hdh
averagespeed :
3600
.. s = 36(X)x3= = { l T
F f i xt
h
Y
Fig. 1 - Time-di3tance diagrams showing relationships atnong Yarious traffic vatiablo3
ARRNo. 124
47
n u n i n t e r r u p t e tdr i p
with no stopped delay time
( c ) A n i n t e r r u p r e dt r i p
w i t h s r o p p e dd e l a yt i m e
Fig. 2 -Speed-time profiles lor Fig. 1
A R RN o . 1 2 4
48
where
f,
d-"
i
f,
l.:
{'
fuel consumptionper unit distance (mL/km),

stopped time per unit distance
(s/km),
averagenumberofstops per unit
distance (stops/km),
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o np e r u n i t d i s tance while cruising (mL/km),
fuel consumptionper unit time
w h i l e i d l i n g ( m L / s ) ,a n d
excess fuel consumption per
stop (mL/stop).
As shown in the Appendix,the relationbetween

the elementalmodel (eqn (4) ) and the PKE-v,model
(eqn (3) ) is:
f , - - b , + h , l v _ t b 'z v - * b -<
c
l":
A,,,
(5)
36oox
(6)
b'
v'
cn
f -r = b ,
-3600
d,
+b,
-3600
(7)
withthefollowing
unexplained
term:
0=
where
Jv,2/x"
dh
t,
b.
vn
-- 1 + 3600/vrh do
(8)
PKE lerm related to speed perturbationsabout the cruise

speed, v", while cruising
unaffectedby traffic controls,
deceleration-acceleration
delay
per stop (the time to decelerate
from v" to zero speed and to accelerate back to v" less the time
to travel the deceleration-acceleration distance at uninterruptedspeed v"), and
[eqns (5) to (7) in eqn (4)] + r,.
Eqns (5) to (7) indicate that the elementaland

PKE-v,models are very similar.This is subject to
variousminorsimplificationsdescribedin the Appendix. The unexplainedterm (eqn (8) ) could be due to
an omission in the PKE-vr model. Alternatively,it
could be relatedto a term which may need including
in eqn (7) for excess fuel consumption.
3. CONCLUSTONS
The findings are encouraging in that the models
developedusing two differentapproachesare shown
lo be very similar.Resolutionol the problemregarding the unexplainedterm could enablethe elemental
model coefficientsto be derived from dynamometer
tests of vehicles at steady speed and to standard
driving cycles such as ADR 27A.
It is importantto obtainvehiclefuel consumption
and driving pattern data under conditionsfree from
gradienteffects,or this effect explicitly allowed for,
undera wide rangeof monitoredtrafficcontrol conditions.This could forman agreeddatabase for testing
the presentand alternativemodels.Specialtests are
necessaryto enablethe testing of the relatioshipbetween the PKE-v, and elemental models put forward
in this paper.Particularattentionneedsto be paid to
the effect of different acceleration and deceleration
ratesand profiles.Futurework shouldalso concentrate on the production of data for different vehicle
types. In these respects,vehicle maps may prove to
be useful as a way of storing and manipulatingdata
for comparisonsbetween alterativemodels.
The readerof the precedingpaperswill be aware

that there still exist differencesof opinion amongst
the authors about a preferred method lor fuel conand imsumptionprediction.Continuedinvestigation,
portantly, dialogue between traffic engineers and
vehicle designers should reveal the models which
are best suited to the range of problemsto be tackled
and to the resourcesavailable.
A R RN o . 1 2 4
APPENDIX
D E R I V A T I OO
NF T H ER E L A T I O N
BETWEEN
THEELEMENTAL
AND
P K E - vM
, ODELS
I no r d e rt o e s t a b l i s ht h e r e l a t i o nb e t w e e nt h e e l e m e n tal and PKE-v,models (eqns (3) and (4)), it is
necessaryto understandthe relationshipsamongthe
traffic variables used in these models.These relationshipsare shown in Figs 1 and 2, and are summarised below (constant 3600 appears in the formulae because time and delay variablesare in seconds, and speed variablesare in km/h).
T h e r u n n i n gt i m e , t , , i s t h e s u m o f t h e u n i n t e r rupted cruise time along the total section distance
( 1 , : 3 6 0 0 x " / v " , w h e r e v " i s t h e a v e r a g ec r u i s e
speed)and the delay due to stops andstarts imposed
by traffic controls (not includingany stopped delay
time):
3600x"
+hdn
tr=tr+hdo
Therefore,the averageinterruptedspeed allowing for both stopped delay time and deceleration-acc e l e r a t i o nd e l a y s i s r e l a t e dt o t h e a v e r a g er u n n i n g
a n d c r u i s es p e e d sa s f o l l o w s :
3600
3600
ys
3600
_
+ d
+ dt - =
(13)
,"
where
3600/v.
L : t" /x" : interruptedtravel

