Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
NOTICE
In this handbook, X-Ray film(s) means radiographic film(s).
THE FUNNDAMENTALS OF
INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
CONTENTS
I.
II.
2
2
3
4
4
5
8
I. MATERIALS AND
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FOR MAKING
RADIOGRAPHS
In 1912 M. von Laue and other investigators identified Xrays as electromagnetic waves similar in nature to visible
light, though invisible.
X-rays have far greater penetrating power than either
visible light or ultraviolet rays. Their nature is such that
the shorter the wavelength, the greater the penetrating
power.
Target (Tungsten)
Filament
Cathode
,6
7AVELENGTH CM
8 RAYS
2ADIO 7AVES 5SED IN
Focusing Cup
#OMMUNICATION !PPLICATIONS
)NFRARED 2AYS
-ICROWAVES
5LTRAVIOLET 2AYS
X-rays
'AMMA 2AYS
Electron Beam
LV. . . . . T
his terminal is connected to a low-voltage source for filament
heating.
HV. . . . . This terminal is connected to a high-voltage source for electron
emission from the cathode.
&REQUENCY
6ISIBLE ,IGHT
Certain materials emit electrons when struck by highenergy X-rays or gamma rays. These electrons are called
secondary electrons and photographic film is sensitive not
only to light, X-rays and gamma rays but also to secondary
electrons. This phenomenon is utilized in the lead screen.
Thin lead foil that readily emits electrons when struck by
X-rays or gamma rays is bonded to a support so as not to
affect penetration. The lead foil is usually 0.03 to 1.0 mm
thick and the thickness generally needs to be increased
with increasing radiation energy. In X-ray radiography,
however, secondary electrons that have the capacity to
affect the film are not generated below 100 kVp. Quite
to the contary the speed of the film is reduced, as X-rays
are absorbed by the lead coating of the screens. In X-ray
radiography generally the front lead foil is 0.03 mm thick
and the back lead foil 0.03 to 0.1 mm thick. In gamma ray
radiography the front and back lead foils used are from
0.1 to 0.3 mm thick. The intensification factor of these lead
screens varies from 2 to 3.
There are materials which emit light when struck by Xrays. As each fluorescent material, normally called a
phosphor, has its own fluorescent light spectral region,
an intensification factor of 10 to 200 can be obtained by
making an appropriate choice among phosphors relative
to the spectral sensitivity of X-ray film. Ordinary fluorescent
screens are made by coating a phosphor like calcium
tungstate on a support. Fluorescent screens provide for a
remarkable reduction in exposure times, but are not used
in industrial applications in which minute defects must be
detected. This is because they provide poor definition in
the resulting radiograph because of the adverse influence
of the phosphor particles.
2. Intensifying Screens
X-rays and gamma rays have such great penetrating
power that less than 1 percent of the energy is absorbed
when striking a film. To utilize the emitted X-rays and
gamma rays more fully, recourse is laid to a material
which emits less penetrating secondary electrons in the
form of fluorescent light, when struck by X-rays or gamma
rays. Film is placed between two sheets of such material.
This material in sheet form is called an intensifying screen
or simply a screen. The intensifying screens are roughly
divisible into lead screens, fluorescent screens and
fluorometallic screens.
&IGURE
3TRUCTURAL AND &UNCTIONAL $IAGRAM
FOR THE ,EAD 3CREEN
8 RAYS
8
RAYS
3UPPORT
,EAD &OIL
&ILM
3ECTIONAL 6IEW OF
#ASSETTE
8
RAYS
Secondary
Electrons
&IGURE
3TRUCTURAL AND &UNCTIONAL $IAGRAM
FOR THE &LUORESCENT 3CREEN
,EAD &OIL
3UPPORT
8 RAYS
3UPPORT
5NIT MM
0HOSPHOR ,AYER
&
8
RAYS
0ROTECTIVE ,AYER
&ILM
3ECTIONAL 6IEW OF
#ASSETTE
0ROTECTIVE ,AYER
0HOSPHOR ,AYER
8
RAYS
Fluorescent
Light
&IGURE
3TRUCTURAL AND &UNCTIONAL $IAGRAM
FOR THE &LUOREMETALLIC 3CREEN
3UPPORT
4 DIAM
4 DIAM
4 DIAM
8
RAYS
3UPPORT
v
,EAD &OIL
8 RAYS
v
0HOSPHOR ,AYER
v
v
)
0ROTECTIVE ,AYER
&ILM
0ROTECTIVE ,AYER
3ECTIONAL 6IEW OF
#ASSETTE
v
v
0HOSPHOR ,AYER
8
RAYS
Fluorescent
Light
,EAD &OIL
Secondary
Electrons
3UPPORT
5.1 Developer
0ROTECTIVE ,AYER
%MULSION ,AYER TO
Developer
Developing Agent
[Monol] (equivalent of Metol), hydroquinone,
Pyrazon] (equivalent of Phenidone), etc.]
