Design of Mechatronic Systems 1: EMT 2404

Introduction This unit is intended to introduce the student to the Mechatronic approach in Engineering design. The student will be able to appreciate the individual
components of Mechatronics and how they come together to create an integrated approach in thinking and problem solving.
Course Structure
Lectures: 2 hours/week
Tutorial: 1 hour/week
Practical: 3 hours/week
CATs:
Week 6: 12th June 2012
Week 9: 3rd July 2012
Week 12: 24th July 2012
Assignments:
Three Assignments, to be handed in two weeks after date issued.
The course requires the students to engage in some design work. This will be done in
groups. The class will take part in a single overall project, then each group will undertake
various aspects of design, and come up with variations for improvement.
Assessment:
Continuous assessment:
Tests- 10%
Assignments- 5%
Practicals (including design work)- 15%
Examination- 70%

Course Outline

1. Introduction :Overview of typical industrial processes; application of control and

mechatronics.
2. System Elements : Integration of electrical and mechanical components.
3. Critical Profiles of Major CNC Machine Tool Types: Machining centres,
turning systems, laser-cutting machines, electrical machining equipment and metal
deformation machines.
4. Mechatronic Approach: Control, design process, types of design and integrated
product design. Traditional versus Mechatronic approaches to design.
5. Design of Machine elements: Mechanisms, Load Conditions, Flexibility, Modeling and Simulation; Structures; Design projects and case studies.

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1

What is Mechatronics?

Mechatronics is defined as the synergistic combination of precision mechanical, electronic, control and systems engineering in the design of products and manufacturing
processes (IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics)
Mechatronics may also be defined as a methodology used for the optimal design of electromechanical products.
The mechatronic system is multidisciplinary, requiring knowledge from 4 fundamental
disciplines:
Electrical
Mechanical
Computer Science
Information Technology
Electromechanical systems use a computer algorithm to modify the behaviour of a mechanical system. Electronics are used to transduce information between the computer
science and the mechanical disciplines.
History of Mechatronics The word mechatronics has been around since the early
1970s. It was coined by Mr. Tetsuro Mori, a senior engineer of Japans Yasakawa Electric Company. From 1972 to 1982 mechatronics was a registered trademark of the
Yasakawa Electric Company.

1.1.1

Classification of Mechatronic Products

1. Class I: Primarily mechanical products with electronics incorporated to enhance

functionality. This class was enabled by servo technology, power electronics, and
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

control theory. Examples include numerically controlled machine tools and variable
speed drives in manufacturing machines.
2. Class II: Traditional mechanical systems with significantly updated internal devices
incorporating electronics. The external user interfaces are unaltered. This class of
products was enabled by the availability of early computational and memory devices and custom circuit design capabilities. Examples include the modern sewing
machine and automated manufacturing systems.
3. Class III: Systems that retain the functionality of the traditional mechanical system, but the internal mechanisms are replaced by electronics. Class III products
relied heavily on the microprocessor and integrated circuits to replace mechanical
systems. An example is the digital watch.
4. Class IV:Products designed with mechanical and electronic technologies through
synergistic integration. Class IV products marked the beginning of true mechatronic systems, through integration of mechanical systems and electronics. Examples include photocopiers, intelligent washers and dryers, rice cookers, and automatic ovens.

1.1.2

Elements of a Mechatronic System

A typical mechatronic system is composed of the following elements:

Physical systems modeling (mechanisms)
Electronics
Information Technology
Control
Instrumentation (Sensors and Transducers)
It is important to note, however, as per the definition of Mechatronics, a mechatronic
system is much more than a mash-up of components representing the various elements,
but rather involves an integrated approach.

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Conventional Design Versus Mechatronic Design

The differences between traditional methods of design and mechatronic design are as
shown in table 1.

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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Conventional Design

Mechatronic Design

Added Components
1. Bulky
2. Complex mechanisms
3. Cable problems
4. Connected Components

Integration of components (hardware)

1. Compact
2. Simple mechanisms
3. Bus or wireless Communication
4. Autonomous units

Simple Control

Integration by information processing

(software)
5. Elastic construction with damping by
electronic feedback
6. Programmable feedback, nonlinear
(digital) control
7. Precision through measurement and
feedback control
8. Control of nonmeasurable estimated
quantities
9. Supervision with fault diagnosis
10. Learning abilities

5. Stiff Construction
6. Feedforward control, linear (analogue)
control
7. Precision through narrow tolerances
8. Nonmeasurable quantities change
arbitrarily
9. Simple monitoring
10. Fixed abilities

Figure 1.1: Differences between traditional and Mechatronic Design

History of Mechatronics

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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Steam Engine-1860
Dynamos-1870
Circular Pumps-1880
Combustion Engine-1880
Mechanical Typewriter

<1900

DC Motor-1870
AC Motor-1889
Mechanical Systems with
electrical drives

Relays, Solenoids
Hydraulics, Pneumatics,
Electric Amplifiers
PI Controllers- 1930
Mechanical Systems with
automatic control

Electric Typewriter
Steam Turbines
Aircraft

1935

Transistor-1948
Electronically
controlled Lifts

1955

Digital Computer-1955
Process Computer-1959
Real-time software-1966
Microcomputer-1971
Digital decentralized automation-1975

1975

Machine Tools
Industrial robots
Industrial Plants
Disc drives

Microcontroller-1978
Personal Computers-1980
Process Fieldbus Systems
New sensors, actuators
Integration of components
Mechatronic Systems:
Hardware integration
(Mechanical and Electronic)
Software determines functions
New design tools for
simultaneous engineering
Synergetic effects

1.2

>1985

Mobile robots
CIM
Magnetic Bearings
Automotive control
(ABS, ESP)

Increasing integration of process and

microcomputers

Mechanical Systems with:

Digital continuous control
Digital sequential control

Increasing automation
with process computers
and miniaturization

Thyristor-1955
Mechanical systems with:
electronic (analog) control
sequential control