t i m ep e r u n i td i s t a n c e( s / k m ) ,
average stopped time per unit
distance(s/km),and
d-" + D d, : average delay per
unit distance(s/km).
ds
a:
As discussed in Part 2, the elementalmodel requires the following modificationto the PKE term of
eqn (3):
(9)
where h
bs PKE = b's PKE. + b's pKEz
average number of stops per

v e h i c l e ,a n d
average deceleration-acceleration delay per stop (see Part 2
for lormulaeto calculatedn).
dh
Therefore, the relation between the running

speed and the cruise speed is:
3600
3600
v
(10)
+ h dn.
where
PKE, is related to speed fluctuationswhile cruising
uninterruptedby traffic controls,and
PKE,is relatedto stop-startmanoeuvresimposedby
traffic controls.
For the following analysis,assume b'', : fi",, :
br, and put PKE, : Lvi2 /360Ox".Further,neglecting
minor speed perturbationsduring accelerationand
decelerationmanoeuvres,PKE2: hv"2/3600x" :
fr v"2 /36OQ.
where
3600/v,
t,: t,/x": average

running
time
perunitdistance(s/km),
t, : t" /x" : averagecruise
speedper unit distance(s/km),
and
h /x": averagenumberof stops
perunitdistance(stops/km).
3600/v"
:
'c
Traveltimeincluding
thestoppeddelaytime(d)
Thus the PKE-v,model (eqn (3) ) can be written as:

fr=br+bzlvr+btvr
Ln,'
+ b o' sc l - 1 f i-.3- 6 0 0 x
(15)
3600
From eqns (10) and (15)
3600xs
*d,
t/+ds
,"'
+ brh:
is:
fs=
(14)
(11)
dh
fr=br+bzlv"+b2E
From eqns (9) and (1 1 ),
t"=rr+ds+
hdn=
3600x
+d
l12l
where d : d. * h d, is the 'delay'experiencedduring travel along distance x" (differencebetween interruptedand uninterruptedtraveltimes,i.e. t. - lr).
3600
*bt
1 + v"E dhl36}O
Lv.2
_t
+ b a 'd - + b r - r
3600x,
,",
+ b -r h -
3600
50
A R RN o . 1 2 4
L,,'
= ( b r + bzlv" + btv"
3600x"
v'
be d, + ( br
0=
b-r - _ -
s6oo
dn
, * br-lh
bt vc
=-,
brE v"' dhl3600

(16)
1 + v hc nd . / 3 6 0 0
Comparingeqn (16) with eqn (4) in the maintext, the
refation between the elemental and PKE-v,models is
L,
fr = br + b2lv" + b"v
b -.
b -. -
i'
(17)
(18)
dh
'"'
ft=
3600
b -, -
3600
with the followingunexplained

term:
:
| + 3600lvchdh
(19)
(20)
This term resultslrom the (b,,v,) term in the PKE-v,

modelandcannotbe relatedto 4,(eqn(19)) because
of the formof the denominator.
per stop
The adjustedexcessfuel consumption
discountingfor idling fuel consumptionduring
deceleralion-acceleration
delayper stop (f',r: 1,,f" dnlcanbe loundfromeqns(18) and(19)by putting
b, /3600 : br:
fJ=b'
3600x,
fz=bq
b3E v"2 dhl36oo

_-.-1 + v"h dh/3600
v2
c
(211
3600
Watson(eqn(5) of Part4) statesthatbrl3600 :

