Coal

For other uses, see Coal (disambiguation).

approximately 1100 pounds of carbon dioxide released
Coal (from the Old English term col, which has meant by a natural gas-red electric plant per megawatt-hour
generated. Because of this higher carbon eciency of
natural gas generation, as the market in the United States
has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions have fallen. Those measured in the rst quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any
recorded for the rst quarter of any year since 1992.[7] In
2013, the head of the UN climate agency advised that
most of the worlds coal reserves should be left in the
ground to avoid catastrophic global warming.[8]
Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, either
underground by shaft mining, or at ground level by open
pit mining extraction. Since 1983 the world top coal producer has been China.[9] In 2011 China produced 3,520
million tonnes of coal 49.5% of 7,695 million tonnes
world coal production. In 2011 other large producers
were United States (993 million tonnes), India (589),
European Union (576) and Australia (416).[9] In 2010 the
largest exporters were Australia with 328 million tonnes
(27.1% of world coal export) and Indonesia with 316 million tonnes (26.1%),[10] while the largest importers were
Japan with 207 million tonnes (17.5% of world coal import), China with 195 million tonnes (16.6%) and South
Korea with 126 million tonnes (10.7%).[11]

Bituminous coal

mineral of fossilized carbon since the 13th century)[1]

is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary
rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins
called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms,
such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic
rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature
and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon
along with variable quantities of other elements, chiey
hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.[2]

1 Formation

Throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity
and/or heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such
as rening metals. A fossil fuel, coal forms when dead
plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that
bituminous coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over a
long period. The Energy Information Administration estimates coal reserves at 948109 short tons (860 Gt).[3]
One estimate for resources is 18 000 Gt.[4]

Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of

electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases.
In 1999, world gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal
usage were 8,666 million tonnes of carbon dioxide.[5]
In 2011, world gross emissions from coal usage were
14,416 million tonnes.[6] Coal-red electric power generation emits around 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide for every megawatt-hour generated, which is almost double the

Example chemical structure of coal

At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense

forests in low-lying wetland areas. Due to natural processes such as ooding, these forests were buried un1

RANKS

derneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over

them, they were compressed. The temperature also rose
as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation
and oxidation, usually by mud or acidic water. This
trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under
high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was
slowly converted to coal. As coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called
carbonization.[12]
The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, although coal
is known from most geological periods. The exception
is the coal gap in the PermianTriassic extinction event,
where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian
strata, which predate land plants this coal is presumed
to have originated from residues of algae.[13][14]

Ranks
Coal ranking system used in the United States (US Geological
Survey)

and is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.
Bituminous coal is a dense sedimentary rock, usually
black, but sometimes dark brown, often with welldened bands of bright and dull material; it is used
primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation,
with substantial quantities used for heat and power
applications in manufacturing and to make coke.
Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova Scotia)

As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic

material over time, under suitable conditions, its
metamorphic grade increases successively into:
Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form,
peat is a highly eective absorbent for fuel and oil
spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it more able to retain and
slowly release water.
Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal
and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power
generation. Jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental
stone since the Upper Palaeolithic.

Steam coal is a grade between bituminous coal and

anthracite, once widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use, it is sometimes
known as sea-coal in the US.[15] Small steam coal
(dry small steam nuts or DSSN) was used as a fuel
for domestic water heating.
Anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a harder,
glossy black coal used primarily for residential and
commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal
and petried oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania.
Graphite, technically the highest rank, is dicult
to ignite and is not commonly used as fuel it is
mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a
lubricant.

The classication of coal is generally based on the content

Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from of volatiles. However, the exact classication varies bethose of lignite to those of bituminous coal, is used tween countries. According to the German classication,
primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation coal is classied as follows:[16]

3
The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive transition from the English-language sub-bituminous
to bituminous coal, while the last class is an approximate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive (US anthracite has < 6% volatiles).
Cannel coal (sometimes called candle coal) is a variety
of ne-grained, high-rank coal with signicant hydrogen
content. It consists primarily of "exinite" macerals, now
termed liptinite.

2.1

Hilts law

Main article: Hilts law

Hilts law is a geological term that states that, in a small
area, the deeper the coal, the higher its rank (grade). The
law holds true if the thermal gradient is entirely vertical,
but metamorphism may cause lateral changes of rank, irrespective of depth.

Content

Early uses as fuel

Further information: History of coal mining

Coal from the Fushun mine in northeastern China was
used to smelt copper as early as 1000 BCE.[20] Marco
Polo, the Italian who traveled to China in the 13th century, described coal as black stones ... which burn like
logs, and said coal was so plentiful, people could take
three hot baths a week.[21] In Europe, the earliest reference to the use of coal as fuel is from the geological treatise On stones (Lap. 16) by the Greek scientist
Theophrastus (circa 371287 BC):[22][23]
Among the materials that are dug because
they are useful, those known as anthrakes
[coals] are made of earth, and, once set on
re, they burn like charcoal. They are found
in Liguria ... and in Elis as one approaches
Olympia by the mountain road; and they are
used by those who work in metals.
Theophrastus, On Stones (16) translation

Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age

(30002000 BC), where it has been detected as forming
part of the composition of funeral pyres.[24][25] In Roman
Britain, with the exception of two modern elds, the
Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalelds
in England and Wales by the end of the second century
AD.[26] Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD
200) has been found at the Roman settlement at Heronbridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of East Anglia,

Chinese coal miners in an illustration of the Tiangong Kaiwu

encyclopedia, published in 1637

where coal from the Midlands was transported via the

Car Dyke for use in drying grain.[27] Coal cinders have
been found in the hearths of villas and Roman forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400.
In the west of England, contemporary writers described
the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath), although in fact easily accessible surface coal from what
became the Somerset coaleld was in common use in
quite lowly dwellings locally.[28] Evidence of coals use
for iron-working in the city during the Roman period
has been found.[29] In Eschweiler, Rhineland, deposits of
bituminous coal were used by the Romans for the smelting of iron ore.[26]
No evidence exists of the product being of great importance in Britain before the High Middle Ages, after
about AD 1000.[30] Mineral coal came to be referred to
as seacoal in the 13th century; the wharf where the
material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane,
so identied in a charter of King Henry III granted in
1253.[31] Initially, the name was given because much coal
was found on the shore, having fallen from the exposed
coal seams on clis above or washed out of underwater
coal outcrops,[30] but by the time of Henry VIII, it was understood to derive from the way it was carried to London
by sea.[32] In 125759, coal from Newcastle upon Tyne

Coal miner in Britain, 1942

USES TODAY

Coal rail cars

was shipped to London for the smiths and lime-burners

building Westminster Abbey.[30] Seacoal Lane and Newcastle Lane, where coal was unloaded at wharves along
the River Fleet, are still in existence.[33] (See Industrial Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. World coal consumpprocesses below for modern uses of the term.)
tion was about 7.25 billion tonnes in 2010[37] (7.99 billion
These easily accessible sources had largely become ex- short tons) and is expected to increase 48% to 9.05 billion
hausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the tonnes (9.98 billion short tons) by 2030.[38] China pro13th century, when underground extraction by shaft min- duced 3.47 billion tonnes (3.83 billion short tons) in 2011.
ing or adits was developed.[24] The alternative name was India produced about 578 million tonnes (637.1 million
pitcoal, because it came from mines. It was, however, short tons) in 2011. 68.7% of Chinas electricity comes
the development of the Industrial Revolution that led to from coal. The USA consumed about 13% of the world
the large-scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over total in 2010, i.e. 951 million tonnes (1.05 billion short
from the water wheel. In 1700, ve-sixths of the worlds tons), using 93% of it for generation of electricity.[39]
coal was mined in Britain. Britain would have run out of 46% of total power generated in the USA was done using
suitable sites for watermills by the 1830s if coal had not coal.[40]
been available as a source of energy.[34] In 1947, there
were some 750,000 miners in Britain,[35] but by 2004, When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usuand then combusted (burned) in a furnace
this had shrunk to some 5,000 miners working in around ally pulverized[41]
with
a
boiler.
The furnace heat converts boiler water
[36]
20 collieries.
to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn
generators and create electricity.[42] The thermodynamic
eciency of this process has been improved over time;
5 Uses today
some older coal-red power stations have thermal eciencies in the vicinity of 25%[43] whereas the newest
supercritical and ultra-supercritical steam cycle turbines, operating at temperatures over 600 C and pressures over 27 MPa (over 3900 psi), can practically
achieve thermal eciencies in excess of 45% (LHV basis) using anthracite fuel,[44][45] or around 43% (LHV
basis) even when using lower-grade lignite fuel.[46] Further thermal eciency improvements are also achievable
by improved pre-drying (especially relevant with highmoisture fuel such as lignite or biomass) and cooling
technologies.[47]
An alternative approach of using coal for electricity generation with improved eciency is the integrated gasiCastle Gate Power Plant near Helper, Utah, USA
cation combined cycle (IGCC) power plant. Instead of
pulverizing the coal and burning it directly as fuel in the
steam-generating boiler, the coal can be rst gasied (see
coal gasication) to create syngas, which is burned in a
5.1 Coal as fuel
gas turbine to produce electricity (just like natural gas is
Further information: Electricity generation, Clean coal burned in a turbine). Hot exhaust gases from the turbine
technology, Coal electricity and Global warming
are used to raise steam in a heat recovery steam genera-