0OLYESTER "ASE
Other Ingredients
Accelerator
[Sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, etc.]
Preservative
[Sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite, etc.]
Restrainer
[Potassium bromide, etc.]
Additives
[Gelatin hardener, water softener, etc.]
%MULSION ,AYER TO
0ROTECTIVE ,AYER
5. Processing Chemicals
Chemicals for the processing of photosensitive materials
including X-ray films are dissolved in water for use. Readymixed chemicals which result in processing solutions when
dissolved in the stipulated volumes of water represent the
primary form of use. Refer to III-2 X-ray Film Processing
and IV-3 Chemicals for Automatic Processing for more
information on processing chemicals.
.ON
SCREEN TYPES
)NDUSTRIAL 8
RAY &ILMS
$IRECT EXPOSURE
3CREEN TYPE
8
RAY
&ILMS
.ON SCREEN TYPES
$IRECT EXPOSURE
3CREEN TYPES
-EDICAL 8 RAY &ILMS
)NDIRECT EXPOSURE PHOTOFLUOROGRAPHY
3OFTEX 3OFT 8
RAY RADIOGRAPHY
8
RAY MOTION PICTURE
2ADIATION MONITORING
/THER APPLICATIONS
2ADIOGRAPH DUPLICATION
!UTORADIOGRAPHY
Relative Speed]
Film
#25
20
#50
X-rays
X-rays
100KV(1) 200KV(2)
Ir-192(2)
Co-60(2)
ASTM
E1815
17
15
10
Special
C1
35
30
30
30
C3
#80
55
55
55
55
C4
#100
100
100
100
100
II
C5
#150
Heavy, multi-thick steel parts, Low curie isotope and low-output x-ray exposures.
A high speed, fine grain, high contrast ASTM Class III film suitable for inspection of a
large variety of specimens with low-to high kilovoltage x-ray and gamma ray sources. It
is particularly useful when gamma ray sources of high activity are unavailable or when
very thick specimens are to be inspected. It is also useful in x-ray diffraction work.
IX150 is used in direct exposure techniques or with lead screens.
200
200
170
170
III
C6
#29
22
22
22
22
W-A
#59
45
45
45
45
W-B
]
Speed as compared to that of type #100 used as a standard 100
(1) without screens (2) with lead screens
EN584-1
5.3 Fixer
After development and stop bath neutralization the
emulsion still contains unreduced silver halide which is
not necessary for the image. Such material is detrimental,
especially to the radiograph as viewed by transmitted
light. The fixer is used to remove the unreduced silver
halide.
Fixer Composition
The fixer contains a solvent for silver halide and other
ingredients, as shown below.
A. Developer
In the roller transport type automatic processors (like the
Fuji FIP 7000) for industrial X-ray films, processing solutions
are used at higher temperatures (about 30C/86F) than
in manual processing in order to speed things up. Many
transport rollers are used to squeegee the film and
remove the exhausted solutions from the film surfaces.
Developers for use in automatic processors are specially
formulated. Fuji Superdol l, for instance, is formulated
to be suitable for processing at high temperatures and
includes special chemicals which adjust the contrast and
fog and a hardener which hardens the emulsion in order
to give sufficient resistance to forced roller squeegeeing.
Fixer
Silver Halide Solvent
[Sodium and ammonium thiosulfates]
Other Ingredients
Preservative
[Sodium sulfite, etc.]
Acid
[Acetic acid, etc.]
Hardener
[Potassium alum, etc.]
Buffer
[Nabox] (equivalent to Kodalk mild alkali), etc.]
]
B. Fixer
The fixer for use in roller transport type automatic
processors is specially formulated (as in the Fuji Super
FI) so as to produce a greater emulsion-hardening effect
than with the fixer used in manual hand processing.
Developer tank transport rollers reduce the amount of
developer carry-over to the fixer. This extends the life of
the fixer, although the primary function of the rollers is to
move the film through the processor.