b4 + b'+ whereb', is the incremental
fuel flow rate
dueto the increasein enginefrictionwhenoperating
at aboveidlespeedsandload.Thissuggeststhatb',
is speed-independent,
although
thisneedsfurtherinvestigation.
For derivingeqn (21)b'nis neglected.
lt
shouldalso be notedthat, if coefficientb, is determinedby regressionof measuredsteady-speedfuel
consumplion
valueswithcruisespeed,brl36o0 : bo
is unlikelyto holdas discussedin Parts3 and4. The
equivalence
expressedby eqns (17) to (21) also
neglectsthis point.In spite ol this andseveralother
minorsimplifications
describedabove,eqns (17) to
(19) demonstratethat the elementaland PKE-v,
modelsare substantiallysimilar.
Part 6
SOMERESULTSON FUELCONSUMPTION
MODELS
by
R. AKCELIK
and
C. BAYLEY
SeniorPartner
COMMEDAssociates
(Firstwrittenin July 1982)
ARR No. 124
51
1. INTRODUCTION
A l t e r n a t i v es i m p l e m o d e l s f o r p r e d i c t i n gf u e l c o n s u m p t i o no f v e h i c l e si n u r b a nt r a f f i c ,s p e c i f i c a l l yt h e
e l e m e n t aal n d P K E m o d e l sa n dt h e i rr e l a t i o n s h ihpa v e
been discussed in detail in preSious parts of this
report. A study of the derivation of the elemental
model parameters from an expression ol instantaneous fuel consumption (Bayley 1980) has been
discussedin Part3. The resultsof furtherwork on this
s u b j e c tr e p o r t e di n d e t a i li n A k c e l i ka n d B a y l e y( 1 9 . )
a n d A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 2 ) a r e s u m m a r i s e di n t h i s p a r t .
Theseresultsanswersome of the questionsraised in
previousparts ol the report.
The fuel consumptionformulaegiven here apply
t o a l e v e lr o a d ,b u t T h e y c a n b e e x t e n d e db y i n c l u d ing the road gradient as an additionalterm, e.g. see
B e s t e r( 1 9 8 1 ) .D e t a i l e dl i s t i n go l d a t au s e dt o d e r i v e
the results presented in this paper can be found in
A k c e l i k( 1 9 8 2 ) .
FUEL
2. INSTANTANEOUS
CONSUMPTION
Instantaneous
fuel consumptionmodelscan be used
d i r e c t l y i n a s s o c i a t i o nw i t h m i c r o s c o p i ct r a f f i c
simulationmodels which can calculate the instant a n e o u ss p e e d a n d a c c e l e r a t i o no f i n d i v i d u avl e h i c l e s , e . g . M U L T S I M( G i b b s a n d W i l s o n 1 9 8 0 ) a n d
N E T S I M( L i e b e r m a n
e t a | . 1 9 7 9 ) ,o r w h e ns p e e d - t i m e
t r a c e sa r e a v a i l a b l ea s i n t h e c a s e so f d r i v i n gc y c l e
data or on-road data lrom instrumentedcars. This
class of model also provides the basic relationships
from which simpler fuel consumptionmodels such as
the elemental model and the PKE model can be
derived.
An investigation of a comprehensiveform of
instantaneousfuel consumotionfunctionhas shown
that the followingsimplerform of the functionis adequate:
dF
f=--kr+kzv+ktv3
clt
+ l k o a vt k s t t 2v l " ) o
where
F
,
I
a
kl
k", kt
kr, k,
The coefficientsof the instantaneousluel cons u m p t i o nf u n c t i o nc a n b e d e t e r m i n e da s f o l l o w s .

(a) Determinethe idle fuel consumptionparameter,
k, , by direct measurement.
( b ) D e t e r m i n et h e r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c ea n d a i r r e s i s tance parameters,k,,,and k,, from constantspeedcruise fuel consumptiondata (see Section
3).
( c ) D e t e r m i n teh e p o s i t i v ea c c e l e r a t i o cn o e f f i c i e n t s ,
k , a n d k . , f r o m a c c e l e r a t i o nf u e l c o n s u m p t i o n
data (see Section 4). lt shouldbe noted that the
a 2 y t e r m i n e q n ( 1 ) g i v e s a n o v e r a l li m p r o v e m e n ti n p r e d i c t i o na b i l i t yb y p r o v i d i n gs e n s i t i v i t y
t o h i g h a c c e l e r a t i o nf u e l c o n s u m p t i o na s f o u n d
by Evansand Takasaki (1981) and Waters and
Laker(1980).
When calibrated in this way, the instantaneous
fuel consumptionfunction is sensitive to different
c o n d i t i o n so f t r a v e l . T h i s i s i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e
method ol determining all model coefficients by
regressionanalysis, in which case the parameters
d e s c r i b i n gt h e i d l e , c r u i s e a n d a c c e l e r a t i o nc o n d i t i o n sa r e u n l i k e l yt o h a v e i n d i v i d u a l lcyo r r e c tv a l u e s .
T h i si s b e c a u s eo f h i g hi n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o nosf p r e d i c t o r
v a r i a b l e s( m u l t i - c o l l i n e a r i t yU) .s i n g s u c h a r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o nw o u l d b e a s o u r c eo f e r r o r i n e v a l u a t ing alternativetrafficmanagement/control
strategies,
e . g . e v a l u a t i n gm i n i m u m - d e l aayg a i n s tm i n i m u m - f u e l
consumption strategy (see Hurley, Radwan and
B e n e v e l l i1 9 8 1) . l t i s t h e r e f o r en e c e s s a r yt o u s e
separatefunctionsfor idle, cruise and other travel
c o n d i t i o n so, r t o u s e a s i n g l el u n c t i o nw i t h t h e c o e f l i c i e n t sr e l a t e dt o i d l e ,c r u i s ea n d a c c e l e r a t i o nc o n d i tions determinedas described in this paper. The
sameconsiderationsapply to the aggregatefuel consumptionfunctionssuch as the PKEmodel.The elementalmodel satisfiesthis requirementby definition.
For the MelbourneUniversitytest car (FordCort i n a W a g o n , 6 - c y l i n d e r ,4 . 1 L , a u t o m a t i ct r a n s m r s s i o n ) k, r : 0 . 7 0 0 ,k : : 0 . 0 0 4 4 2k, , , : 0 . 2 2 0 x 1 0 5 ,
kr : 0.00762,k; : 0.886 x 10-3 are foundby separate analysesof constant-speedcruise and acceleration fuel consumptiondata.
3. CONSTANT.SPEEDCRUISE
FUELGONSUMPTION
(1)
fuel consumption(mL),
time(s),
dF /dt : instantaneous
fuel consumptionper unit time (mL/s),
instantaneousspeed (km/h),
d v / d t : i n s t a n t a n e o u sa c celerationrate (km/h/s),
constant idling fuel consumption
rate (ml/s),
constantsrepresentingluel consumptionrelatedto rolling resistance and air resistance.and
constantsrelatedto fuel consumptiondue to positive acceleration.
For steady-speed
per
travel,the fuel consumption
unitdistancecan be foundlromeqn (1) as (f /v ) and
puttingv: v" anda : 0:
f"=b1
where
f"
vc
b, to b.,
+;
b2
+btv"'
(21
'c
fuel consumption per unit distance (mL/km),