5.3

Gasication

tor which powers a supplemental steam turbine. Thermal

eciencies of current IGCC power plants range from 3942%[48] (HHV basis) or ~42-45% (LHV basis) for bituminous coal and assuming utilization of mainstream gasication technologies (Shell, GE Gasier, CB&I). IGCC
power plants outperform conventional pulverized coalfueled plants in terms of pollutant emissions, and allow
for relatively easy carbon capture.
At least 40% of the worlds electricity comes from
coal,[41][49] and in 2012, about one-third of the United
States electricity came from coal, down from approximately 49% in 2008.[50][51] As of 2012 in the United
States, use of coal to generate electricity was declining,
as plentiful supplies of natural gas obtained by hydraulic Coke oven at a smokeless fuel plant in Wales, United Kingdom
fracturing of tight shale formations became available at
low prices.[50]
coal is so important in making steel using the convenIn Denmark, a net electric eciency of > 47% has been
tional route. However, the alternative route is direct reobtained at the coal-red Nordjyllandsvrket CHP Plant
duced iron, where any carbonaceous fuel can be used to
and an overall plant eciency of up to 91% with cogenermake sponge or pelletised iron. Coke from coal is grey,
[52]
ation of electricity and district heating. The multifuelhard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million
red Avedrevrket CHP Plant just outside Copenhagen
Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking processes procan achieve a net electric eciency as high as 49%. The
duce valuable byproducts, including coal tar, ammonia,
overall plant eciency with cogeneration of electricity
light oils, and coal gas.
[53]
and district heating can reach as much as 94%.
Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil renAn alternative form of coal combustion is as coal-water
ing, which resembles coke, but contains too many impuslurry fuel (CWS), which was developed in the Soviet
rities to be useful in metallurgical applications.
Union. CWS signicantly reduces emissions, improving the heating value of coal. Other ways to use coal are
combined heat and power cogeneration and an MHD topping cycle.
5.3 Gasication
The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly polluting, low-energy content
types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), is sucient for
many years. However, consumption is increasing and
maximal production could be reached within decades
(see world coal reserves, below). On the other hand
much may have to be left in the ground to avoid climate
change.[54][55]

5.2

Coking coal and use of coke

Main article: Coke (fuel)

Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from lowash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile
constituents are driven o by baking in an oven without
oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 C (1,832 F), so
the xed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent
in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.[56] The result is
pig iron, and is too rich in dissolved carbon, so it must be
treated further to make steel. The coking coal should be
low in sulfur and phosphorus, so they do not migrate to
the metal.

Main articles: Coal gasication and Underground coal

gasication
Coal gasication can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2 ) gas.
Often syngas is used to re gas turbines to produce
electricity, but the versatility of syngas also allows it to
be converted into transportation fuels, such as gasoline
and diesel, through the Fischer-Tropsch process; alternatively, syngas can be converted into methanol, which can
be blended into fuel directly or converted to gasoline via
the methanol to gasoline process.[57] Gasication combined with Fischer-Tropsch technology is currently used
by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make
motor vehicle fuels from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasication can be
used for various purposes, such as powering a hydrogen
economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.

During gasication, the coal is mixed with oxygen and

steam while also being heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the
coal into carbon monoxide (CO), while also releasing
hydrogen gas (H2 ). This process has been conducted in
The coke must be strong enough to resist the weight of both underground coal mines and in the production of
overburden in the blast furnace, which is why coking town gas.

5
C (as Coal) + O2 + H2 O H2 + CO

If the rener wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however,
the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction, where
more hydrogen is liberated.
CO + H2 O CO2 + H2

USES TODAY

from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite

(brown) coals. It is one form of several precombustion
treatments and processes for coal that alter coals characteristics before it is burned. The goals of precombustion
coal technologies are to increase eciency and reduce
emissions when the coal is burned. Depending on the situation, precombustion technology can be used in place
of or as a supplement to postcombustion technologies to
control emissions from coal-fueled boilers.

In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas (town

gas), which was piped to customers to burn for illumina- 5.6 Industrial processes
tion, heating, and cooking.
Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application
as sea coal, is a constituent of foundry sand. While the
5.4 Liquefaction
molten metal is in the mould, the coal burns slowly, releasing reducing gases at pressure, and so preventing the
Main article: Coal liquefaction
metal from penetrating the pores of the sand. It is also
contained in 'mould wash', a paste or liquid with the same
Coal can also be converted into synthetic fuels equivalent function applied to the mould before casting.[65] Sea coal
to gasoline or diesel by several dierent direct processes can be mixed with the clay lining (the bod) used for
(which do not intrinsically require gasication or indirect the bottom of a cupola furnace. When heated, the coal
conversion).[58] In the direct liquefaction processes, the decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing
coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Hydrogena- the process of breaking open holes for tapping the molten
tion processes are the Bergius process,[59] the SRC-I and metal.[66]
SRC-II (Solvent Rened Coal) processes, the NUS Corporation hydrogenation process[60][61] and several other
single-stage and two-stage processes.[62] In the process of 5.7 Production of chemicals[67]
low-temperature carbonization, coal is coked at temperatures between 360 and 750 C (680 and 1,380 F). These
temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer
in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar
is then further processed into fuels. An overview of coal
liquefaction and its future potential is available.[63]
Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO
2) emissions in the conversion process. If coal liquefaction is done without employing either carbon capture and
storage (CCS) technologies or biomass blending, the result is lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are generally greater than those released in the extraction and renement of liquid fuel production from crude oil. If CCS
technologies are employed, reductions of 512% can be
achieved in Coal to Liquid (CTL) plants and up to a 75%
reduction is achievable when co-gasifying coal with commercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30% biomass
by weight) in coal/biomass-to-liquids plants.[64] For future synthetic fuel projects, carbon dioxide sequestration
is proposed to avoid releasing CO
2 into the atmosphere. Sequestration adds to the cost of
production.

5.5

Rened coal

Main article: Rened coal

Production of Chemicals from Coal

Coal is an important feedstock in production of a wide

range of chemical fertilizers and other chemical products. The main route to these products is coal gasication to produce syngas. Primary chemicals that are
produced directly from the syngas include methanol,
hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which are the chemical
building blocks from which a whole spectrum of derivative chemicals are manufactured, including olens, acetic
acid, formaldehyde, ammonia, urea and others. The versatility of syngas as a precursor to primary chemicals and
high-value derivative products provides the option of using relatively inexpensive coal to produce a wide range of
valuable commodities.

Rened coal is the product of a coal-upgrading tech- Historically, production of chemicals from coal has been
nology that removes moisture and certain pollutants used since the 1950s and has become established in the

7
market. According to the 2010 Worldwide Gasication
Database,[68] a survey of current and planned gasiers,
from 2004 to 2007 chemical production increased its
gasication product share from 37% to 45%. From 2008
to 2010, 22% of new gasier additions were to be for
chemical production.

industry an important tool for hedging and risk management.[75]

In addition to the NYMEX contract,

the
IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) has European (Rotterdam) and South African (Richards Bay) coal futures
available for trading. The trading unit for these contracts
Because the slate of chemical products that can be made is 5,000 tonnes (5,500 short tons), and are also quoted in
via coal gasication can in general also use feedstocks de- U.S. dollars and cents per ton.[76]
rived from natural gas and petroleum, the chemical in- The price of coal increased from around $30.00 per short
dustry tends to use whatever feedstocks are most cost- ton in 2000 to around $150.00 per short ton as of Septemeective. Therefore, interest in using coal tends to in- ber 2008. As of October 2008, the price per short ton had
crease for higher oil and natural gas prices and during declined to $111.50. Prices further declined to $71.25 as
periods of high global economic growth that may strain of October 2010.[77] In early 2015, it was trading near
oil and gas production. Also, production of chemicals $56/ton.[78]
from coal is of much higher interest in countries like
South Africa, China, India and the United States where
there are abundant coal resources. The abundance of coal
combined with lack of natural gas resources in China 8 Environmental eects
is strong inducement for the coal to chemicals industry
pursued there. In the United States, the best example Main article: Environmental eects of coal
of the industry is Eastman Chemical Company which A number of adverse health,[79] and environmental efhas been successfully operating a coal-to-chemicals plant
at its Kingsport, Tennessee, site since 1983. Similarly,
Sasol has built and operated coal-to-chemicals facilities
in South Africa.
Coal to chemical processes do require substantial quantities of water. As of 2013 much of the coal to
chemical production was in the Peoples Republic of
China[69][70] where environmental regulation and water
management[71] was weak.[72]