Increasing Automatic Control

Tool Machines
Pumps

1920

Increasing
Electrical drives

Pure Mechanical Systems

Modular Approach to Mechatronics

In mechatronic design, the overall system is broken down into a series of blocks or
modules. The modules are as follows:
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Environment Module: The environment module is concerned with external parameters such as temperature range and load factors which will influence the operation of the whole system. Within the overall design, they constitute the boundaries within which the system must operate. Standards and codes of practice are
included here.
Assembly Module: The assembly module represents the physical realization of
the mechanical and structural elements of the system. It is primarily concerned
with parameters such as the properties of materials, structural behaviour, form
and context. Inputs to the assembly module consist of motions provided by the
actuation modules together with the conditions defined by the environment module. Output from the assembly module is provided by the measurement module.
Aesthetics are incorporated within this module.
Measurement Module: This is concerned with the gathering of information
about system status and behaviour. Input parameters are physical properties of
the assembly module while output parameters are concerned with the nature of
the information to be transmitted.
Communication Module: This is concerned with the transmission of information between modules within the system. Input and output conditions relate to
the nature of information to be transmitted, the distance over which it is to be
transmitted and the operating environment.
Processor Module: This is concerned with the processing of information provided by the measurement and interface modules. Input parameters include measured parameters and demand settings as well as system parameters such as speed
of operation. The outputs from the processor modules determine the operation of
the actuation modules and provide information to the interface modules.
Software Module: This contains the operating instructions and defining algorithms for the system and controls the operation of the processor module. The
nature and form of the software module is linked to the processor module.
Actuation Module: This produces the changes in system conditions required
to perform the required functions. Input conditions are set by the output of the
processor modules and outputs are defined by the type of motion required.
Interface Module: This is concerned with the transfer of information between
levels within the system and, at the highest level, with providing the necessary
man-machine interface for the transfer of user information. Inputs and outputs are
concerned with the nature of the information transfer involved.

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World

Interface
Module

Software
Module
Processor
Module

Communications
Module

Actuation
Module

Measurement
Module

Assembly
Module
Environment
Module

1.3

Mechatronics in Manufacturing

Production lines are faced with challenges of maximizing productivity while allowing for
flexibility. Manual lines, though highly adaptable, suffer from low levels of productivity.
Mass production lines, lack flexibility with changeovers involving significant time costs.
Within a wide range of manufacturing systems and processes, a mechatronic design
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

approach has as its primary benefit the ease with which the process can be reconfigured
while at the same time offering enhanced product quality and consistency.

Mechatronic Approach

Traditional Approach
Chemical Process
Centralized Computer Control
All instruments, transducers wired back to
central computer and control room
Sequence control predominates
Individual parts of the process relatively
inflexible
Control systems involve the large scale use
of electropneumatic interfaces because of
hazard concern.
Hard Processes, e.g bottling plant
Sequence control predominates
Whole process controlled by relay logic

Highly inflexible as to product type and

size.
Two-position air cylinders or simple
electropneumatics widely used, control by
limit switches.
Inspection/QA stages towards or at end of
process
Manufacturing unit, e.g. Machine Tool
Dedicated CNC controller, perhaps
including automatic tool changes
Essentially stand-alone mode

Largely manual inspection and QA

procedures
Predominantly manual handling processes
for loading and unloading
Plant maintenance on a breakdown or
preventive basis

Distributed processing power with

localized decision making capacity
Reduced cable runs; machine cycles stored
and executed via local control loops
More parts of process are capable of
individual control
Optimization facilitated by stages and as a
whole
Reduced size of components via VLSI
results in lower power levels; may be
intrinsically safe, therefore electronic
controls become acceptable
Some proportional control where variable
speed drives are used.
Microprocessor based Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs) providing distributed
control incorporating a degree of
intelligence.
Stepless actuators incorporating position
feedback widely employed; process
flexibility enhanced, downtime reduced.
Robust electrical drives with variable speed
and position feedback; proportional
electropneumatics in limited applications
In-process automatic inspection.

Networked CNC controllers with remote or

central control of cycles
Linked Flexible Manufacturing system
(FMS) with integrated parts handling and
transfer, the latter based on the use of
AGVs
In-process gauging, automated inspection,
data collection and reporting
Use of general purpose robots for handling;
automatic tool changing
Plant maintenance on a predictive basis,
based on on-line diagnostics and condition
monitoring

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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.4

Mechatronics in Products

End user products that have benefited from Mechatronic design approaches are either
existing products offering enhanced capabilities or completely new product areas which
would not have existed without a mechatronic design approach having been adopted
from the outset.
Existing products that have benefited from Mechatronic design include:
Automotive Engines and Transmissions: Engine and driveline management
systems lead to reduced emissions, improved fuel economy, protection against driver
misuse by, for example, prohibiting excessive fuel flow at low speeds, anti-lock
braking systems and selectable gear characteristics.
Cameras: Automatic adjustment of focus, aperture and shutter speed to suit the
prevailing conditions, leading to a virtual elimination of technical skills.
Power Tools: Modern power tools such as drills offer a range of features such as
speed and torque control, reversing drives and controlled acceleration.
Products that have been brought into existence as a result of mechatronics include:
Modular Robotics: Conventional industrial robots are often limited in their
operation by their geometry. A range of structural components and actuators
together with a central controller make possible direct assembly of robot structures
to suit the end users needs.
Autopilot for small boats: These are able to accept an input from a windvane,
fluxgate compass or radio beacon and drive a tiller or steering wheel.
CD and DVD players: CD and DVD players involve complex laser tracking
systems to read the digitally encoded signal carried by the disc. The control is
achieved by means of a microprocessor based system.
A common factor in consumer mechatronics is continuous improvement in capability
achieved against a constant or reducing real cost to the end user.

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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.5

The Engineer and Mechatronic Design

The following areas of competence are required in design of mechatronic systems:

Mathematical modelling of mechanical systems with multiple degrees of freedom,
system representation and programming using numerical integration techniques.
Selection and application of sensors
Instrumentation, including the use of portable data collection and test equipment
Design and application of electrohydraulic and electropneumatic control systems
The use of microprocessor based and PLC based development systems
The establishing of control algorithms for system development
The more general mechanical design of test equipment and pre-production items
A general knowledge of analog circuit design and electrical applications, as well as
signal conditioning.