constant cruise speed (kmlh),
and
coefficients related to the lirst
three coefficientsof the instantaneous fuel consumotionfunction as follows:b, : 3600 k, , b,
: 3 6 0 0k , , b r : 3 6 0 0 k r .
52
ARRNo. 124
300
Measured data
R'? = 0.998
I
J
s 250
(,
2oo
!
tl
; 1s0
;:
roo
5
o
o
t.l.
50
Constant cruise speed, v" (km/h)

Fig. 1 - Con3trnt-speed fuel consumptbn pr unlt didance for
the llelboume Uniysr3ity t.t cet
vc = 90 km/h
vc = 30 km/h
t
Acceleration time, t.
Measureddata
R2 = 0.99!l
(sl
Fig. 2 -Acceleration fuel consumption as a function ol the

acceleration time tor tho lllbourne UnlvoBity te3t car
53
A R RN o 1 2 4
T h e r e c o m m e n d em
d e t h o df o r d e t e r m i n i ntgh e c o e f l i cientso{ the cruiseluel consumotion
f u n c t i o ni s t o
m e a s u r et h e i d l i n g f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nr a t e , b , ',. t h e
f u e lc o n s u r n p t i orna t ew h i l ec r u i s i n g f, o ,a n d
minimum
t h e ( o p t i m u m )s p e e d a t w h i c h t h i s c o n s u m p t i o ni s
a c h i e v e d ,v o ( u s u a l l yi n t h e r a n g e4 0 t o 6 0 k m / h ) ,
a n d t o c a l c u l a t eb , a n d b , f r o m :
br = fo-
1 . 5b ,
f,o-
and bt -
bt
--:-2 vo'
(2al
T h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e M e l b o u r n eU n i v e r s i t y
t e s t c a r u s i n gt h i s m e t h o da r e b " : 2 5 2 0 ,b t : 1 5 . 9
and b., : 0.00792 (see Flg. 7 which shows very high
c o r r e l a t i o nb e t w e e n o r e d i c t e da n d m e a s u r e dd a t a .
F ' : 0.998).
T h e u s e r s o f t h e T R A N S Y T8 c o m p u t e rp r o g r a m
( V i n c e n tM
, i t c h e l la n d R o b e r t s o n1 9 8 0 ) s h o u l dn o t e
t h a tt h e r e c o m m e n d e d
e q n ( 2 ) d i f f e r sf r o mt h e c r u i s e
fuelconsumption
f u n c t i o nu s e d i n t h a t p r o g r a m .
4. ACCELERATION
FUEL
CONSUMPTION
T h e f u n c t i o nt o p r e d i c tt h e f u e l c o n s u m e dd u r i n ga c c e l e r a t i o nf r o mr e s t t o a f i n a lc r u i s es p e e do f v " c a n
b e d e r i v e d b y i n t e g r a t i n ge q n ( 1) w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t i m e .T h e g e n e r a lf o r m o f t h e f u n c t i o ni s
F
b,
I a t' cv ' c a t a , v 3 ) f
,,3
r qov"'
I es -
(3)
where
F
aa
rt, IO rr
u s i n g t h e v a l u e s o I k , , k " , & , a s v a l u e sp r e - d e t e r minedfor the cruise luel consumptionfunction(using