Cultural usage

Coal is the ocial state mineral of Kentucky.[73] and the

ocial state rock of Utah;[74] both U.S. states have a historic link to coal mining.
Some cultures hold that children who misbehave will receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas
in their christmas stockings instead of presents.
It is also customary and considered lucky in Scotland and
the North of England to give coal as a gift on New Years
Day. This occurs as part of First-Footing and represents Aerial photograph of Kingston Fossil Plant coal y ash slurry
warmth for the year to come.
spill site taken the day after the event

Coal as a traded commodity

In North America, Central Appalachian coal futures contracts are currently traded on the New York Mercantile
Exchange (trading symbol QL). The trading unit is 1,550
short tons (1,410 t) per contract, and is quoted in U.S.
dollars and cents per ton. Since coal is the principal fuel
for generating electricity in the United States, coal futures
contracts provide coal producers and the electric power

fects of coal burning exist,[80] especially in power stations,

and of coal mining, including:
Coal-red power plants cause nearly 24,000 premature deaths annually in the United States, including
2,800 from lung cancer.[81] Annual health costs in
Europe from use of coal to generate electricity are
42.8 billion, or $55 billion.[82]
Generation of hundreds of millions of tons of waste
products, including y ash, bottom ash, and ue-

11 ENERGY DENSITY AND CARBON IMPACT

gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, production capacity becoming large enough to satiate the
uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals very large and growing demand for petroleum. Estimates
of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that
Acid rain from high sulfur coal
domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost[88]
Interference with groundwater and water table levels competitive with oil priced at around $35 per barrel,
with the $35 being the break-even cost. With oil prices as
due to mining
low as around $40 per barrel in the U.S. as of December
Contamination of land and waterways and destruc- 2008, liquid coal lost some of its economic allure in the
tion of homes from y ash spills. such as the U.S., but will probably be re-vitalized, similar to oil sand
projects, with an oil price around $70 per barrel.
Kingston Fossil Plant coal y ash slurry spill
Impact of water use on ows of rivers and conse- In China, due to an increasing need for liquid energy in
the transportation sector, coal liquefaction projects were
quential impact on other land uses
given high priority even during periods of oil prices be Dust nuisance
low $40 per barrel.[89] This is probably because China
prefers not to be dependent on foreign oil, instead utiliz Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging in- ing its enormous domestic coal reserves. As oil prices
frastructure
were increasing during the rst half of 2009, the coal liq Uncontrollable coal seam re which may burn for uefaction projects in China were again boosted, and these
projects are protable with an oil barrel price of $40.[90]
decades or centuries
China is the largest producer of coal in the world. It is
Coal-red power plants without eective y ash the worlds largest energy consumer, and relies on coal
capture systems are one of the largest sources of to supply 69% of its energy needs.[91] An estimated 5
human-caused background radiation exposure.
million people worked in Chinas coal-mining industry in
[92]
Coal-red power plants emit mercury, selenium, 2007.
and arsenic, which are harmful to human health and Coal pollution costs the EU 43 billion each year.[93]
the environment.[83]
Measures to cut air pollution may have benecial longterm economic impacts for individuals.[94]
Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, causes
climate change and global warming, according to
the IPCC and the EPA. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2 in the
atmosphere.[84]
Approximately 75 Tg/S per year of sulfur dioxide
(SO2 ) is released from burning coal. After release,
the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to gaseous H2 SO2 11 Energy density
which scatters solar radiation, hence its increase in
pact
the atmosphere exerts a cooling eect on climate
that masks some of the warming caused by increased
greenhouse gases. Release of SO2 also contributes
See also: Energy value of coal
to the widespread acidication of ecosystems.[85]

and carbon im-

The energy density of coal, i.e. its heating value, is

roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram[95] (approximately
6.7 kilowatt-hours per kg). For a coal power plant with a
lb) of
The white rot fungus C. versicolor can grow on and 40% eciency, it takes an estimated 325 kg (717
[96]
coal
to
power
a
100
W
lightbulb
for
one
year.
[86]
The bacteria
metabolize naturally occurring coal.
Diplococcus has been found to degrade coal, raising its As of 2006, the average eciency of electricitytemperature.[87]
generating power stations was 31%; in 2002, coal represented about 23% of total global energy supply, an equivalent of 3.4 billion tonnes of coal, of which 2.8 billion
tonnes were used for electricity generation.[97]
10 Economic aspects

Bioremediation

Coal (by liquefaction technology) is one of the backstop

resources that could limit escalation of oil prices and mitigate the eects of transportation energy shortage that will
occur under peak oil. This is contingent on liquefaction

The US Energy Information Agencys 1999 report on

CO2 emissions for energy generation quotes an emission
factor of 0.963 kg CO2 /kWh for coal power, compared to
0.881 kg CO2 /kWh (oil), or 0.569 kg CO2 /kWh (natural
gas).[98]

13.1

World coal reserves

12

Underground res

Main article: Coal seam re

Thousands of coal res are burning around the world.[99]
Those burning underground can be dicult to locate and
many cannot be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground
above to subside, their combustion gases are dangerous to
life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface
wildres. Coal seams can be set on re by spontaneous
combustion or contact with a mine re or surface re.
Lightning strikes are an important source of ignition. The Continental United States coal regions
coal continues to burn slowly back into the seam until oxygen (air) can no longer reach the ame front. A
grass re in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on
re.[100][101] Coal res in China burn an estimated 120
million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric
tons of CO2 , amounting to 23% of the annual worldwide
production of CO2 from fossil fuels.[102][103] In Centralia,
Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of
the United States), an exposed vein of anthracite ignited
in 1962 due to a trash re in the borough landll, located
in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit. Attempts to Coal output in 2005
extinguish the re were unsuccessful, and it continues to
burn underground to this day. The Australian Burning
Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the
smoke and ash comes from a coal re that has been burning for some 6,000 years.[104]
At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal deposits have been burning for thousands of years, creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals,
some of them very beautiful. Local people once used this
method to mine ammoniac. This place has been wellknown since the time of Herodotus, but European geographers misinterpreted the Ancient Greek descriptions as
the evidence of active volcanism in Turkestan (up to the
19th century, when the Russian army invaded the area). A coal mine in Wyoming, United States. The United States has
The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and
buttes in the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and in western North Dakota is called porcelanite, which resembles
the coal burning waste clinker or volcanic "scoria".[105]
Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning
of coal. In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to
54 billion tons of coal burned within the past three million years.[106] Wild coal res in the area were reported
by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers
and settlers in the area.[107]

13

the worlds largest coal reserves.

shut down or converted to natural gas; however, some

of the reduced domestic demand was taken up by increased exports[109] with ve coal export terminals being proposed in the Pacic Northwest to export coal
from the Powder River Basin to China and other Asian
markets;[110] however, as of 2013, environmental opposition was increasing.[111] High-sulfur coal mined in Illinois which was unsaleable in the United States found a
ready market in Asia as exports reached 13 million tons
in 2012.[112]

Production trends
13.1 World coal reserves

In 2006, China was the top producer of coal with 38%

share followed by the United States and India, according to the British Geological Survey. As of 2012 coal
production in the United States was falling at the rate
of 7% annually[108] with many power plants using coal

The 948 billion short tons of recoverable coal reserves

estimated by the Energy Information Administration are
equal to about 4,196 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent).[3] The amount of coal burned during 2007 was esti-

10

15

REFERENCES

mated at 7.075 billion short tons, or 133.179 quadrillion importers are still Japan (206.0 millions tonnes), China
BTUs.[113] This is an average of 18.8 million BTU (172.4) and South Korea (125.8).[119]
per short ton. In terms of heat content, this is about
57,000,000 barrels (9,100,000 m3 ) of oil equivalent per
day. By comparison in 2007, natural gas provided 14 See also
51,000,000 barrels (8,100,000 m3 ) of oil equivalent per
day, while oil provided 85,800,000 barrels (13,640,000
Asphaltene
m3 ) per day.
Biochar
British Petroleum, in its 2007 report, estimated at 2006
end that there were 147 years reserves-to-production ratio based on proven coal reserves worldwide. This gure
only includes reserves classied as proven"; exploration
drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in
under-explored areas, are continually providing new reserves. In many cases, companies are aware of coal deposits that have not been suciently drilled to qualify as
proven. However, some nations haven't updated their
information and assume reserves remain at the same levels even with withdrawals.
Of the three fossil fuels, coal has the most widely distributed reserves; coal is mined in over 100 countries, and
on all continents except Antarctica. The largest reserves
are found in the United States, Russia, China, Australia
and India. Note the table below.