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Chapter 2
System Elements
2.1

Key Elements of Mechatronics

A simplified model of basic elements of a mechatronic system is illustrated below:

Control
Control
Technology

Actuators

Sensors

ElectroMechanical
Border
Mechanical
Design

Basic System

Energy
Material
Information

2.1.1

Control

Control is accomplished by use of system inputs to influence system outputs based on

the characteristics of the system and required functions.
History of Control The first control systems employed float regulator mechanisms.
These were first employed in Greece around 300 BC. An example is the water clock of
Ktesibios.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Figure 2.1: Float regulated control system

Since then, control expanded into areas such as pressure control in steam valves, speed
control in windmills and mechanical control methods such as use of cams.
In modern mechatronic systems, the mechanical cam disc is replaced by its electronic
equivalent, which makes use of multiple servo drives synchronized to achieve the desired
motion.
In general, types of electronic control may be summarized as shown in Fig 3.

2.1.2

Sensors and Transducers

A sensor is the part of the measurement system that responds to the particular physical
parameter to be measured. A transducer transfers information in one form of energy
from one part of the system to another, in some cases changing the form of energy containing the information.
There are six signal energy domains for the transfer of information. Sensors and transducers are characterised by the input energy domain, modulating energy domain and
output energy domain. The domains are as follows:
Radiant This covers the full spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. Major parameters are frequency, phase, intensity and polarization.
Mechanical This covers parameters such as distance, velocity, size and force.
Thermal This covers temperature effects in materials including parameters such
as thermal capacity, latent heat and phase change properties.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Electronic Control

Logic
Control

Sequential
Circuit

Sequential
Control

Combinatorial
Circuit

Time
Bounded

Cyclic Signal

Process
Bounded

Event Oriented
Signal

Figure 2.2: Electronic control classification

Electrical This covers electrical parameters such as the current, voltage, resistance
and capacitance.
Magnetic This covers magnetic field parameters such as field strength and flux
density.
Chemical This covers the internal structure and behaviour of matter and includes
parameters such as concentration of material, crystal structure and aggregation
state.
In terms of their utilization of energy, transducers may be considered as passive(direct),
requiring no energy source other than that provided by the signal in order to function,
or active (indirect), requiring additional energy from an external source.
Sensors and transducers may be further classified in terms of function, performance or
output signal.
Classification by Function
The transducer is classified according to the measurands, as follows:
Displacement Linear and angular
Velocity Linear and angular; flow rate; speed
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Acceleration Vibration; shock

Dimensional Position; Size; Area; Thickness; Volume; Roughness; Strain
Mass Weight; Load; Density
Force Absolute, relative, static, dynamic and differential pressure; Torque; Power;
Stress
Other Hardness; Viscosity
Classification by Performance
Performance can be assessed in terms of parameters such as accuracy, repeatability,
linearity, sensitivity and range.
Classification by Output
Output signals will fall into a number of groupings, as follows:
Analog output Provides a continuous output signal, some property of which is
directly related to the value of the parameter being measured.
Digital Output Generates a digital representation of the measurand in either
serial or parallel form. Information is produced either at regular intervals or on
demand.
Frequency output A signal is produced, the frequency of which is a function of
the measurand. Output may be continuous or a pulsed waveform which may be
converted into digital form by use of counters and timers.
Coded output Various forms of coded signals may be produced including amplitude and frequency modulation, pulse width and pulse position modulation.
Design of a Measurement System
The designer must consider a wide range of factors covering:
1. The information required and the identification of the physical parameters of the
system that must be measured in order to provide this information.
2. The nature, quality and performance of the measurement in terms of linearity,
accuracy and resolution.
3. A determination of the most inaccurate measurement that would be acceptable
given the function of the measurement.
4. The effect on system performance of any drift in the measurement circuit, particularly variation of the zero.
5. The environmental conditions under which the sensors and transducers are expected to operate.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

6. The cost targets to be met.

7. The nature and form of information transfer required.
8. The reliability of the system
9. The form of the interface to adjacent modules in the system.
It is important to avoid providing too much or too little information.
Once the specifications have been defined, the design process involves a modular approach
requiring:
1. Identification of means by which the parameters can be measured taking into account the performance requirements.
2. Selection of appropriate sensors and transducers.
3. Specification and provision of any local processing power that may be required.
4. Specification and production of any special purpose electrical or mechanical hardware associated with the operation of the sensors and transducers.
5. Specification of associated software and the control of the production of such software.

2.1.3

Drives and Actuators

In mechatronic applications, most sensing and control functions are applied to relatively
few control parameters:
Mechanical Systems: Force, position or torque, speed.
Electrical Systems: Voltage, current
Hydraulic Systems: Volumetric flow rate, pressure

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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Classification of Drives and Actuators

Drives and Actuators

Control Devices
Electrohydraulic

Electropneumatic

Cycloconverters

Inverters

Power Semiconductors

Chopper
Drives

Rectifiers

Linear Systems
Pneumatic

Rams

Screw

Hydraulic
Cylinders

Diaphragms/
Bellows

Rotational
Pneumatic

Continuous
Rotation

Hydraulic

Limited
Rotation

Switched
Reluctance
Motors

DC
Machines

Continuous
Rotation

Electrical

Limited
Rotation

Induction
Machines

Stepper
Motors

Brushless
Machines

Motion
Converters
Fixed Ratio

Invariant
Motion Profile

Variators
Conical
pulley/disc

Friction wire-wrap
Indexing
Screw Nut

Ball/disc
friction drive

Cams
Rack and Pinion

Unit hydraulic
Transmissions

Linkages
Chains
V-Belt

Springs and
Dampers

Belt Drives
Toothed
Belt

Remotely
Controlled
couplings

Gears

Parallel Shaft Gears

Epicyclic Gears

Harmonic Drives

Worm and Bevel Gears

Figure 2.3: Actuator classification

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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