the methodexplainedabove),and then by findingthe
values of k, and k-, by regressionlor constant-acceleration fuel consumption data. The correlation
betweenpredicted and measureddata was found to
be very high (R z : 0.999).The resultsare illustrated
in Fig.2lor v" : 30, 60 and 90 km/h.
Eqn (3) can be written as F, : Ata + B + C lta
w h e r eA : r t , * u " v " * t t . 1v 6 3 , 8 : r t . ,v " 2a n d Q :
rr-,v"3 are constantsfor a given final speed, v.. The
accelerationtime which minimisesfuel consumption
can be obtainedfrom this functionas to : (C /A11/2
and the correspondingaverageaccelerationrate is
do : v"/to. The results for the MelbourneUniversity
t e s t c a r a r e s h o w ni n F i g . 2 f o r v " : 3 0 , 6 0 a n d 9 0
km/h. lt is seen that optimumaccelerationrates are
e o : 7 . 7 , 6 . 0 a n d 5 . 7 k m / h / s , r e s p e c t i v e l yT. h e s e
values are considerably higher than those found
elsewhere.Waters and Laker (1980) found an optimumrate ot 2.5 km/h/s for accelerationto 60 km/h
u s i n g d a t a f r o m a c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o nm o d e l .
Similarly, Evans and Takasaki (1981) found 2.7
km/h/s for accelerationto 48 km/h using data from
experimentson a test track, whereas the correspondingvaluefrom eqn (3) is 6.4 km/h/s. High values
of a-owere also obtainedfrom a theoreticalanalysis
a s s u m i n ga l i n e a ra c c e l e r a t i o nm o d e l ( b y c h a n g i n g
the relevant integration constants in eqn (3) as
describedabove).The value of a-odependson vehicle parametersas well as the accelerationprofile as
indicated by eqn (3). Hence, firm conclusions can
only be drawn by extensiveanalysisof real-life acceleration data. The data used for the results
reportedhere are dynamometerdata based on constant acceleration rates, and the range of data is
limited.
f u e l c o n s u m e d( m L ) d u r i n g a c celeration from rest to a final

cruise speed of v, (km/h),
v " / d : a c c e l e r a t i o nt i m e ( s )
where a : averageacceleration
rate (km/h/s),and
coefficientsrelatedto the coefficients of the instantaneousfuel
consumptionfunctionas follows:
t u , : k 1, o u : I T tk, , , o , : l f 1 k3 . y ,
r r , : 0 . 5 k 1, r ; : m . k . , w h e r e
mi U : 2, 3, 5) are integration
constants which depend on the
functionalformof the speed-time
profile during the manoeuvre
(accelerationmodel).For 'constant' accelerationmodel, m, :
0.50, m, : 0.25, m-,: 0.50, and
for'linear-decreasing
a 'c c e l e r a tion model, m" - 0.67, m., :
0.46, m-,: 0.53. (See Akcelik
( 1 9 8 2 ) f o r d e t a i l e dd e s c r i p t i o n
of the two accelerationmodels.)
The resultsfor the MelbourneUniversitytest car with