13.2

Major coal producers

Biomass-coal
Carbochemistry
Clean coal
Coal assay
Coal dust
Coal homogenization
Coal Measure (stratigraphic unit)
Coal mining
Coal phase out
Coal-tar
Coalbed methane
Fluidized bed combustion

See also: List of countries by coal production

Gytta

The reserve life is an estimate based only on current production levels and proved reserves level for the countries
shown, and makes no assumptions of future production
or even current production trends. Countries with annual
production higher than 100 million tonnes are shown. For
comparison, data for the European Union is also shown.
Shares are based on data expressed in tonnes oil equivalent.

Major coal producing regions

13.3

Oil (petroleum)

Major coal consumers

Countries with annual consumption higher than 20 million tonnes are shown.

13.4

Major coal exporters

Countries with annual gross export higher than 10 million tonnes are shown. In terms of net export the largest
exporters are still Australia (328.1 millions tonnes),
Indonesia (316.2) and Russia (100.2).

13.5

Major coal importers

Countries with annual gross import higher than 20 million tonnes are shown. In terms of net import the largest

Mountaintop removal mining

Tonstein
The Coal Question
World Coal Association
Fossil fuels

15 References
[1] Harper, Douglas. coal. Online Etymology Dictionary.
[2] Blander, M. Calculations of the Inuence of Additives
on Coal Combustion Deposits. Argonne National Laboratory. p. 315. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
[3] EIA International Energy Statistics : Coal : Recoverable
Reserves. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
[4] Fred Pearce (Feb 15, 2014). Fire in the hole: After
fracking comes coal. New Scientist: 3641.
[5] International Energy Annual 2006. Energy Information
Administration. 2008. Archived from the original on 23
May 2011., see data tables

11

[6] International energy statistics. U.S. Energy Information

Administration. Retrieved 10 March 2014., see table

[24] Britannica 2004: Coal mining: ancient use of outcropping

coal

[7] Nuwer, Rachel (2012-08-17). A 20-Year Low in U.S.

Carbon Emissions. blogs.nytimes.com

[25] Needham, Joseph; Golas, Peter J (1999). Science and

Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. pp.
18691. ISBN 978-0-521-58000-7.

[8] Leave coal in the ground to avoid climate catastrophe,

UN tells industry.
[9] BP Statistical review of world energy 2012 (XLS).
British Petroleum. Retrieved 18 August 2011.
[10] EIA International Energy Annual Total Coal Exports
(Thousand Short Tons). Tonto.eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on
24 August 2012.
[11] International Energy Annual Total Coal Imports (Thousand Short Tons). Tonto.eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.

[26] Smith, A. H. V. (1997). Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales. Britannia 28: 297324
(3224). doi:10.2307/526770. JSTOR 526770.
[27] Salway, Peter (2001). A History of Roman Britain. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280138-4.
[28] Forbes, RJ (1966): Studies in Ancient Technology. Brill
Academic Publishers, Boston.
[29] Cunlie, Barry W. (1984). Roman Bath Discovered. London: Routledge. pp. 145, 194. ISBN 0-7102-0196-6.

[12] Taylor, Thomas N; Taylor, Edith L; Krings, Michael

(2009). Paleobotany: The biology and evolution of fossil plants. ISBN 978-0-12-373972-8.

[30] Cantril, T. C. (1914). Coal Mining. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 310. OCLC
156716838.

[13] Tyler, S. A.; Barghoorn, E. S.; Barrett, L. P.

(1957).
Anthracitic Coal from Precambrian Upper Huronian Black Shale of the Iron River District, Northern Michigan.
Geological Society of
America Bulletin 68 (10): 1293. doi:10.1130/00167606(1957)68[1293:ACFPUH]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 00167606.

[31] coal, 5a. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University

Press. 1 December 2010.

[14] Mancuso, J. J.; Seavoy, R. E. (1981). Precambrian

coal or anthraxolite; a source for graphite in high-grade
schists and gneisses. Economic Geology 76 (4): 951954.
doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.76.4.951.

[34] Wrigley, EA (1990). Continuity, Chance and Change: The

Character of the Industrial Revolution in England. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39657-3.

[15] Funk and Wagnalls, quoted in sea-coal. Oxford English

Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989.
[16] Eberhard Lindner; Chemie fr Ingenieure; Lindner Verlag
Karlsruhe, S. 258
[17] Mercury in coal: a review ; Part 1. Geochemistry ; Ya.
E. Yudovich*, M.P. Ketris. labtechgroup.com. 201004-21. Retrieved 2013-02-22.
[18] Arsenic in Coal. pubs.usgs.gov. 2006-03-28. Retrieved
2013-02-22.
[19] Selenium in Our Environment Trace Elements in the
Environment Advances in Chemistry (ACS Publications)". pubs.acs.org. 1973-06-01. doi:10.1021/ba1973-0123.ch006.
[20] coal. Encyclopedia Britannica.
[21] Marco Polo In China. Facts and Details. Retrieved on
2013-05-11.
[22] Carol, Mattusch (2008). Oleson, John Peter, ed. Metalworking and Tools. The Oxford Handbook of Engineering
and Technology in the Classical World (Oxford University
Press). pp. 41838 (432). ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1
[23] Irby-Massie, Georgia L.; Keyser, Paul T. (2002). Greek
Science of the Hellenistic Era: A Sourcebook. Routledge.
9.1 Theophrastos, p.228. ISBN 0-415-23847-1

[32] John Caius, quoted in Cantril (1914).

[33] Trench, Richard; Hillman, Ellis (1993). London under
London: a subterranean guide (Second ed.). London:
John Murray. p. 33. ISBN 0-7195-5288-5.

[35] The fall of King Coal. BBC News. 6 December 1999.

[36] The miners strike revisited. Inside Out (BBC). 2 February 2004.
[37] World coal consumption 20002011 EIA statistics
[38] EIA, World Energy Projections Plus (2009)
[39] U.S. Coal Supply and Demand: 2010 Year in Review.
Eia.gov (2011-06-01). Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
[40] Share of electric power sector net generation by energy
source. Eia.gov (2011-06-01). Retrieved on 24 August
2012.
[41] Total World Electricity Generation by Fuel (2006).
Source: IEA 2008.
[42] Fossil Power Generation. Siemens AG. Retrieved 23
April 2009.
[43] J. Nunn, A. Cottrell, A. Urfer, L. Wibberley and P. Scaife,
A Lifecycle Assessment of the Victorian Energy Grid,
Cooperative Research Centre for Coal in Sustainable Development, February 2003, page 7.
[44] Jens Rosenkranz; Andreas Wichtmann. Balancing economics and environmental friendliness the challenge for
supercritical coal-red power plants with highest steam
parameters in the future (PDF). Retrieved 23 October
2006.

12

15

[45] Lnen State-of-theArt Ultra Supercritical Steam Power

Plant Under Construction. Siemens AG. Retrieved 21
July 2014.
[46] Neurath F and G set new benchmarks. Alstom. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
[47] The Niederraussem Coal Innovation Centre. RWE. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
[48] IGCC Eciency/Performance. National Energy Technology Laboratory. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
[49] coal reserves, coal exploration World Coal Association.
Worldcoal.org. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
[50] Lipton, Eric (29 May 2012). Even in Coal Country, the
Fight for an Industry. The New York Times. Retrieved
30 May 2012.
[51] Figure ES 1. U.S. Electric Power Industry Net Generation. Electric Power Annual with data for 2008. U.S. Energy Information Administration. 21 January 2010. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
[52] Nordjyllandsvrket. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2013-05-11.
[53] Avedrevrket.
2013-05-11.

Ipaper.ipapercms.dk.