Notes:
Stop Bath
The stop bath is not used in roller transport type
automatic processors, because the rollers adequately
remove developer solution from the surfaces of the
film. This prolongs the life of the fixer to a far greater
extent than in manual processing.
Wash Accelerator
In roller transport type automatic processors the
fixer tank rollers effectively remove fixer from the film
surfaces and wash tank rollers provide for continual
turnover of fresh water on the film surface so that the
necessity of a wash accelerator has not been voiced
to date.
II. Photographic
characteristics of
X-ray films
Wetting Agent
In roller transport type automatic processors the
rollers effectively remove the wash water clinging to
the surfaces of the film so that the wetting agent is not
needed.
1. Photographic Density
The degree of blackening of the photographic image is
referred to as photographic density, and there are two
kinds of density. One kind is transmission density and the
other reflection density. The first kind of density is used
to express the density of a photographic image in film.
The transmission density of a photographic image is
expressed as the logarithm of its opacity. Let the intensity
of the light falling on a film surface (incident light) be I0
and the intensity of the light after it passes through the film
be I, and the following equations will hold.
Transparency = I/I0
Opacity = I0/I
Density = Log I0/I
6. P
hotographic Processing
Equipment
Photographic processing involves two basic orientations
those being manual processing and automatic
processing. In the case of manual processing, the
processing chemicals are placed in a tray and into this
the film is introduced while the tray is tilted back and
forth in a repeated pattern to induce the reaction, or the
processing chemicals are placed into a tank and the film
is suspended with a hanger in the solution so that it can
be moved over and over again in the solution. With this
kind of manual processing things such as the tray, the
solution tank, the hanger and the like are needed by way
of equipment. In these types of situations the equipment
used comes into direct contact with the chemicals and
must therefore be made of materials that are not corroded
by this contact. In addition to these items there is the
necessity for equipment to control the processing solution
temperatures. In this category certain kinds of equipment
are placed directly into the processing solutions such as
the heater and in other cases the use of a thermostatic
bath is central.
Figure 9 Density
)
$ENSITY
)
$ENSITY
)
$ENSITY
Unexposed Portion:
A density which is just noticeable appears in the
unexposed areas of processed film and this density is
called fog.
Toe Region:
Underexposed films generally have a density in the range
indicated by this section.
Straight-line Portion:
Properly exposed films generally have a density in the
range indicated mainly by the straight-line section and
toe. Contrast is most closely related to the straight-line
section.
Shoulder Region:
Overexposed film generally has a density in the range
indicated mainly by the shoulder and straight-line
portion.
Solarization Portion:
The density may even fall again upon increasing exposure
above that indicated by the shoulder. This portion is
not included in exposures used for the formation of
photographic images.
$ENSITY
$
,OG 2ELATIVE %XPOSURE
$ENSITY
3OLARIZATION
0ORTION
3HOULDER
2EGION=
4OE 2EGION=
5NEXPOSED
0ORTION
"
&OG $ENSITY=
$ENSITY
,OG 2ELATIVE %XPOSURE=
1 Fog Density
The fog density may or may not include the base density. In many
instances it is not indicated whether base fog is included or not.
]
2 Toe, Straight-line and Shoulder Portions
These designations indicated fairly well-defined portions of the
characteristic curve, but do not have such distinct points as B and C in
Figure 10.
]
3 The logarithm of the relative exposure when the film is exposed to X-rays
or gamma rays.
]
,OG 2ELATIVE %XPOSURE
3. Speed
$ENSITY
,OG 2ELATIVE %XPOSURE
$ENSITY
"
A
Relative Speed
"
Type of Film
,EAD 3CREENS &RONT MM "ACK MM
)3/6/,4 4IME 3CALE K6P &E MM
4ANK $EVELOPMENT WITH (I
2ENDOL )
# & -INUTES
100
209
48
26
,OG 2ELATIVE %XPOSURE
4. Average Gradient
The contrast for industrial X-ray film is expressed by the
average gradient (G)]. The certain range of all densities
which form a photographic image significantly influences
its contrast. The slope of a straight line joining the points
of the highest and lowest densities of this range on the
characteristic curve is defined as the average gradient.
]
G is read Gee bar.
The density range (D) for industrial X-ray films is defined
as follows:
D = (fog-plus-base density + 3.5)
(fog-plus-base density + 1.5)
The density range on a characteristic curve is shown in
Fig. 15.
10
5. Fog
7. Graininess
6. Definition or Sharpness
Definition or sharpness are the photographic terms which
are used to indicate the distinctness of the boundary
between differing densities and the clearness of the fine
detail in a image.