constant acceleration rates are tr, : 0.700, tru :
O . O O 2 ,2 e1 : \ : 0 . 0 5 5 x 1 0 - 5 , r r , : 0 . 0 0 3 8 1 , ( r . - , :
0.443 x 10 3 {data were availablefor constant accelerations only). These results were obtained by
5. EXCESSFUELCONSUMPTION
PERSTOP
The elemental fuel consumptionmodel which expresses fuel consumptionas a functionof the three
p r i n c i p a le l e m e n t so f d r i v i n g p a t t e r n s( i d l e , c r u i s e
and stop-start manoeuvres)has been discussed in
previousparts of the report:
F=ftxrtfzds+f3h
(4)
where
F
xs
ds
h
f,
fz
f.t
(mL),
fuelconsumption
totalsectiondistance(km),
stoppeddelaytime(s),
numberof completestop-start
manoeuvres,
per unit disfuel consumption
tancewhilecruising(mL/km),
per unit time
fuel consumption
whileidling(ml/s),and
excess fuel consumptionper
completestop-startmanoeuvre
(mL/stop).
Theidlefuelconsumption
rateper unittime,f, in
eqn(4),is obtainedfromeqn (1)by puttingy : 0 and
A R RN o . 1 2 4
54
a : 0 , i . e .t r : k , ( m l / s ) i n e q n ( 1 ) ,o r b , ( m l / h ) i ne q n
( 2 ) .F o r f u e l c o n s u m p t i o nw h i l e c r u i s i n g f, , : f " f r o m
eqn (2) can be used. This underestimatesthe actual
cruise fuel consumptionby an amountwhich corresponds to speed-fluctuationswhile cruising (see Part
5)" However, the effect of this error is likely to be
negligible in urban traffic managementapplications
tendsto be conbecausethe amountunderestimated
stant (assumingnegligibleeffect of tratficcontrols on
) n dt h i s a m o u n ti s s m a l l
m i d - b l o c kc r u i s ec o n d i t i o n s a
relativeto the contributionsof delay and stop-starts
to total fuel consumption.
A complete stop-start manoeuvreis delined for
eqn (4) as a speed-change manoeuvrewhich involves a decelerationfrom the cruise speed, v", to
zero speed and an accelerationback to the cruise
speed; and excess fuel consumptionper stop is the
total fuel consumed during such a stop-start
manoeuvre(with no stopped time) /ess the consumption whenthe distancetaken duringthis manoeuvreis
travelled at the cruise speed. The total fuel consumed during a stop-start manoeuvrecan therefore
be calculatedas the sum of the decelerationand accelerationfuel consumptions.Accelerationfuel consumptionis given by eqn (3). The investigation
reported in Akcelik (1982) was not conclusive
regardingthe deceleration fuel consumption,partly
due to data limitations.However,it appearsthat the
assumptionthat decelerationfuel consumption,Fo,is
equal to idle luel consumptionis a good approximat i o n , i . e . F a : k , t 6 w h e r e k , : i d l i n gl u e l c o n s u m p tion rate(s) and t6 : decelerationtime(s).However,
the form of the excess fuel consumptionfunction
becomesrathercomplicatedwith this assumption.As
a simplifyingassumption,all lirst three terms of eqn
(1) can be included in integrationas lully effective.
The resultingdecelerationluel consumptionfunction
is the same as eqn (3) except for the deletion of the
last two terms (detailed informationcan be found in
Akcelik (1982). The resultingexcess luel consumption function is
ft = grto + Prv"2 +
c
p
' 'l
t- a
- Aovr' th
(5)
For the MelbourneUniversitytest car when constant accelerationrates are used:p, : 0.350, p, :
0.00381
, l 3 , r : 0 . 4 4 3x 1 0 - 3 a n dp , : 0 . 0 9 6x 1 0 - 5 .
These results were found by partial regression,i.e.
k, , k., and k-, are pre-determinedvalues which are
used to calculate 0, to B. (k, found by direct
measurement,
k, and k-,found by the analysisof accelerationdata as given above),and then coefficient
13, is determined by regression. The results are
shown in Fig. 3 for two differentaverage deceleration-accelerationrates, dx : 2v"/t1. The correlation
betweenthe predictedand measureddata was lound
t o b e g o o d ( R , : 0 . 9 11 ) , b u t n o t a s g o o d a s t h o s e
for the cruise and acceleration fuel consumption
f u n c t i o n sT
. h i s d e c r e a s e i n p r e d i c t i o na c c u r a c y i s
due to the assumptionregarding deceleration fuel
consumptiondiscussedabove.
A s i m p l e rf u n c t i o nw h i c h n e g l e c t st h e l a s t t w o
terms of eqn (5) has been used in TRANSYT 8
p r o g r a m( V i n c e n et t a | . 1 9 8 0 ) ,a n d i t h a s b e e n s h o w n
in Part 5 ol this report that the PKEmodel impliesthe
same excess fuel consumptionfunction. However,
this function may result in very large errors, part i c u l a r l yf o r h i g h v " a n d l o w d n v a l u e s .B a s e do n t h e
a n a l y s e sr e p o r t e d i n A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 2 ) ,a l i m i t e d a p o l i c a t i o no f t h e f o r m u l ai s r e c o m m e n d eads f o l l o w s :
f t = erth * ezv"'
tor v" (
70 km/h
(6)
wnere
p, (ml/s), related to the Pred e t e r m i n e di d l i n gf u e l c o n s u m P tion rate as in eqn (5),
a
vl
coeflicient determined by
regression,and
a s i ne q n ( 5 ) .
g!
lr,tn,v"
For the MelbourneUniversitytest car with constant accelerationand decelerationrates e, : 0.350

and e, : 0.00319 were found.The correlationbetween the predictedand measureddata for the limited
data rangeis fairly good (F 'z: 0.855),but the use of
the functionshouldbe strictly limitedto the specified
data range.
where
l,.l
rh
F, to ll,
u,
excess luel consumption (mL)