1. Control Devices
(a) Electrohydraulic Control Devices The mechanical elements have been in
existence since the 1920s where they were incorporated as spool valves with
mechanical position feedback in early versions of power steering on automobiles.
For electrical operation, solenoids are most commonly employed to drive the
spool in light duty applications directly, and in higher pressure and flow applications through the intermediary of a pilot valve.
Examples of devices in this category are the flapper-controlled electrohydraulic servo-valve used in flight controls, machine tool slides, hydraulic
pump stroke controls, testing machines, ship steering gear and electrohydraulic vibrators for geological survey work; the proportional solenoid
controlled electrohydraulic valve applied in direct driven valves and the
simple flapper orifice used in low cost applications.
(b) Electropneumatic proportional controls The control methods used are
direct proportional control, for pressure and flow applications, for example in
commercial vehicle braking systems, and pulse width modulation control of
solenoid valves.
(c) Power Semiconductor Devices Principal devices used are diodes, thyristors, gate turn-off thyristors, triacs, power transistors, power MOSFETs and
insulated gate bipolar transistors.These are applied in Converters (uncontrolled, half controlled and fully controlled), DC Choppers, Inverters and Cycloconverters.
2. Linear Systems
(a) Pneumatic Rams: Rod Type These are most commonly used in twoposition applications working between end stops. Its advantages include low
cost; availability; light alloy construction; safe, clean working medium; wide
range of mounting configurations; protection of the system by inherent force
limitation; shock-resistance; rapid action and its idealness for two-position
sequence control.
Disadvantages include a costly working medium (if operation is continuous);
length of travel is limited by the stability of the ram; lack of stiffness (it
cannot hold position against alternating loads unless holding on end stop)
and its unsuitability for accurate speed control.
(b) Pneumatic Rams: Rodless Type They are used in applications similar to
those of conventional rams and have extended the range of pneumatics into
new areas formerly held by chain drives and lead screws.
Advantages include a range of motion 80% or more of the device length; ability
to function as a combined actuator and guideway for the load; very long travel
possible (5m or more) and equal force is available in both directions.
The main disadvantage is that mounting possibilities are more restricted.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

(c) Pneumatic Bellows Are used for light loads and small ranges of movement,
typically instrumentation applications. Most commonly employed as pressure
sensing devices in which pressure is transformed into mechanical movement.
(d) Pneumatic Diaphragms Are used where compressed air is the preferred
working medium, or for reasons of safety in hazardous environments. The
most common of application is as a positioner for actuation of fluid control
valves on pipelines in chemical process plants.
Their main advantage is that the substantial area of the diaphragm makes
large forces available to overcome those on the fluid valve spindle. The main
disadvantage is their restricted range of movement and bulky topworks.
(e) Hydraulic Cylinders Are used for linear positioning with higher loads than
are possible with pneumatic rams.
Main advantages are very high loads available in compact format; hold on
load can be obtained with leaktight piston and valve seals; precise control of
rate of movement is readily accomplished with the appropriate control system;
wide variety of mounting configurations from a wide range of suppliers; easily
protected against overload by means of a relief valve.
Main disadvantages are that they are generally more expensive and heavier
than pneumatic cylinders and they require a working fluid which is itself more
costly and objectionable when a leakage occurs.
(f) Motor and Ball Screw Typically consists of an electric motor and a screw
jack with a recirculating ball nut. Applications include positioning flaps on
aircraft wings. Can be employed in either pull or push mode.
Advantages include availability of high forces; favourable comparison with
hydraulic rams on the force/bulk criterion; hold on load with power off is
intrinsically to the design of the ball screws.
Disadvantages include high cost and lower availability than hydraulic rams;
slower than hydraulic rams and much slower than pneumatic rams; can be
subjected to inadvertent overloads if driven to a physical end stop or otherwise
to a mechanically jammed position.
(g) Motor and Lead Screw Similar to the motor and ball screw but with higher
friction generated ate the nut/screw interface. This results in guaranteed hold
on load with power off but lower efficiency. Applied in machine tool drives.
(h) Direct Linear Electrical Actuators Used in magnetic levitation systems.
Based on linear induction motors or DC linear motors. Major disadvantage
of DC linear motors is mechanical problems associated with commutation.
(i) Solenoids Normally employed for short stroke actuators. They are unidirectional devices in which the action is always to draw the plunger into the
coil, irrespective of the polarity of the current, hence they can only be used in
conjunction with a returning force such as a spring or by use of two opposing
solenoids.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Applications include central door locking systems for cars and the remote
operation of on/off fluid control valves.
(j) Other forms of Electrical Actuators Actuators with strokes of a few millimetres have been manufactured based on using electrical heaters to expand
fluid or wax filled capsules. These, however, suffer from a relatively long time
constant and provide forces of a few newtons.
Piezoelectric actuators provide forces of 1kN or more with high cyclic frequencies. However the range of movement is small, usually less than 1mm.
3. Rotational Drives
(a) Pneumatic Motors: Continuous Rotation Are available in two basic
types: vane motors, used mainly as drivers in pneumatic tools such as nut
runners, and v-configured piston-type motors, used as starter motors for diesel
engines. Radial piston motors are used in quarry rock drills and for driving
agitators in chemical plants.
Major advantages are intrinsic safety; inherent limitation of torque by the
available supply pressure and robustness against mechanical shock or jamming, especially when directly connected.
Major drawbacks include low efficiency in energy utilization; they require an
exhaust silencer; speed is highly load dependent and control of speed can only
be achieved by throttling.
(b) Pneumatic Motors: Limited Rotation Are used to provide rotations of
90 or slightly more. Two types are available, vane and rack and pinion. The
vane type produces a slightly higher torque but at higher cost.
(c) Hydraulic Motors: Continuous Rotation Very widely used where high
torques are to be transmitted within a very limited space. Applications can
be summarized as follows:
Application

Motor Type

Low torque, Low power

Gear; Vane
Low Torque, Medium Power
Vane; Axial Piston
Medium Torque and/Or Power Axial piston; Radial piston(inward working)
High Power, Very High Torque Axial piston; Radial piston(outward working)
All hydraulic motors which operate hydrostatically are reversible. The same
geometric configuration may be employed as a pump or as a motor. All hydraulic motors have a specific displacement expressed in volume per revolution
or volume per angle terms. All hydraulic motors are subject to internal leakage through the working clearances during manufacture.d
Advantages of hydraulic transmissions are high torque and power with low
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM ELEMENTS

weight and bulk; high resistance to mechanical shock; acceptable in areas

with hazard classification; low speed varieties have low noise levels; ability
to remove, to a substantial degree, sources of both noise and heat generation
from the working environment.
Disadvantages include higher costs than for electrical drives, apart from direct drive, high torque, low speed motors; high speed hydraulic motors tend
to produce a high noise level and they require provision of a power pack or
hydraulic main.
(d) Hydraulic Motors: Limited Rotation Outwardly resemble the pneumatic
limited rotation actuators but produce a much larger torque output in relation
to their physical size.
(e) Electrical Motors May be DC machines, or AC machines.
4. Motion Converters
(a) Fixed Ratio Motion Converters Are available as parallel shaft gears,
epicyclic gears, harmonic drives, worm and bevel gears, v-belt drives, toothed
belt drives, chains and sprockets, friction wire wrap drives, rack and pinion
drives and screw nut systems.
(b) Motion Converters with Invariant Motion Profile Include cams, indexing mechanisms (such as the geneva mechanism), linkages and spring and
damper systems.
(c) Variators Available types include conical pulley/disc systems, ball/disc friction drive systems and unit hydraulic transmissions (such as the Carter gear)
5. Remotely Controlled Couplings Simple electromagnetically applied friction
clutches and dog clutches are used in an on/off mode to connect a driver to the
driven machine. Often used in high speed machinery where the drive must be picked
up very rapidly and the kinetic energy in the driver can be used to advantage.