Retrieved on

[54] http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22029470.
300-mining-insider-leave-the-coal-in-the-ground.html
[55] IPCC digested: Just leave the fossil fuels underground.
New Scientist.
[56] Blast furnace steelmaking cost model. Steelonthenet.com.
Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
[57] Conversion of Methanol to Gasoline. National Energy
Technology Laboratory. Retrieved 2014-07-16.
[58] Direct Liquefaction Processes. National Energy Technology Laboratory. Retrieved 2014-07-16.
[59] Haul, Robert (April 1985). Friedrich Bergius (1884
1949)". Chemie in unserer Zeit (VCH-Verlagsgesellschaft
mbH) 19: 62. doi:10.1002/ciuz.19850190205.
[60] Speight, James G. (2008). Synthetic Fuels Handbook:
Properties, Process, and Performance. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 910. ISBN 978-0-07-149023-8.
[61] Lowe, Phillip A.; Schroeder, Wilburn C.; Liccardi, Anthony L. (1976). Technical Economies, Synfuels and
Coal Energy Symposium, Solid-Phase Catalytic Coal Liquefaction Process. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. p. 35.
[62] Direct Liquefaction Processes, Single-stage Processes
and Two-stage Processes. National Energy Technology
Laboratory. Retrieved 2014-07-16.
[63] Hk, M., Aleklett, K. (2010). A review on coalto-liquid fuels and its coal consumption. International Journal of Energy Research 34 (10): 848.
doi:10.1002/er.1596.

REFERENCES

[64] Tarka, Thomas J.; Wimer, John G.; Balash, Peter C.;
Skone, Timothy J.; Kern, Kenneth C.; Vargas, Maria C.;
Morreale, Bryan D.; White III, Charles W.; Gray, David
(2009). Aordable Low Carbon Diesel from Domestic
Coal and Biomass. United States Department of Energy,
National Energy Technology Laboratory. p. 21.
[65] Rao, P. N. (2007). Moulding materials. Manufacturing
technology: foundry, forming and welding (2 ed.). New
Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-07463180-5.
[66] Kirk, Edward (1899). Cupola management. Cupola
Furnace A Practical Treatise on the Construction and
Management of Foundry Cupolas. Philadelphia, PA:
Baird. p. 95. OCLC 2884198.
[67] Chemicals. National Energy Technology Laboratory.
Retrieved 12 July 2014.
[68] Gasication Systems 2010 Worldwide Gasication
Database. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved March 3, 2013.
[69] Rembrandt (2 August 2012). Chinas Coal to Chemical Future (Blog post by expert). The Oil Drum.Com.
Retrieved 3 March 2013.
[70] Ken Yin (27 February 2012). China develops coalto-olens projects, which could lead to ethylene selfsuciency. ICIS Chemical Business. Retrieved 3 March
2013.
[71] Didi Kirsten Tatlow (5 February 2013). Worse Than Poisoned Water: Dwindling Water, in Chinas North (Blog
in edited newspaper). International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
[72] Spill in China Underlines Environmental Concerns. The
New York Times. 2 March 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
[73] Kentucky: Secretary of State State Mineral. 20 October 2009. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
[74] Utah State Rock Coal. Pioneer: Utahs Online Library.
Utah State Library Division. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
[75] NYMEX.com: Coal. Archived from the original on
2008-03-12. Retrieved 16 January 2008.
[76] ICE: Coal Futures. Retrieved 16 January 2008.
[77] Coal News and Markets (Archive) Department of Energy
see Bloomberg for realtime prices
[78] https://www.quandl.com/c/markets/coal
[79] Toxic Air: The Case for Cleaning Up Coal-red Power
Plants. American Lung Association (March 2011)
[80] Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution.
Union of Concerned Scientists
[81] Deadly power plants? Study Fuels Debate: Thousands of
Early Deaths Tied To Emissions. MSNBC (2004-09-06)
Retrieved 5 November 2008
[82] The Unpaid Health Bill How coal power plants make
us sick. Health and Environment Alliance. Retrieved 7
March 2013.

13

[83] World Coal Association Environmental impact of Coal [102] EHP 110-5, 2002: Forum. Retrieved 9 September
Use
2005.
[84] Direct Testimony of James E. Hansen. State of Iowa

[103] Overview about ITCs activities in China. Archived

from the original on 16 June 2005. Retrieved 9 September
[85] Human Impacts on Atmospheric Chemistry, by PJ
2005.
Crutzen and J Lelieveld, Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, Vol. 29: 17 45 (Volume publica[104] Fire in The Hole. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
tion date May 2001)
[86] J. A. Campbell; D. L. Stewart; M. McCulloch; R. B. [105] North Dakotas Clinker. Retrieved 9 September 2005.
Lucke; R. M. Bean. BIODEGRADATION OF COALRELAED MODEL COMPOUNDS. Pacic Northwest [106] BLM-Environmental Education- The High Plains.
Archived from the original on 12 March 2005. Retrieved
Laboratory. pp. 514521.
9 September 2005.
[87] M.C. Potter (May 1908). Bateria as agents in the oxidation of amorphous carbon. Proceedings of the Royal [107] Lyman, Robert M. and Volkmer, John E. (March
Society of London Series B, Containing Papers of a Bio2001). Pyrophoricity (spontaneous combustion) of
logical Character 80: 239259.
Powder River Basin coals: Considerations for coalbed
methane development (PDF). Archived from the origi[88] Peckham, Jack (2002). Diesel Fuel News: Ultra-clean
nal on 12 September 2005. Retrieved 9 September 2005.
fuels from coal liquefaction: China about to launch big
projects Brief Article. Diesel Fuel News. Retrieved 9 [108] EIA projects little change in U.S. coal production in
September 2005.
2013. U.S. Energy Information Agency. 3 December
2012. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
[89] Tingting, Si and Jing, Li (12 December 2008). Coalto-liquids project rescheduled to launch in early 2009.
[109] Lipton, Eric (19 December 2012). Power Company
China Daily. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
Loses Some of Its Appetite for Coal. The New York
Times. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
[90] Sasol, Shenhua Group May Complete Coal-to-Fuel Plant
by 2013. Bloomberg. 7 January 2009. Retrieved 10 Jan[110] Le, Phuong (March 25, 2013). NW governors ask White
uary 2009.
House to exam coal exports. The San Francisco Chroni[91] China. United States Energy Information Administracle. Associated Press. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
tion.
[111] Cliord Krauss (June 14, 2013). Coal Industry Pins
[92] Elegant, Simon; Zhangjiachang (2 March 2007). Where
Hopes on Exports as U.S. Market Shrinks. The New York
The Coal Is Stained With Blood. TIME. Retrieved 25
Times. Retrieved June 15, 2013.
July 2014.
[93] The human cost of coal in the UK: 1600 deaths a year. [112] Suhr, Jim (May 1, 2013). Report: Ill. coal enjoyed
record exports in 2012. San Francisco Chronicle. AsNew Scientist.
sociated Press. Retrieved May 2, 2013.
[94] http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2014/
02/environmentalism
[113] EIA International Energy Statistics : Coal : Consumption. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
[95] Fisher, Juliya (2003). Energy Density of Coal. The
Physics Factbook. Retrieved 25 August 2006.
[114] World Energy Council Survey of Energy Resources
2010. (PDF) . Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
[96] How much coal is required to run a 100-watt light bulb
24 hours a day for a year?". Howstuworks. Retrieved 25
[115] Sherwood, Alan and Phillips, Jock. Coal and coal minAugust 2006.
ing Coal resources, Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New
Zealand, updated 2009-03-02
[97] Analysis: Eciency of coal-red power stations evolution and prospects. EurActiv. Retrieved on 24 August
[116] EIA International Energy Annual Total Coal Consump2012.
tion (Thousand Short Tons). Eia.gov. Retrieved on 2013[98] CO2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Generation of
05-11.
Electric Power in the United States, DOE, EPA, 1999.
Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
[117] Table 114. World Metallurgical Coal Flows By Importing
Regions and Exporting Countries 1,2/ (million short tons).
[99] Sino German Coal re project. Retrieved 9 September
eia.doe.gov
2005.
[100] Committee on Resources-Index. Archived from the [118] World Coal Flows by Importing and Exporting Regions.
Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
original on 25 August 2005. Retrieved 9 September 2005.
[101] Snapshots 2003 (PDF). re.blm.gov. Archived from the [119] EIA International Energy Annual: Coal Overview 2010.
original on 2006-02-18. Retrieved 9 September 2005.
Eia.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.