2ESPONSE
&REQUENCY (Z
-4&
3PATIAL &REQUENCY LINESMM
)NCREASING
2-3
&ILM "
&ILM !
)NCREASING
11
$ENSITY
1. Radiographic Exposure
1.1 Precautionary Concerns in Set-up
It is important to comply with the standards established for
industrial X-ray films and consider the effect of geometric
factors (e.g., specimen-to-film distance) on the image
quality when determining the arrangement of the X-ray
or gamma-radiation source, the cassette, the specimen
and the penetrameter. It is also necessary to make an
appropriate prior choice of exposure method according to
the material and the shape or the portion of the specimen
to be examined. For instance, when examining a welded
pipe, the most appropriate choice should be made from
among the single radiography method, the stereoscopic
radiography method and the double-exposure (parallax)
method.
EXPOSURE TIME
INCREASING
Thin
Small
Thickness of Specimen
Specific Gravity of
Thick
Great
High
Short
High
Kilovoltage
Focus-to-Film Distance
Intensification Factor
Low
Long
Low
Large
Small
Specimen
of Screen
12
K6P
M! q MIN
The image produced on X-ray film through exposure to Xrays, gamma rays, or light is invisible before processing,
but a visible image appears when immersed in a special
processing solution. This processing step is called
development. Development is stopped when an image of
desired density and contrast is obtained. The film is then
immersed into a stop bath which brings to a halt the action
of the developer. After the stop bath the film is immersed
into a fixing bath which dissolves the unchanged portions
of the sensitive silver salts. The film thus treated has a
permanent image. The steps in making a permanent
image after exposure are collectively called processing.
4HICKNESS OF 3PECIMEN
)NCREASING
EN
30
CRE
D 3
TAL
L
K6P
IC
3
CRE
E
N
,EA
$IRE
CT %
XPOS
URE
ORO
ME
2.1 Development
)NCREASING
&LU
4HICKNESS OF 3PECIMEN
)NCREASING
13
Developer Agitation
During development, the developer solution or the hanger
loaded with exposed film is agitated at frequent intervals in
order to keep the emulsion in contact with a fresh solution
at all times, thus accomplishing even development. If the
film is not agitated during development, the solution in
contact with high-density areas of the film will be locally
exhausted so that development of those areas stops,
while the solution in contact with low-density areas is
exhaust to a lesser extent so that development proceeds.
As a result, such a radiograph will show low contrast. The
locally exhausted solution affects the rate and evenness
of development by moving from one area of the film to the
other during development. Thorough and even agitation
of the film during development is very important. When
tray processing is used, care should be taken to assure
that radiographs do not cling to one another, and the
tray should be rocked to provide continual mixing and
redistribution of the solution.
#ONTRAST '
&OG
3TANDARD
2-3 'RANULARITY
3TANDARD
)NCREASING
4EMPERATURE
)NCREASING
2ELATIVE 3PEED
of X-ray Film
3TANDARD
$EVELOPMENT 4IME
4IME
)NCREASING
)NCREASING
14
Relative Area
0.6
0.3
2.3 Fixing
)NCREASING
2ELATIVE 3PEED
2EPLENISHER 5SED
&OG
#ONTRAST '
2EPLENISHER .OT 5SED
1UANTITY OF &ILMS 0ROCESSED
)NCREASING
2EPLENISHMENT
15
Fixing Capacity
Customarily, the fixer solution is not replenished and as
such used until exhausted beyond use. As it is used, its
fixing capacity decreases to a point at which the time
required for the film to clear is increased by twice the time
required with fresh fixer solution. When this critical state
has been reached, the fixer solution should be replaced.
If this limit is exceeded, proper fixation will not be
accomplished even if the film is allowed to remain in the
fixer solution longer than twice the clearing time. Further
such practice will result in image discoloration or fading.
)NCREASING
#LEARING 4IME
When a solution of ammonium thiosulfate is used as a fastacting fixer not only is the film cleared in a shorter time
but twice the fixing capacity of ordinary fixer solutions
is made available. The fixing capacity limit is apt to be
exceeded more easily with fast-acting fixer solutions
because the time to clear is short, even when twice the
fixing time needed by a fresh solution is required.