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Chapter 3
Critical Profiles of CNC Machine
Tool Types
3.1

Overview

CNC (Computer Numerically Controlled) machines were developed in the 1970s as descendants of Numerically Controlled machines, which were based on punched-card tapes.
In a CNC machine, commands (CNC machine code) are entered numerically and processed by a computer.
The use of processors and PLCs integrated into the system is a main feature.
Modern CNC machines allow for the following:
Simultaneous servo-positioning and velocity control of all the axes.
Monitoring of controller and machine tool performance.
On-line part programming with graphical assistance
In-process cutting process monitoring
In-process part gauging for completely unmanned machining operations

3.1.1

Advantages of CNC systems

1. High degree of quality due to accuracy, repeatability and freedom from operatorintroduced variations.
2. Reduced scrap. Errors due to operator fatigue, interruptions and other factors are
less likely to occur.
3. Simplified inspection. Once the first piece has passed inspection, minimal inspection is required on subsequent parts.
4. Lower tooling costs due to less need for complex jigs and fixtures.
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5. Reduced lead time

6. Complex machining operations are more easily accomplished due to advanced machine control

3.1.2

Drawbacks of CNC systems

1. Tools on NC machines do not cut metal any faster than conventional machines.
2. NC does not eliminate the need for expensive tools. There is also a greater initial
cost involved with the NC machines.
3. NC will not totally eliminate errors. Operators can still fail to push the correct
buttons, make incorrect alignments, and fail to locate parts properly in a fixture.
4. Selection and training of programmers and maintenance personnel is required.

3.2

Parts of a CNC system

The CNC system is composed of three fundamental units:

The machine tool unit
The CNC unit
Power unit

3.2.1

The Machine Tool Unit

Does the extrication work. It has the tools to be used, the attachment mechanism, the
spindle and all moving parts involved in machining.

3.2.2

The CNC Unit

Is composed of:
1 or more CPUs
Input and output devices (punched cards, diskettes, etc)
Operator interface devices (display and data entry unit, plotters, etc)
PLCs (mainly used for turning on and off devices by use of pulses.
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The CNC unit may have multiple processing units depending on the complexity of the
task (e.g. 1 microprocessor per axis for velocity control, positioning, etc, and for cases
of multiple axes, where both the tool and the part are moving, and the tool is moving
in more than one axis, e.g. translation and rotation, etc)
In cases of multiple CPUs, a main CPU is incorporated to control and co-ordinate other
CPUs. Sensors and subordinate CPUs provide feedback.
The CNC unit runs under a program known as the CNC executive. This translates
programs written in internationally recognized standard language. Such programs are
transferred to the CNC in ASCII format through the input devices. The executive
decodes the program and sends the appropriate commands to physical control units,
computational units and PLC units on the system. The executive also controls subordinate processes in multiple CPU situations.
The CNC executive is expected to carry out numerical control functions in a logical
order, e.g. turning on the spindle before feeding action can take place, and loading the
tool on the spindle before positioning the tool for machining.
The CNC executive works under CNC machine tool conventions that include:
1. There are 14 different axis designations or types of motion.
2. Machine tools are programmed in a Cartesian co-ordinate system.
3. The z-axis is always aligned with the direction of the spindle.
4. The primary x-axis motion is normally parallel to the longest dimension of the
primary machine tool table.
5. The y-axis is normally parallel to the shortest dimension of the primary machine
tool table.
6. Where the characters x, y and z are not used, the characters A, B and C represent
the x, y and z axes respectively.
The part program fed into the CNC executive has a defined structure. It represents
a machining sequence defined in terms of blocks. The structure used is also known as
the Word Address Format. The blocks consist of letters and numbers, with each letter
having a specific predefined significance, as shown below:
O: program number (used for program identification)
N: sequence number (used for line identification)
G: Preparatory function
X: x-axis co-ordinate
Y: y-axis co-ordinate
Z: z-axis co-ordinate
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R: Radius designation
T: Tool word
S: Spindle speed
F: Feed rate
H: Tool length offset
D: Tool radius offset
M: Miscellaneous function

3.2.3

The Machine Tool Drives

Machine tool drives are classified as either spindle drives or feed drives. Spindle drives
rotate over a wide range of velocities, measured in rpm, while feed drives often convert
angular motion of the motors to linear traverse speeds, measured in mm/min.
Example
A 10 mm distance is to be travelled at 200 mm/sec feed velocity. This command is
translated as follows:
The real time clock is set to generate 10,000 pulses at a rate of 200,000 pulses/second,
such that 1 pulse translates to 0.001 mm of position.
The position pulses, also known as discrete velocity commands, are directed to
the indicated machine tool axis position control unit by converting to their analog
voltage equivalents. These voltages are normally in the range of 10V .
The analog signals are amplified by the power unit and fed to the axis drive motors
to deliver the desired motion.
Miscellaneous functions, such as spindle ON, tool change commands etc are translated as Boolean logic signals at a range of about 5V for the PLC units.
The machine tool drives comprise the following mechanical components:
A table where the workpiece is attached
A ball lead-scres
A torque reduction gear set
A servo motor
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3.3

Mechanical Components and Torque Requirements of CNC Machine Tools

The feed drive motor has to overcome both static and dynamic loads and to assist the
CNC executive, sources of the loads have to be identified.
Friction losses are often responsible for the static loads (in bearings and guideways).
Cutting forces acting in the feeding direction of the table are also involved. The motor
must deliver a torque high enough to accelerate the table, the workpiece and the leadscrew assembly for a short period of time until the drive reaches a desired steady state
speed.
Dynamic torque is given as a peak torque or a peak current delivery, and the motor must
have sufficiently high continuous torque delivery ranges to overcome such peak torque
and current delivery periods.
Sources of dynamic loads include high acceleration due to speed change and inertia as
reflected by the workpiece, the leadscrew, the motor shafts, gears, etc.
The torque has to meet the following conditions:
Sufficient to machine the workpiece
high enough to overcome peak load demands

3.3.1

Static Load Requirements

Sources of static load include friction and cutting forces.