14

16

17

Further reading

Walter Licht, Thomas Dublin (2005). The Face of

Decline: The Pennsylvania Anthracite Region in the
Twentieth Century. Cornell University Press. ISBN
0-8014-8473-1. OCLC 60558740.
Long, Priscilla (1991). Where the Sun Never Shines:
A History of Americas Bloody Coal Industry. New
York, NY: Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-465-5.
OCLC 25236866.
Rottenberg, Dan (2003). In the Kingdom of Coal;
An American Family and the Rock That Changed the
World. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93522-9. OCLC
52348860.
Robert H. Williams and Eric D. Larson (December
2003). A comparison of direct and indirect liquefaction technologies for making uid fuels from
coal (PDF). Energy for Sustainable Development
VII: 103129.
Outwater, Alice (1996). Water: A Natural History.
New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-037801. OCLC 37785911.
Smith, Duane A. (May 1993). Mining America: The Industry and the Environment, 18001980.
Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. p. 210.
ISBN 0-87081-306-4.
Freese, Barbara (2003). Coal: A Human History.
Penguin Books. ISBN 0-7382-0400-5. OCLC
51449422.
Biletskiy V., Krut O., Papayani F. Promising coal
technologies // Int. Conference Mining over
Centuries (MIOCEN-2005), Podebrady, 27.09.
02.10.2005.
Biblioteka Szkoly Eksploatacji
Podziemnej, Krakw, 2005, s. 17-25.

17

External links

Coal news and industry magazine

Coal Online International Energy Agency
Coal Research at the National Energy Technology
Laboratory
Energy KIDS Coal page from U. S. Department
of Energy.
European Association for Coal and Lignite
World Coal Association
Coal: Facts & Figures
International Coal Price Data

EXTERNAL LINKS

15

18
18.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Coal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal?oldid=643456173 Contributors: Tbc, Trelvis, Derek Ross, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel,
The Anome, Tarquin, BlckKnght, Malcolm Farmer, Andre Engels, Khendon, Codeczero, Rmhermen, William Avery, SimonP, Ktsquare,
Jdpipe, Heron, Montrealais, Lightning, Hephaestos, Leandrod, Spi, Edward, RTC, D, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Fred Bauder,
Kku, Ixfd64, SebastianHelm, Looxix, Mkweise, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, William M. Connolley, Angela, Aarchiba, Julesd, Glenn,
Netsnipe, Evercat, Samw, Lancevortex, JASpencer, Vroman, Charles Matthews, ChuckM, Scmarney, Reddi, Random832, Wolfgang
Kufner, Cos111, Fuzheado, Dragons ight, LMB, SEWilco, Rei, Thue, Pstudier, Johnleemk, Pollinator, Carlossuarez46, Jni, Phil Boswell,
Nufy8, Robbot, MrJones, Pigsonthewing, Fredrik, Jredmond, RedWolf, Moondyne, Modulatum, Postdlf, Rholton, Texture, Blainster,
Bkell, Mervyn, Robinh, Profoss, Phanly, Lupo, Dina, Alan Liefting, Buster2058, Marc Venot, Decumanus, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Tom
harrison, Folks at 137, Monedula, Yak, Everyking, No Guru, Swelke, NeoJustin, Unconcerned, Yekrats, Sundar, Kaupp, Darrien, Jackol,
SWAdair, Jurema Oliveira, MSTCrow, Utcursch, Andycjp, Geni, LiDaobing, Yath, Quadell, Blankfaze, Antandrus, OverlordQ, John Foley, H Padleckas, Icairns, Mrtrey99, Sam Hocevar, Jklamo, Gscshoyru, B.d.mills, Neutrality, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Deglr6328, Icd, Fanghong,
Safety Cap, Reex Reaction, Shiftchange, Zowie, Spiy sperry, Duja, DanielCD, JTN, Shipmaster, EugeneZelenko, A-giau, Moverton,
Diagonalsh, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Pak21, NeuronExMachina, Andros 1337, Vsmith, Rupertslander, Xezbeth, Dlloyd, Bender235, Danny B-), Jensbn, Pjf, Zscout370, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Phoenix Hacker, Shanes, Tom, Bookofjude,
Orlady, CDN99, Bobo192, Flxmghvgvk, Duk, Angie Y., Jojit fb, Kjkolb, Nk, Xoddam, David Gale, Brainy J, MPerel, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Crust, Hagerman, Jakew, Geschichte, Drf5n, Jumbuck, Mrzaius, 1-1111, Alansohn, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Qwe, Nik42,
Sherurcij, Interiot, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, Riana, Apoc2400, Fritzpoll, Arnad, Mysdaao, Malo, Snowolf, Sobolewski, Wtmitchell, BBird,
Saga City, TheDotGamer, Yuckfoo, Jon Cates, RainbowOfLight, Sciurin, SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard, Tdemko, Axeman89, HenryLi,
Bookandcoee, Ceyockey, Ling Kah Jai, Adrian.benko, Ultramarine, Crosbiesmith, Siafu, Joriki, Woohookitty, TigerShark, Masterjamie,
Camw, LOL, Rocastelo, Bonus Onus, Polyparadigm, EnSamulili, Rimmeraj, WadeSimMiser, MGTom, Tckma, Kelisi, Schzmo, Mangojuice, Mb1000, Paiconos, Bruns, Gimboid13, Peligroso, Paxsimius, ObsidianOrder, Igorre25, Jwoodger, Graham87, Cuchullain, MC
MasterChef, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Dpr, Saperaud, Jorunn, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Koavf, Erebus555, Panoptical, Vary,
Bob A, Bruce1ee, Lordkinbote, Vegaswikian, Zambani, DoubleBlue, Klonimus, FlavrSavr, Oo64eva, JanSuchy, Old Moonraker, Nihiltres, Alhutch, Bearfoot, RexNL, Gurch, Valermos, Lmatt, Alphachimp, Srleer, Silivrenion, Mongreilf, King of Hearts, Lilyth, DVdm,
JesseGarrett, Simesa, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Hawaiian717, Sceptre, Huw Powell, Daverocks,
RussBot, Sillybilly, Hede2000, Peterkingiron, JabberWok, DanMS, Casey56, CanadianCaesar, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Manop, Gaius
Cornelius, Alex Bakharev, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Alynna Kasmira, NawlinWiki, Anomie, SEWilcoBot, Cloud109, Wiki alf, Skritek,