per complete stop (deceleration
from initial cruise speed, v", to
zero speed and acceleration
back to speed v" ),
stop-starttime (s),i.e.sum of the
deceleration time, tr, and acc e l e r a t i o nt i m e ,t " ,
coefficientsrelatedto the coefficients of the instantaneousfuel
consumotionlunctionas follows:
lJr : f kt (y : 1/2 for constant
acceleration model and 1/3 Ior
finear accelerationmodel), 13,:
0.5kr, B,. : 0.5k; for constant
acceleration, 0.53k-, for linear
a c c e l e r a t i o n( n o t et h a t 0 : : ( r r ,
0r : (t;,comparedwith eqn (3) ),
and
coefficient determined by
regression.
TO THEPKE
6. APPLICATION
MODEL
Two differentforms of PKEmodel were discussed in
previous parts of the report. A small modificationto
the previous form of the model makes it consistent
with the instantaneousfuel consumption function
g i v e ni n t h i s p a r t ( e q n( 1 ) ) :
f, = b , * ;
b2
* b3vr2+ b4d, + b5PKE
(71
or alternatively,
b2
f=
x
br+s
1 b3vr' + bt PKE
(8)
55
A R RN o 1 2 4
330
dn= 5.ag
a-6(km/h/s)
2.0
5.33
Data
T
= 0.911
F
6n=z'o
7zo
a
o
x
u
40
60
speed,
v. (km/h)
Cruise
Fig. 3 - Excess fuel consumption per stop for the Melbourne
University test car (constant and equal acceleration and
deceleration rates)
wnere
f,
br to b.
ys
vt
4
PKE
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o np e r u n i t d i s tance (mL/km),
m o d e l c o e f f i c i e n t s( c o n s t a n t s ) ,
average interruptedtravel speed
i n c l u d i n ga l l d e l a y s( k m / h ) ,
average running speed (km/h)
excluding any stopped delay
t i m e b u t i n c l u d i n gd e c e l e r a t i o n
nelays,
a n da c c e l e r a t i o d
d" /x" : stopped delay time per
u n i td i s t a n c e( s / k m ) ,
'posiv a r i a b l e d e s c r i b i n gt o t a l
tive kinetic energy' changes
m / s 2 ) ,g i v e nb y
>(vf- vil
PKE =
'|
2 960 x,
wnere
linal and initial speeds (km/h) in
an acceleration,and x. : total
section distance(km).
Only the third terms of eqns (7) and (8) differfrom the
original formulae:vrzinsteadof v' and v"2insteadof
vs are used. Analysesreported in Akcelik (1982) indicate that better results are obtained with this
modification.The analyses were carried out using
Watson's on-road data (collected in 1978 on
Melbourneroads).The resultsof free regressionslor
l e v e l r o a d d a t a ( i d e n t i f i e da s t h o s e w i t h a n e t g r a d i e n t l e s s t h a n 0 . 5 p e r c e n t , l e a v i n g1 6 0 m e a s u r e m e n t sf r o m t h e t o t a l o l 1 4 6 3 ) a r e b , : 1 O . 2 ,4 :
2 6 2 3 ,b \ : 0 . 0 0 7 4 1 , b r : 1 1 1 . 1( R ' : 0 . 9 3 6 ) f o r
,r
e q n ( 8 ) ,a n d b , : 1 4 . 2 ,b ! : 2 1 7 8 ,b r : 0 . 0 0 7 7 1 b
: 0 . 7 9 6 , b . : 1 1 5 . 9 ( R ' z : 0 . 9 5 0 ) f o r e q n( 7 ) .
7. CONCLUSTON
A five-term instantaneousfuel consumptionmodel
( e q n1 ) h a s b e e n d e r i v e dw h i c h c a n b e u s e d :
(a) for predictingfuel consumptionwhenspeed-time
t r a c e so f i n d i v i d u avl e h c i l e sa r e k n o w n ;a n d
(b) as a basis for deriving lunctionsdescribing the
elementalmodel parametersas well as aggregate fuel consumptionfunctionssuch as the PKE
m o d e l . T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u sf u e l c o n s u m p t i o n
modelcoefficientscan be determinedusing data
for separateidle, constant-speedcruise and accelerationmanoeuvreswith minimumrelianceon
regressionanalyses.lt has been shown that the
excess fuel consumptionper stop-start
manoeuvre depends on the initial and final
speeds, as well as the deceleration and accelerationrates and profiles.
Consideringthe limitationsof the data used for
the analyses whose results are presented in this
paper,similarstudies are recommendedusing good
quality on-roaddata representing:
(a) a wide range of speeds, and acceleration and
decelerationrates,
ARR No. 124
56
( b ) r e a l i s t i ca c c e l e r a t i o na n d d e c e l e r a t i o np r o f i l e s
(speed-timetraces), and
( c ) d i f f e r e n t v e h i c l e t y p e s ( m a n u a la s w e l l a s
automatictransmission).
For furtherwork, it is also recommendedto ext e n d t h e w o r k r e p o r t e di n d e t a i l i n A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 2 i t o
REFERENCES
i n c l u d et h e r o a d g r a d i e n ta s a p a r a m e t e rt ,o d e v e l o p
a physicalinterpretationof the a 2 y termin the instantaneous fuel consumptionfunction,which provides
s e n s i t i v i t yt o h i g h a c c e l e r a t i o nr a t e s ,t o d e r i v e f o r mulae for speed-up and slow-down manoeuvresinvolvingnon-zeroinitialand finalspeeds,and to carry
out similaranalysesto derive and calibratepollutant
e m i s s i o nm o d e l s .
AKOELIK,
R. (1982).Derivationand calibrationof {uelconsumptionmodels.AustralianRoad
ResearchBoard.lnternalReport,AIR 367-3.
and BAYLEY,C. (1982).Derivationol luel consumptionmodels.SAE-A/ARRB2nd
Con{.on TraflicEnergyand Emissions,
Melbourne.
BAYLEY,C. (1980).Energyimplications
of co-ordinatedtrafficsignals.Aust.Rd Res.10(2),
pp.16-24.
BESTER,C.J. (1981 ). Fuel consumptionon congested freeways. fransp. Res.Rec.801 , pp.
5 1- 5 4 .
EVANS,L. and TAKASAKI,G.M.(1981). Fuelusedto acceleratevehiclesfromrest to cruising speeds.Soc. Auto. Eng. (U.S.),PaperNo. 810781.
GIPPS,P.G.and WILSON,B.G. (1980).MULTSIM:
a computerpackagelor simulatingmultilanetrafficflows.Proc.4th BiennialConl.SimulationSoc. Aust.
HURLEY,
J.W.,RADWAN,A.E.and BENEVELLI,
D.A. (1981). Sensitivityol luel-consumption
anddelay valuesfromtraflicsimulation.
Iransp.Res.Fec. 795, pp. 14-21.
LIEBERMAN.
E., WORRALL,R.D.,WICKS,D. and WOO, J. (1979).NETSIMModel (5 vols).
U.S.Fed. Highw.Admin.Rep.No. FHWA-RD-77-41
lo 77-45. Washirrgton
D.C.
VINCENT,
R.A.,MITCHELL,A.l.and ROBERTSON,
D.l. (198O).Userguideto TRANSYTVersion E Transp.Road Res.Lab. (U.K.)TRRLLab. Rep.LR 888.
WATERS,M.H.L.and LAKER,l.B. (1980).Researchon fuel conservationlor cars. Road Res.
Lab. (U.K.)TRRLLab. Reo.LR 921.
ARRMS83162
t s B No 8 6 9 1 0 1 2 3 4