1. Torque reflected on the feed drive motor due to friction in guideways:
Tgf =

hp
gf [(mt + mw )g + Fz ]
2

(3.1)

where
hp is the leadscrew pitch length
gf is the coefficient of friction for the leadscrew/guideway interface
mt is the mass of the table
mw is the mass of the workpiece
Fz is the cutting force
2. Losses due to friction and pre-tensioning or pre-loading in the bearings:
Tlf = b .db 2(Ff + Fp )

(3.2)

where
b is the coefficient of friction of the bearings
db is the diameter of the bearings
Ff is the maximum force anticipated and
Fp is the preload force
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3. Torque reflected on the leadscrew due to cutting forces in the feeding direction:
Tf =

hp
.Ff
2

(3.3)

where
hp is the leadscrew pitch angle Ff is the maximum force anticipated
The total static load torque is given by:
Ts = Tgf + Tlf + Tf

(3.4)

In cases where Ts is too large, some gear reduction mechanism may be required between
the motor shaft and the leadscrew.
rg =

Nm
Zl
=
Zm
Nl

(3.5)

where
Zl is the number of teeth on the leadscrew gear
Zm is the number of teeth on the motor gear
Nm is the motor angular velocity and
Nl is the feed-screw angular velocity.
Zl must always be larger than or equal to Zm so that rg is greater than or equal to 1.
To reduce the torque,
Ts
(3.6)
Tsr =
rg

3.3.2

Dynamic Load Requirements

1. Dynamic load due to inertia:

(a) Moment of inertia reflected on the leadscrew shaft:
 2
hp
Jtw = (mt + mw )
2

(3.7)

where
mt is the mass of the table
mw is the mass of the workpiece
hp is the leadscrew pitch length
(b) Moment of inertia of the leadscrew with a diameter dp :
 2
1
dp
Jl = ml
2
2

(3.8)

where
ml is the mass of the leadscrew
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Total inertia on the motor shaft is given by:

Jtw + Jl
Je =
+ Jm
rg2

(3.9)

where
Jm is the inertia of the motor shaft
rg 1
2. Viscous Friction Torque: This is a torque normally proportional to the velocity.
The value of the viscous friction co-efficient is normally given.
The total dynamic torque required to accelerate the inertia Je and to overcome viscous
friction and static loads is given as:
Td = Je .

d
+ + Ts r
dt

(3.10)

where
is the angular velocity of the motor
is the viscous friction coefficient and
Tsr is the total static load requirement reduced.
Td is always less than or equal to peak torque value used in design.

3.4

Feedback Devices

They fall in two categories:

Positional transducers
Velocity transducers

3.4.1

Encoders

They are used as digital position measurement transducers in servo drives. They work
on the principle of emitting light with photodiodes. Are of two types: the linear and the
disc types.
Encoders contain bands of dark and transparent segments. Light is transmitted from
one side of the transparent segment to the other, where there is a photodiode receiver.
The photodiode gives a logic signal which is in the form of a binary code, depending on
the number of dark and transparent bands or segments detected at incremental positions
of the encoder.
Linear encoders are used to measure the actual position of the table. If there is an
unmodelled backlash in the feed drive system, the table-mounted linear encoder may
produce a limit cycle in the position control servo.
Disc encoders are mounted directly on the motor shaft, and do not feel the backlash,
neither do they produce a non-linear limit cycle.
Both linear and disc encoders are used in the CNC unit.
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3.4.2

Tachometers

These are small permanent-magnet DC motors mounted directly on the rear of the servomotor shaft. They produce a voltage that is proportional to the actual velocity of the
motor shaft.
They come with a factory set constant and an adjustable gain that enables tuning of the
velocity feedback loop.

3.5

Electrical Devices

Feed drives of CNC machines can either be electrically powered or hydraulically powered. The powering depends on the amount of torque required. Hydraulic motors are
used where wide torque ranges and rapid response are required from a drive system, e.g
in heavy duty industrial robots. They, however, have low efficiency, are prone to leakages
and are highly sensitive to dirt in the oil supply. Maintenance costs are also high.
Electrical drives are of 3 types: Stepper motors, AC motors and DC motors.
Stepper motors are used where cutting loads are low and where no feedback devices are
installed. Their main disadvantage is error in accuracy mainly due to slipping. This is
minimized by proper motor selection.
AC motors speed control is done by varying the frequency of the supply voltage. Their
main drawback is the high cost of the inverter. This can be solved by using microprocessors (installed on the motor) to calculate the frequency required. AC motors are used
where significant torques are required in comparison with stepper motors. Motor speeds
are limited by supply frequency.
DC motors are the most widely used in CNC machines. They allow a wide range of
operating speeds with sufficiently large torque delivery as required by machine tools and
robots.

3.6

Machining Centres: Cellular Concept of Production

Cells of factory automation can be viewed as the smallest autonomous unit capable of
sustained production. Since the cell is automated, it must be minimally manned.
Cells can also be viewed in terms of items contained, e.g. as a small collection of machines
which are closely co-operating with each other. This close co-operation may include the
sharing of dimensional data between a measuring machine and a machining tool and also
the sharing of workspace between a robot and a turning machine which often work in
parallel. A supervisory computer (computers) is/are used to monitor and control cell
operations.
The cellular concept follows from group technology (GT), which considers that cells arise
from physical division of machinery in a manufacturing facility. Each cell is designated to
produce a part family (a set of parts that require similar machinery, tooling, machining
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operations and jigs OR a set of parts resembling each other).