&IXER 4EMPERATURE
(IGHER
Fixing requires twice the time that elapses from the moment
the film is immersed in the fixer solution to the time the
milky emulsion becomes completely transparent. If the
fixing time is inadequate, the film retains some insoluble
salts (complex silver thiosulfate compounds). If they are
allowed to remain, they will slowly decompose and attack
the image, causing it to discolor and fade. Even if the
fixing time is to exceed the clearing time by twice, the
quality of the processed radiographs will not be adversely
affected. It is therefore recommended that longer fixing
times be used even an the risk of exceeding by twice the
film clearing time so as to provide a safeguard against
discoloration and image fading. On the other hand,
however, if the film is allowed to remain in the fixer solution
for too long a time, the density of the image will decrease
and the film will acquire a brown color. Granularity may
also be impaired depending on the circumstances. Care
should be exercised to insure that films are not left in the
fixing bath for too long a time or forgotten.
,ONGER
#LEARING 4IME
&IXING #APACITY ,IMIT
Fixer Agitation
When the film is first transferred from the stop bath into
the fixing bath, it should be agitated continuously for 10
seconds and then thereafter occasional agitation is to be
employed. Care should be exercised to insure that films
do not cling to one another. If the stop bath is unavoidably
skipped (the skipping of the stop bath should be avoided
by all means as such practice will become the cause of
uneven development), and the film is directly transferred
from the developer solution into the fixing bath, or if the film
is rinsed after development and transferred into the fixing
bath, it must be agitated vigorously in the fixer for about
30 seconds. If agitation is not vigorous enough, uneven
fixation may result and even dichroic fog and stains may
occur when the fixer solution is exhausted.
/RDINARY &IXER
&IXING #APACITY ,IMIT
2APID &IXER
&RESH 3OLUTION
)NCREASING
1UANTITY OF &ILMS 0ROCESSED
16
7ATER 7ASH
&UJI 17 "ATH
2ESIDUAL 4HIOSULFATE
Dichroic Fog
,ARGER
/RDINARY 7ATER 7ASH
7ATER 7ASH AFTER
)MMERSSION IN &UJI 17
with dichroic fog has yellowish to brownish stains. The stains are
of a bluish, greenish or yellowish metallic luster when viewed by
reflected light.
)NCREASING
7ASHING 4IME
2.4 Washing
Thorough washing is necessary to remove the processing
solutions and complex silver salts (complex silver
thiosulfate compounds). As is often the case, sufficient
care may not be exercised after fixing. If such salts
are allowed to remain after washing, they will gradually
decompose and attack the image, causing it to discolor
of fade.
2.5 Drying
Film should be dried immediately after washing. Water
streaks and drops adhere to film surfaces and if they are
not removed prior to drying, the areas lying underneath
will dry more slowly than the surrounding areas changing
thus the density of the silver image and resulting in spots.
Such uneven drying can be prevented by gently wiping
the film with a sponge or immersing it in a solution of the
Fuji Driwel wetting agent. (Dilute Driwel in water at a ratio
of 1:200 respectively and immerse the washed film in it
for about 30 seconds prior to drying.) The forced air dryer
should have a filter over the air inlet fan position with the
unit providing 45 to 50C (104 to 122F) hot air movement
over the film.
Washing Time
The processed X-ray film should be washed in running
water at 20C (68F) for 50 minutes or more. When the
wash accelerator Fuji QW is used, the X-ray film should
be washed according to the following procedure.
Fixing:
Preliminary Wash:
Drying:
17
STOP BATH
FIXER
WASH WATER
Summer
20C
(68F)
22 to 25C
(71.6 to 77.0F)
25 to 28C
(77.0 to 82.4F)
30C
(86F)
Winter
20C
(68F)
18 to 15C
(64.4 to 59.0F)
16 to 13C
(60.5 to 55.4F)
10C
(50F)
Subject
contrast
(Factors
related to
specimen and
exposure)
CONTRAST
LOW
High
Density level
Low
Vigorous
Developer agitation
Gentle
Slight
Developer exhaustion
Advanced
Appropriate
Development time
Too long
or short
Appropriate
Developer temperature
Too high
or low
High
Developer contrast
Low
High
Low
Used
Lead screens
Not used
Used
Filter
Not used
Limited
Radiation Scattering
Profuse
Low
Kilovoltage
High
Great
Small
SHARPNESS
LOW
Factors
related to
development,
fluorescent
screen and
film
High
Film contrast
Low
Fine
Film graininess
Coarse
Appropriate
Degree of development
Excessive
Fine
Coarse
Factors
related to
exposure
None
Great
None
Motion of subject
Great
Good
Poor
Short
Subject-to-film distance
Long
Long
Focus-to-film distance
Short
Small
Focus area
Large
Thin
Specimen thickness
Thick
Low
Kilovoltage
High
3.1 Contrast
The term contrast refers to the difference between the
maximum and the minimum densities of a radiograph.