BGManofID, Astral, Mike18xx, Janke, Jaxl, Kvn8907, Upset Nerd, Rjensen, SCZenz, Nick, Malcolma, Anetode, Qviri, Iancarter, Semperf, 13July, Bucketsofg, Romarin, Scottsher, Roche-Kerr, Nethgirb, DeadEyeArrow, T-rex, Stefeyboy, Nlu, Wknight94, FF2010, Hemant 17, Closedmouth, Jwissick, E Wing, Pb30, ZabMilenko, Dspradau, Canley, Wikiwawawa, Petri Krohn, 2fort5r, Alasdair, Kier07,
Peter, Ordinary Person, Anclation, CKelly, David Biddulph, Jack Upland, Kungfuadam, Jonathan.s.kt, Vsvec, NeilN, Paul Erik, Samuel
Blanning, DVD R W, Luk, Bluewave, Buga, Kether83, Doubleplusje, SmackBot, Saravask, Reedy, Ashley thomas80, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, McGeddon, David.Mestel, Pgk, C.Fred, Yamaplos, Anastrophe, KVDP, Jrockley, Delldot,
Mike McGregor (Can), Edgar181, IstvanWolf, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Skizzik, Anwar saadat, Chris
the speller, Bluebot, Sumthingweird, Pieter Kuiper, Fuzzform, Lubos, SchftyThree, Snicol, Hibernian, Droll, Deli nk, Bazonka, Dlohcierekims sock, Sampi, Baa, Tonica, Darth Panda, John Reaves, MaxSem, Zsinj, Onceler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, SheeEttin,
Reuther, Jahiegel, Shalom Yechiel, Benjy83, Jtabbsvt, Onorem, Paddyohale, Wikipedia brown, Rrburke, VMS Mosaic, Addshore, Mr.Zman, Electronic.mayhem, Celarnor, Huon, Nathanm mn, Theanphibian, Krich, Flyguy649, Decltype, Bowlhover, Nakon, James McNally,
RJN, Nick125, Rolinator, Dreadstar, Paul H., MartinRe, Bws2002, Weregerbil, Garry Denke, NickPenguin, Kellyprice, Maximum bobby,
BryanG, DMacks, Then, Windupcanary, Daniel.Cardenas, Ligulembot, Jna runn, BrotherFlounder, BobbyPeru, Pilotguy, Eocenecoal,
Will Beback, Blahm, Moeburn, Nishkid64, ArglebargleIV, KrazyCaley, JzG, KLLvr283, Wikiten, Kuru, John, Heimstern, Evildictaitor,
Jaganath, Soumyasch, Moabdave, Breno, Shadowlynk, AstroChemist, JoshuaZ, Edwy, Goodnightmush, Peterlewis, Scetoaux, Mr. Lefty,
IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Xiaziyna, Ben Kidwell, 16@r, Shoraru, Smith609, Drottenberg, Avs5221, Joejoesmama, Mr Stephen, Bawtyshouse,
Waggers, Es330td, Doczilla, Geologyguy, Dhp1080, Ryulong, Jose77, Zapqwerty28, Caiaa, Papadopolis, Dl2000, Vincecate, Crispy1995,
Hu12, Iridescent, MFago, Shoeofdeath, Blackcloak, Igoldste, Gallows Pole, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Neelsmith, Nfwu, Poolkris, Timrem,
Jibran1, IronChris, AbsolutDan, Joostvandeputte, JForget, Mikiemike, DangerousPanda, CmdrObot, FunPika, Mhklein, Jfcj1, Sjoerd22,
Leujohn, Mack782, Tim1988, MrFish, BT14, LordCarlitos, Badbob224, ProfessorPaul, Badseed, Cydebot, Mierlo, Gogo Dodo, TicketMan, Llort, Rcrowdy, Pascal.Tesson, Diuoroethene, Gproud, Clovis Sangrail, Shirulashem, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Optimist on the run,
Zer0faults, InfoCan, MichaelS82, Tunheim, Xanthis, Click23, Epbr123, LRG, Tsogo3, Kablammo, Sagaciousuk, N5iln, Jerey.Rodriguez,
Gralo, Publicola, Virtualsunil, Marek69, John254, Aquishix, Electron9, Peace01234, James086, Tellyaddict, BirdKr, EdJohnston, CharlotteWebb, Dawnseeker2000, Elert, Escarbot, Sbandrews, LachlanA, Mentisto, Hmrox, Canadian, AntiVandalBot, Indyjr3, Linguafranca,
Konman72, Operator link, Yonatan, Luna Santin, Mvjs, Seaphoto, Prolog, Mrshaba, Memset, Jj137, Fayenatic london, Meetwursti, Andrewrutherford, Gdo01, Myanw, Kenken71, Res2216restar, Uusitunnus, Mikenorton, FantaX, JAnDbot, Husond, Forthnoggin, MER-C,
BlindEagle, James919, Fetchcomms, QuantumEngineer, Andonic, Belg4mit, Berando, Ironplay, GoodDamon, Acroterion, Bencherlite,
CrizCraig, Robsavoie, Cromagno, Magioladitis, Pharillon, Skyemoor, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Dentren, JamesBWatson, Spwigi, Daybreak.band, Harel, Lucyin, SineWave, Teens!, Jim Douglas, JPG-GR, Bubba hotep, Engineman, Will.hambling, BrianGV,
Catgut, Destroyer000, Cgingold, Gabriel Kielland, Iain Stuart, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, Beagel, Schumi555, DerHexer, JaGa,
Esanchez7587, Apisto, JdeJ, Zapnut, CustardToast, Saganaki-, Defenestrating Monday, Gun Powder Ma, Seba5618, Cocytus, Stephenchou0722, MartinBot, BetBot, Jim.henderson, Naohiro19, Rettetast, Kostisl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Jascii, PrestonH,
Tgeairn, Artaxiad, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Rotationx, Garlicbreadboi, Bogey97, Jorge Vila, BillWSmithJr, Aaasss!!, Catmoongirl, Uncle
Dick, Wibbles37, MrBell, Jerry, Geonarva, Derlay, Kudpung, Bullshimoot2, Zipzipzip, Stan J Klimas, DarkFalls, McSly, Jeepday, Afrojim, Bilbobee, Chopsticky, Darktruth2, NewEnglandYankee, Parkerconrad, SJP, MKoltnow, ThinkBlue, Mufka, Student7, Tanaats, Joseph
Somsel, Sofar 2, Ken g6, ScienceJunky, Vanished user 39948282, Ja 62, Scottydude, SoCalSuperEagle, Xiahou, CardinalDan, RJASE1,
Idioma-bot, ElisGitt, Xenonice, Remi0o, Wikieditor06, Gmenfan1728, Vranak, Deor, King Lopez, VolkovBot, CWii, ABF, Murderbike,
Javance, Kelapstick, C.wolke, Jennavecia, BerserkShinji01, Maghnus, Lears Fool, Soliloquial, Philip Trueman, Simon9, Zidonuke, Zamphuor, Eve Hall, Thrig, Mad dog272, Park70, Crohnie, Relentless1234567, Deviladam, Piperh, Anna Lincoln, Lradrama, Seraphim, Deathcat99, JoulesMan, Air26, Martin451, Mzmadmike, LeaveSleaves, DoktorDec, Bleaney, Raymondwinn, Seb az86556, PDFbot, UnitedStatesian, Ruby Brown, Vgranucci, Jeremy Bolwell, Bean915, Eubulides, Yourworstdream, Plazak, Usergreatpower, Lamro, SciAndTech,
Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Burntsauce, Lyndj, RaseaC, Gunnville, Vipulgolchha, Marin274, Legoktm, Tvinh, NHRHS2010, Runewiki777,