A cell normally transforms raw materials into finished products in a fully automated
transformation. The automation of the processes is done through:
Programmable processes
Automated handling to and from the programmable processes
Automated quality control and rapid feedback to the programming unit for effecting
necessary changes/corrections to the production processes.
Supervisory control and sensors to monitor and detect the cell condition and to
decide on the next process.
Advantages of Cellular Concept
1. The machining centre reduces the systems organizational and mechanical complexity, permitting easier financial justification, easier installation and increased
reliability.
2. Allows for stand-alone islands of automation to be built, hence saving on space.
3. Reduces the handling of parts and the risk of damage between handling. Also
reduces on handling time.
4. Reduces work-in-progress through careful buffer design in cases of production processes with varying completion times.
Disadvantages
1. Islands of automation may just be a transfer of manufacturing problems, e.g. the
build-up of work-in-progress before or after the cell. Such automation islands do
not increase the overall efficiency of the system.
2. They are capital intensive.
3. Breakdown of a step in the machining process leads to incomplete parts being
produces or an entire shut-down of the machining centre.

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Chapter 4
Mechatronic Approach
4.1

Traditional versus Mechatronic Design

A review of the key differences between traditional and mechatronic design is as shown
below:

4.1.1

The Mechatronic Approach to Design

Four key methods are involved in utilizing the Mechatronic approach. These are:
1. Replacement of mechanisms
2. Simplification of mechanisms
3. Enhancement of mechanisms
4. Synthesis of mechanisms

4.1.2

Replacement of Mechanisms

In certain limited cases, the mechanism may be completely discarded, the functionality
being replaced entirely by the microprocessor and actuators. Examples are electronic
watches and fly-by-wire systems used in aircraft.

4.1.3

Simplification of Mechanisms

Many mechanisms can be simplified by adopting a mechatronic approach. The functionality of tasks such as profiling and speed and position control can be provided by
microprocessors and actuators. Examples are typewriters and large telescopes.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 4. MECHATRONIC APPROACH

Conventional Design

Mechatronic Design

Added Components
1. Bulky
2. Complex mechanisms
3. Cable problems
4. Connected Components

Integration of components (hardware)

1. Compact
2. Simple mechanisms
3. Bus or wireless Communication
4. Autonomous units

Simple Control

Integration by information processing

(software)
5. Elastic construction with damping by
electronic feedback
6. Programmable feedback, nonlinear
(digital) control
7. Precision through measurement and
feedback control
8. Control of nonmeasurable estimated
quantities
9. Supervision with fault diagnosis
10. Learning abilities

5. Stiff Construction
6. Feedforward control, linear (analogue)
control
7. Precision through narrow tolerances
8. Nonmeasurable quantities change
arbitrarily
9. Simple monitoring
10. Fixed abilities

Figure 4.1: Differences between traditional and Mechatronic Design

4.1.4

Enhancement of Mechanisms

By combining sound mechanical design and closed loop control, enhanced speed, accuracy
and flexibility of movement can be achieved. The proportional control inherent in the
closed loop produces less stress on components as compared with actuators operating
between end stops. The result is lighter components of lower inertia. Enhancement of
mechanisms has been used in improvement of industrial robots.

4.1.5

Synthesis of Mechanisms

The use of embedded microprocessor systems enables the synthesis of different mechanisms as well as functions. An example is use of variable speed dc motors and controller
action to produce bidirectional washing action in automatic washing machines rather
than incorporating a mechanism to generate the bidirectional action.
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4.2
4.2.1

Control
Program Control

A feature of mechatronic design is the ease with which system functions can be redefined
using software. This may be achieved by user selection from a number of predefined and
stored programs, or by loading a new program from an external source. Applications are
found in automated manufacturing cells and automatic sewing machines.

4.2.2

Adaptive Control

Embedded microcontrollers enable variation of the programmed path, speed and/or setting to suit local conditions to optimize the behaviour of the system. Applications include
active suspensions, CNC machines and automatic sheep shearing robots.

4.2.3

Distributed Systems

In mechatronic systems, actuators and mechanisms can act in parallel or be distributed

over a wide area, synchronized electronically by the microprocessor. Applications are in
active suspensions (control of attitude, ride and braking), and conveyor systems.

4.3

The Design Process

The design process can be split into several stages, each separated by a review and a
continue, abort or rework decision point.

4.3.1

Identification of Need

Market research may be used to identify customer needs. Alternatively, market need
may be created by producing an innovative product.

4.3.2

Feasibility Study

The commercial and technical aspects of the proposed product or process are examined.
For a product, costing includes component cost, cost of facilities and tooling, development
costs prior to launching, warranty costs and future maintenance costs as these all affect
profitability and sales, hence feasibility.

4.3.3

Specification

Requirements and functions to be met are spelled out. At this stage, the needs (essential
requirements) and wishes (would be nice to have) are separated and decisions made
about their inclusion. The following elements need to be included:
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 4. MECHATRONIC APPROACH

space requirements and constraints

weight
payload
types and range of motion required
velocities and speeds of motion, both linear and rotational
accelerations, both linear and rotational
accuracy and resolution
control functions
design life
input and output requirements of each element of the system
communications, both internal and external
power requirements
interfaces
operating environment
standards and codes of practice

4.3.4

Conceptual Design

Options are generated for the solution for each of the functions required. As a general
rule, it should be possible to think of at least six options for realizing each function.
Preferred solutions can then be generated by a process of evaluating and combining
these conceptual solutions.

4.3.5

Analysis and Modelling

This may aid in selection of possible solutions, and in determining parameters such
as operating characteristics and sizes of components. Use of Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) to test various models and options shortens the traditional prototype/redesign/prototype loop and reduces time and cost.

4.3.6

Embodiment and Optimization

Once an acceptable solution is established, parameters such as size, material, quantity

and rating of the components of the chosen solution are varied to determine their effect
on the required characteristics of the system. This enables fixing of the values of the
parameters which give the maximum and minimum system performance characteristics.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 4. MECHATRONIC APPROACH

4.3.7

Detail Design

Once the design has been optimized, detail design is done and manufacturing drawings
produced showing manufacturing tolerances for each component.

4.4

Types of Design

1. Design for function

2. Design for strength or stiffness (takes into account factors such as static loading,
fatigue performance and corrosion effects)
3. Design for reliability
4. Design for maintainability (takes into account any policy on features such as repair
or replacement)
5. Design for manufacture, particularly where automatic assembly is concerned, when
the machine capabilities must be taken into account, as well as rationalization of
components, fixtures and fittings between similar products and processes.