It may also refer to the degree of density change in the
image. The contrast of a radiograph is expressed through
a combination of film contrast and subject contrast.
18
3.3 Density
GREAT
Short
Specimen-to-film distance
Long
Long
Focus-to-film distance
Short
Thin
Specimen thickness
Thick
Right angle
Angle between X-ray beam center and plane of specimen and film Oblique
19
4.3 Safelight
Light having spectral qualities that are outside the region
in which sensitive materials are affected is to be used
for safelight illumination. The Fuji Safelight Filter SLG 8U
(colored dark reddish orange) is recommended as such
for use in the darkroom. The relationship between the
spectral sensitivity of Fuji Industrial X-ray Film and the
spectral transmission factors for the Fuji Filter SLG 8U
safelight is shown in Figure 27. Industrial X-ray films should
be handled at a distance of at least 1 meter from the Fuji
Filter SLG 8U safelight in which a 100-volt, 15- or 20-watt
lamp is incorporated. The safelight may be turned on
under normal conditions for 10 to 15 minutes without any
detrimental effect on X-ray film.
The safety of the safelight in use can be tested in the
following way. A sheet of industrial X-ray film is placed
in its normal handling position and covered with a sheet
of black paper. The black paper is moved at 5-minute
intervals to expose the X-ray film to the safelight in step
fashion, and an unexposed portion is left. When the test
X-ray film is processed under standard conditions, it
can be discerned from the processed film how long the
safelight should be allowed to remain on without causing
fog in the film.
#ORRIDOR
$ARKROOM
!NTECHAMBER
$ARKROOM
,ABYRINTH
7AVELENGTH MM
20
4RANSMITTANCE OF &ILTER
#ORRIDOR
2ELATIVE 3ENSITIVITY OF &ILM
21
*>i
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7>,>V
i,>V
iii,>V
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MANUAL
PROCESSING
DEVELOPMENT
STOP BATH
FIXING
WASHING
FINISHING BATH
DRYING
20C/68F
20C/68F
20C/68F
20C/68F
20C/68F
40C/104F
5min.
30sec.
5min.
50min.
30sec.
30min.
30C/86F
31C/88F
31C/88F
About 45C/113F
1min. 00sec.
1min. 05sec.
1min. 00sec.
50sec.
23C/73F
31C/88F
Max 35C/95F
About 45C/113F
2min.
2min. 10sec.
2min.
1min. 40sec.
22
TOTAL
91min.
5min. 45sec.
11min. 30sec.
Table 10 Processing Conditions Established for the Fuji FIP 7000 Processor
PROCESSING CONDITION
FACTOR
(5 min. Processing)
Developer
Developer temperature
Development time
Developer tank capacity
Replenishment rate
Superdol I
(25 ml per liter of Superdol SI starter)
30C/86F,
1 min.,
30 lit.
65 ml/4 sheets of 8.5 x 30.5 cm film
23C/73F
2 min.
FIXING
Fixer
Fixer temperature
Fixing time
Fixer tank capacity
Replenishment rate
Super FI
31C/88F
1 min. 05 sec.,
24 lit.
200 ml/4 sheets of 8.5 x 30.5 cm film
2 min. 10 sec.
WASHING
10 lit/min
31C/88F
1 min.,
2 min.
Drying temperature
Drying time
About 45C/113F
50 sec.
1 min. 40 sec.
60 cm/min.
400 sheets/hr
(8.5 x 30.5 cm film)
30 cm/min.
200 sheets/hr
(8.5 x 30.5 cm film)
DEVELOPMENT
DRYING
PROCESSING
SPEED
PROCESSING
SOLUTIONS
PROCEDURE
ADJUSTMENT
X-RAY FILM
23
24
Densitometric Method
The densitometric method also uses control strips as in
sensitometric control. The density of a specific step of
relatively high density is used to plot a control chart. The
control film is processed at the same specified times as
indicated for the sensitometric control method.
Sensitometric Method
This method provides the highest control accuracy. A
control strip which is exposed to visible light or X-rays in step
fashion is developed under predetermined conditions and
a characteristic curve is derived from this control strip. The
characteristic values (of speed, contrast and fog) obtained
from the characteristic curve are graphically represented.
If characteristics of the control strip deviate from normal,