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PO Box 1075G, Greythorn, Vic 3104 AUSTRALIA

Management Systems Registered to ISO 9001

Progress in Fuel Consumption Modelling

Akcelik and Associates Pty Ltd / www.sidrasolutions.com

ARR No. 124

fssN o518 - 0728

PKE = 0.30 m/s

THIS REPORT SHOULD INTEREST

THE MAJOR CONCLUSIONS OF THE REPORT ARE

AS A CONSEOUENCE OF THE WORK REPORTED. THE FOLLOWING ACTION IS RECOMMENDED

RELATED ARRB RESEARCH

Appraisal of Small Area Traffic Management Study Tools

--l:ggl--f x xl 121-?-9:1rr-':"lgg-3j rigg"'-ag 1-11119'

CUT OUT INFORMATION

ResearchReportARR No. 124

ResearchReportARR No. 124

ResearchReport ARR No. 124

Effectsof Changesin SignalTimings

Coefficientsfor the elementalmodel

Delayper vehicle (average)-the difference

Constant-speedfuel consumptionper unit distance

Excessfuel consumptionper stop (seethe

Interruptedtraveltime-time to travel along the

T r a v e l t i m e s p e r u n i t d i s t a n(ct ,e/ x " , t t / x s , t s / x s ,

Cruisespeed -average speedwhile cruising

Runningspeed (: x" /t, )

Interruptedtravelspeed (or'section'speed)averagespeed alongthe total section distance,

Partof the total sectiondistancetravelledat a

Total section distance

Physical and Control

oer kilometreof road (e.9.Evansand Herman1976;

The coefficient I, therefore accounts for both

The side friction encounteredalong a route is a

average fuel consumplion per

The model can be expressed in other forms as disc u s s e di n A k c e l i k ( 1 9 8 1a ) a n d i n m o r ed e t a i li n p a r t

Fuel consumptionat steady speedshas been investigatedby severalresearchers(Claffey1971 and

ldeal conditionsof uninterrupted

Fig. 2 - Steady-speed luel consumption

The internalfrictioncan be measuredin termsol

ARR No. 124

The third componentof the elementalmodel, f .,h, is

change in fuel consumptiondue

lntermediate Speed (kmth)

To conclude,referenceshouldbe madeto the

This paperhas attemptedto summarise

Using the basic data given above and in lable /, the

the elementalmodelfor threedifferentcars; and

the elemental model and three differenily

The first example is related to the effects of

Delay and number ol stops per unit distance

It is assumedthat thereare no speedfluctuationsduring cruise,and hence,PKEis only due to stops at the

Elementalmodel with data from Ctafiey t1976)

Elemental model with data from Robertson,

Elementalmodel with data from Watson (1991)

Averagenumberof stops, h (stops/km)

P 1 PKEmodel by Watsonet a/. ('1980)for the same

P2. PKEmodel by Watson (198O) for the same car

Fuel consumptionper unil distance

Averagedelay per unit distace

Averagenumberof stops per unil

Sumofpositive kinetic energy

P3. PKE model by Poyntonand Dawson (1980) for