4.5

Integrated Product Design

An essential element of mechatronics is the design of the production facility in parallel with the product. This requires an integrated product design team consisting of
marketers, design engineers, production engineers and field service engineers.

4.5.1

Project Management

Product development is handed over to an integrated group involving all the necessary
skills from marketing to production, thus communication loops are eliminated, reducing
lead times and tightening up control over projects.

4.5.2

Planning and Implementation of Facilities

The planning and implementation is a team activity involving management, marketing,

design, development and production. It is broken down into the following elements:
1. Company Strategy: The approach needs to have the full support of top management, with clearly defined objectives. Rather than adopting a technology led
approach, it is better to view the technology as an integral part of a social system.
Thus, adoption of new thinking and techniques is managed by a team of experts
and users, and the system should be allowed to develop as the people grow.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 4. MECHATRONIC APPROACH

2. Functional Specification: Documentation setting out what is required in terms

of the tasks the system has to carry out, error situations and user interfaces is
produced. All required standards and interfaces with other equipment are included
such that potential suppliers are fully informed. Consultants may be employed at
this stage.
3. Hardware and Software Requirements: A top down approach to planning the
entire facility should be adopted, even though parts of it may not be implemented
for some time. Hence the material and information flows for each part are defined
from the start, and hardware compatibility is protected.
4. Shortlisting and Validating Quotations: The technical proposal, the delivery
time, the quality of equipment, the personalities of the client and supplier, financial
stability, technical competence of staff as well as price are evaluated at this stage.
5. Ordering: The supplier should be chosen following a rigorous assessment. Account
needs to be taken of the scope of supply, contractual cutpoints, performance guarantees, payment terms and maintenance agreements. Ownership of software rights
and other intellectual property to which the client may have contributed should
also be established in case the supplier defaults in some way or goes bankrupt.
6. Training and Staff Development: Training in specific skills and changing attitudes is important in project success.
7. Continuing Evaluation: The product or process is continuously reviewed involving all elements from the designers to the users, with the resulting feedback used
to define the next generation of systems.

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Chapter 5
Design of Machine Elements
5.1

Roles of Mechanisms in Mechatronic Systems

1. Change of Speed
This is a necessary function of mechanisms and transmission systems due to the
use of constant speed motors or prime movers with limited torque envelopes. Lever
mechanisms may be employed to increase the velocity available from linear actuators. Variable speed motors and actuators operating under electronic control have
reduced the need for this function.
2. Action at a Distance
This is necessitated when the primary actuator is too bulky or heavy to be located
directly at the point of action. Bourdon cables, rods, chains and hydraulic pipes
are mainly employed for this purpose. The development of compact, powerful
electrical, mechanical and hydraulic actuators which can be placed close to the
required point of action has reduced the need for this facility.
3. Force Amplification and Feelback
Force amplification is needed between a user input and the point where the output
force is to be applied, for example with a pilots joystick or an automobile brake
servo. With the adoption of integrated electronic controls, direct force amplification
is often no longer necessary.
Lever mechanisms may still be employed with benefit to provide feedback which
the user receives in the form of feel as to the amount of effort being applied.
4. Parameter Control
Includes various mechanical governor devices for regulation of speed or force. These
have often been replaced by closed loop electronic controls.
5. Sequencing
The Geneva Mechanisms and Walking Beam Conveyor have been devised for this,
and are still used for many material handling applications, or where very high
inertia forces are to be encountered.
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EMT 2404: CHAPTER 5. DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

6. Synchronizing Motions
Mechanisms such as those used on a copy lathe are designed to describe fixed loci
in space or to follow a template. This function can now be achieved by means of
fully programmed motion control, or by optical tracking of a drawing using only
two or three actuators.
7. Profiling Motions against Time
Quick return mechanisms save time on unproductive motions. Where such facilities
are required today, an electronic control of the actuator would be the first choice
since it is easier to change parameters such as speed or stroke.
8. Change of Reference
A second mechanism may be employed to move the action mechanism to a new location, particularly where items are presented to a machine in random orientations.
This transformation can now be performed in software (for instance in industrial
robots).
9. Transfer Operations
Transfer of workpieces from location to location to enable different operations to be
carried out has largely been done using conveyors and transfer lines. The introduction of mobile, automatic guided vehicles increases flexibility. Localized transfer
mechanisms are required for functions such as loading and unloading of machine
tools.

5.1.1

Load Conditions

Input and output loads and inertia loads due to the motion of the mechanism must be
determined. Load paths must also be clearly established. In determining load conditions,
the following factors are considered:
actuator requirements
attaining partial static balance
articulation requirements
speed versus accuracy
minimization of kinetic energy
power transmission over a distance
Effects of assembly play and friction
Inertia
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5.1.2

Flexibility

The following factors affect flexibility of a mechanism:

Resilience: Each member of a mechanism has some flexibility in tension, bending
and torsion. The design of the cross section must be appropriate to the type of
loading experienced.
Backlash: Play in joints and backlash in gears may cause flexibility. Special antibacklash gears may be used, but at the design stage, provision needs to be made
for future adjustment of joints.
vibration: Flexibility in a mechanism subject to dynamic loading will lead to
vibration unless care has been taken to avoid excitation of the mechanisms natural
frequencies. Design measures may involve moving the natural frequencies and
harmonics away from the likely envelope of excitation frequencies, repositioning
bolted joints to enhance natural damping and addition of external damping in the
form of telescopic hydraulic struts, viscous rotational dampers or inertial dampers.

5.2
5.2.1

Structures
Functions of Structures

1. Provision of Load path and Support of Payload

2. Accuracy and Repeatability
3. Isolation of the System from the Environment
4. Support of Sensors, controllers and Actuators
5. Support and Guidance of Mechanisms
6. Support of Wiring, Controls and Displays
7. Support of Power Pack
8. Enclosure or Packaging
9. Storage of interchangeable parts and tools

5.2.2

Load Conditions

Static Loading: Factors to be considered are the mechanism and actuator weight,
the self-weight of the structure and the enclosure and the fixing points of these
components.
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Dynamic and Cyclic Loading: Inertia loading when the system is operating
and cyclic loading as a result of vibration may lead to loss of accuracy and even to
fatigue failures in the structure.
Impulse and Shock Loading: This may occur as a result of system operation or
human error. Stresses expected during transport, delivery or maintenance should
be factored in.

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