16

18

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

HybridBoy, Red, Biscuittin, SieBot, Coee, Mikemoral, B. Nuhanen, Tblakeslee, WereSpielChequers, Ddavidnnielsen17, Gosox5555,
Sakkura, Winchelsea, YourEyesOnly, Caltas, The way, the truth, and the light, LeadSongDog, JerrySteal, Keilana, Bentogoa, Aillema,
Toddst1, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, Nopetro, Wilson44691, Carnun, Invalid Username22, Apples9876, ScAvenger lv, OPALO, Oxymoron83,
JerzyTarasiuk, Nuttycoconut, Steven Zhang, Lightmouse, GregCampbellUSA, Poindexter Propellerhead, Fratrep, Macy, Mitch348, Oldgregg13, Vice regent, Envirocorrector, StaticGull, Wabbit98, Roded86400, Drdoht, PerryTachett, Tarri, Denisarona, Tegrenath, Mhnin0,
Escape Orbit, Mrfebruary, Krenim, Wristshot, The sunder king, WikipedianMarlith, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not
Be, IceUnshattered, Nitack, Rjd0060, Tipdrill, Do Make, Mattspac, Jlglex, Lawrence Cohen, Tomas e, HDP, Watti Renew, Wikiste, Regibox, CounterVandalismBot, Tyberiuswp, NovaDog, Varthdader666, Blanchardb, Neverquick, Megadon, Skiliftlover, Bobob167, Cheapie,
Somno, Crackerjack000, Fdgvkbhnrntbaucn, Minor Fixor, Excirial, Matthew111111, Jpedds, Bearingblaze, Northernhenge, Eeekster,
Keledin, Abrech, Gwguey, Jerry Zhang, Lartoven, Sun Creator, Coinmanj, Bremerenator, New4325, EE357, JamieS93, Iohannes Animosus, Tacoshop69, Andy50009, Kaiba, DatDoo, Nukeless, Gitouch, Enqach, La Pianista, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, Dziewa, MelonBot,
Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, Jmanigold, Amkotas, Poopmaster3000, XLinkBot, Ashley 2848, Gnowor, BodhisattvaBot, Stickee,
Jovianeye, Rror, Spyglass27, Neonergie, DaL33T, WikHead, Mifter, Badgernet, Noctibus, Earthling1956, Richier1993, Hawkania, Addbot, Speer320, Blockhead94, Roentgenium111, Willking1979, MrZoolook, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Element16, Corvus13,
Drylexx, Atethnekos, Ocdnctx, Older and ... well older, Boomur, TutterMouse, Flubuk, Larry Yuma, Leszek Jaczuk, Shivamyadav97,
Ka Faraq Gatri, Cst17, MrOllie, SoSaysChappy, Glane23, Debresser, DreamHaze, Favonian, Jasper Deng, Hell13, Iluvluckystar, Terrillja,
Commanderarie, Delibebek, Kngspook, Rehman, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Teles, .., Armadillo1985, Erinn1234, TeH nOmInAtOr, Greyhood, Emperor Genius, FPMS, Bartledan, MTM, Arxiloxos, Prameet1, Ben Ben, Legobot, CrimsonSage, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Granpu, Andreasmperu, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Cm001, Legobot II, Skipper 360, Wikipedian2, Ovi 1, Year20721, Andreaphill,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Sfj4076, Daemonofdecay, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, AndrooUK, 1exec1, IRP, JackieBot, Sharpe966, Country43, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, RandomAct, Flewis, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, E2eamon, Thelittlegreyman,
Jyngyr, GB fan, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, Bagumba, Orange1214, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Lobtutu, Frogman9, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II,
ATGeorge84, Oxothik, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Gingerbreadman77, Gigemag76, Austin+mariah, 4twenty42o, Cap7aincool, Brettquelch,
Gunthur, DSisyphBot, Jzlcdh, Vanderliserfreak, Sk8rdude13, Pjacobson958, Br77rino, BritishWatcher, Tyrol5, RadManCF, Romain Ollichon, - ), Gendropti, Victim4life, El imp, Carla Powell, Chris.urs-o, Geopersona, Amaury, Salvevital, King Boo 112, Ricechristies7,
N419BH, Chongkian, Shadowjams, Bri322, SchnitzelMannGreek, Samwb123, Dougofborg, Nbe-97, Spongefrog, DRTJR, TEDLEVITT,
Wikitigger, FrescoBot, Menwith, Tobby72, Astragth, Urgos, 9K58 Smerch, VI, Bobwhite111, HJ Mitchell, Bambuway, Cannolis, ClickRick, NiallMcG, Citation bot 1, Ebw1997, Amplitude101, Dylynblue, Redrose64, DrilBot, Tintenschlein, Pinethicket, I dream of horses,
Gafax, Watplay, Abductive, J3Mrs, Neurosojourn, Pro745, Noel Streateld, , Piandcompany, Strenshon, Meaghan, Micalodian, Reconsider the static, Ope23, PETRSCIENT, Adeelyusuf, FoxBot, TobeBot, EnergySourceTrackerPilot, Zairatool, Callanecc, Vrenator, January,
Scoobertjoo, Greg Howerton, Reaper Eternal, Merlinsorca, Diannaa, Jocelina14, RobertMfromLI, Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, BjrnBergman, Slon02, Polylepsis, DASHBot, Giorgiogp2, EmausBot, John of Reading, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Immunize,
Gfoley4, Bobthebigmanwhite, Ajraddatz, Dhrumilshah1, Ehrucyll, Razor2988, GoingBatty, RA0808, Kilon22, RenamedUser01302013,
Sxoa, Happyjaehun, Rajkiandris, Davidmydad, Tommy2010, TuHan-Bot, Wikipelli, K6ka, Djembayz, Sparksaj97, Kudokun1997, John
Cline, F, Dolovis, Timmytoddler, Darrenjohnrobinson, MithrandirAgain, Akshat.mundra, PunkyMcPunkersen, YorkieLoverForever101,
Anir1uph, Cctsa, Struthers00, Kiwi128, 36reball, YPg4Gm, 2sc945, Battoe19, Ebrambot, H3llBot, Teodan511, Vaaarr, Wayne Slam,
Mcmatter, StasMalyga, Rygel, M.C., Ocdncntx, Arpit sinha, L Kensington, Halfpipe123, Quite vivid blur, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, Peter Karlsen, EdoBot, Nrupprecht, Feeilth, DASHBotAV, Sleepybones, SeannySuicide, ClueBot NG, Horoporo, Samrees2k10,
Rtucker913, Gilderien, Satellizer, SplatP1, Lostick, Millermk, MikelWalker, Arashius, Dsilas, Frietjes, Big Daddy74, Morgan Riley, ConnerKnight, RixecTheFallen, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Madara12, Tholme, Strike Eagle, Mouchumi, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot,
Twglade, Yesmate123, Educerva, Tibetsnow, Eklynsmith, Wiki13, Nissim 14, MusikAnimal, HIXIH, Hexo99, I.Kautilyan, Ramos1990,
Cadiomals, Andrew Lightbody, XSxYxBeAsTxBOSS, Reecej97, Halojoner, Insidiae, Glacialfox, Siddhantkhandelwal11, Sylvester345,
Minsbot, Sarvu deshpande, Lieutenant of Melkor, Kimfreeman, Fudpudding, Anbu121, Jakebarrington, BattyBot, R3venans, Tolaade,
Knowles, Beyonce, Jet neck, Srinivaskannan, Oranjblud, Harsh 2580, Charraze, Dexbot, Webclient101, Mogism, Hearnzy, Rothesloon,
Bluey56056, Ethan.A.Gray of Craiglea (UK), Rfassbind, Getaenglife, Faizan, EricLarson80, CensoredScribe, Zenibus, Tronlegacy2000,
Jojowok2001, Cypherquest, Wackyike, Njol, Monkbot, Qwertyxp2000, Nidfeo, TFFX, TheMagikCow, 1Wiki guys, Lordsarix, The man
with the ham, Handerohith, Madsta26, Meejklol and Anonymous: 1944

18.2

Images

File:2005coal.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/2005coal.png License: Public domain Contributors: english wikipedia Original artist: en:User:Anwar saadat
File:Aerial_view_of_ash_slide_site_Dec_23_2008_TVA.gov_123002.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
4/45/Aerial_view_of_ash_slide_site_Dec_23_2008_TVA.gov_123002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Atmoz using CommonsHelper.
Original artist: Tennessee Valley Authority. Original uploader was Truthdowser at en.wikipedia
File:Ashtabulacoalcars_e2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Ashtabulacoalcars_e2.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Decumanus at
en.wikipedia
File:Coal_Rank_USGS.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Coal_Rank_USGS.png License: Public domain Contributors: An introduction to coal quality, US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1625-F Original artist: Stanley P. Schweinfurth
File:Coal_anthracite.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Coal_anthracite.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subcommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/images/Coal,%20anthracite_jpg Original
artist: ?
File:Coal_bituminous.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Coal_bituminous.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Coal_mine_Wyoming.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Coal_mine_Wyoming.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.wy.blm.gov/minerals/coal/ Original artist: Unknown

18.2

Images

File:Coal_to_chemicals_routes_diagram.jpg Source:
diagram.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Available online
Original artist:
National Energy Technology Laboratory

17

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Coal_to_chemicals_routes_

File:Coke_Ovens_Abercwmboi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Coke_Ovens_Abercwmboi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contributors:
Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhateld
File:Flag_of_Albania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on: http://www.manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera_colores.htm Original artist: (Vector graphics by Dbenbenn)
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_
Herzegovina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kseferovic
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: The ag of Bulgaria. The colors are specied at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&n=
000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
File based on the specication given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: ? Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
Flags of the World Hungary Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contributors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -x File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for
the Sodipodi SVG ag collection, and is public domain.
File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006

18

18

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian ag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS
6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1]
Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others
File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Template:
Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: From http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/cir/o_skupstini/simboli/simboli.asp. Original artist: sodipodi.com
File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Per specications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National ag Original artist: Flag design by
Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users
File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color guidelines
(Russian/English) This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: 4512:2006 - .
SVG: 2010
Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ozbekiston Respublikasining Davlat bayrogi. The ocially dened colours are Pantone
313C for blue and 361C for green (source: [1], [2]). Drawn by User:Zscout370.
File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/
Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn
File:Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work after www.flag.de Original artist: User:Madden
File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
-x-'s le
-x-'s code
Zirlands codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-x-.
File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_People{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: ?
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

18.3

Content license

19

File:Grand_Junction_Trip_92007_098.JPG Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Castle_Gate_Power_
Plant%2C_Utah_2007.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Teratornis using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Staplegunther at en.wikipedia
File:Men_of_the_Mine-_Life_at_the_Coal_Face,_Britain,_1942_D8263.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/a4/Men_of_the_Mine-_Life_at_the_Coal_Face%2C_Britain%2C_1942_D8263.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://media.iwm.org.uk/iwm/mediaLib//42/media-42296/large.jpg Original artist: Ministry of Information Photo Division Photographer
File:Padlock-silver-light.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Padlock-silver-light.svg License: CC0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Schlaegel_und_Eisen_nach_DIN_21800.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Schlaegel_und_
Eisen_nach_DIN_21800.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vorlage vom Heraldiker erhalten nach DIN 21800 Original artist:
unbekannt; uploaded by T. Rystau (de:Benutzer:Ollemarkeagle)
File:Struktura_chemiczna_wgla_kamiennego.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Struktura_
chemiczna_w%C4%99gla_kamiennego.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape Original
artist:
pl.wiki: Karol007
File:Sydney_Mines_Point_Aconi_Seam_038.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Sydney_Mines_
Point_Aconi_Seam_038.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rygel, M.C.
File:Tiangong_Kaiwu_Coal_Mining.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/27/Tiangong_Kaiwu_Coal_Mining.gif
License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Us_coal_regions_1996.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Us_coal_regions_1996.png License:
Public domain Contributors: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1996/of96-092/index.htm Original artist: ?
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs), based
on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

18.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0