Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Compressor Analysis
Techniques
Azonix-Dynalco
Kathy Boutin, B.Sc.
Ben Boutin, P.Eng.
Analysis Programs
Objectives
Types of analysis
Analysis process
Analysis Programs
Objectives of analysis programs
Eliminate expensive, unnecessary maintenance
Decrease maintenance costs
Increase machine availability
Decrease down time
Improve performance
Reduce emissions
Analysis Programs
Types of machinery analysis
Maintenance Analysis
Identifies incipient failure so that you can turn unscheduled
maintenance into scheduled maintenance
Helps avoid in-service failures
Goal is to reduce maintenance cost
Performance Analysis
Characterizes the engine/compressor operating potential
Efficiency
Fuel consumption
Horsepower
Throughput
Analysis Programs
The analysis process
and condition
Organize and present the reduced data
Infer performance and condition
Report findings
Take action
Follow up
Data Types
Testpoint Locations
Process data
Tell about the process
Examples: suction temperature and pressure
Phase-marked data
Data is referenced to the flywheel
Example: pressure versus time data
Non-phased data
Sampling is a function of time only
Example: acceleration data from a
turbocharger bearing
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
10
Head and
crank end
pressure
traces on a
compressor
cylinder
Pressure (psig)
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
11
12
1 times
run speed
0.9
0.8
Peak At Frequency
1.020 at 322.5
0.507 at 1305.0
0.122 at 652.5
0.110 at 487.5
0.098 at 1627.5
0.079 at 2932.5
0.073 at 1357.5
0.061 at 1140.0
0.061 at 1020.0
0.061 at 975.0
2 times
run speed
mil (pseudo-pk-pk)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
4 times
run speed
0.3
Spectrum from
engine frame
near anchor
bolts. Mils peakpeak, oil pump
end, horizontal
direction.
Engine speed
323 RPM
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
500
1000
1500
cpm
2000
2500
3000
13
Engine Data
Cylinder exhaust temperatures
Infrared temperature wand
pyrometer
Turbocharger/blower
Standard accelerometer
mounted on bearings and near
turbine and compressor wheels
Frequency domain vibration
Ignition secondary
Inductive connection to unshielded
spark plug cable
Multi-period sampling statistics
Ignition secondary patterns
Cylinder pressure
Pressure transducer
Time domain data phased to
crankshaft position
Peak pressure statistics
118
137
Fuel 213
PT
550
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
--------------
500
VT
Pressure (psig)
450
- P5 VT4
400
350
300
- Scale 2.4
250
200
150
-
100
50
--------------
0
0
45
90
135
180
Angle (deg)
225
270
315
360
15
Intake 281
140
Fuel 315
620
391 Exhaust
--------------
583
1000
900
VT
Pressure (psig)
800
- 2L VT4
700
600
- Scale 5.0
500
-
400
300
200
PT
100
--------------
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
16
Compressor Data
Crosshead Vibration
Standard accelerometer
Time domain data phased to
crankshaft position
Relate to rod load
TDC Reference
Shaft encoder
Magnetic pickup
Phased data
RPM
Suction/discharge temperatures
Infrared temperature wand
thermocouples, RTDs
Suction/discharge valve vibration
Compressor ring leak vibration
Liner scoring
Ultrasonic microphone
Standard accelerometer
Time domain data phased to
crankshaft position
Head/crank end pressure
Pressure transducer
Time domain data phased to
crankshaft position
Multi-period sampling statistics
Rod Motion
Proximity probes
Time-domain data phased to
crankshaft position
Rod displacement trends
CE PT
600
Pressure (psig)
550
HE PT
500
450
HE VT
400
350
300
250
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
18
Sequence of events
19
20
10
Sequence of events
for a 2 stroke engine
21
Pressure
0
90
180
Crank Angle (Deg)
270
360
22
11
0
0
90
180
360
270
23
Combustion is complete
Pressure drives piston down
Pressure
0
0
90
180
360
270
24
12
Pressure
0
0
90
180
360
270
25
Pressure
0
90
180
Crank Angle (Deg)
270
360
26
13
Pressure
0
0
90
180
360
270
27
0
0
90
180
360
270
28
14
0
0
90
180
360
270
29
Pressure
0
0
90
180
360
270
30
15
Pressure
0
0
90
180
360
270
31
Pressure
0
0
25
50
100
75
32
16
0
0
25
50
100
75
33
Combustion is complete
Pressure drives piston down
Pressure
0
0
25
50
100
75
34
17
Pressure
0
0
25
50
100
75
35
Pressure
0
0
25
50
100
75
36
18
Pressure
0
0
25
50
100
75
37
0
0
25
50
100
75
38
19
0
0
25
50
100
75
39
Pressure
0
0
25
50
100
75
40
20
Pressure
0
25
50
100
75
41
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel 213
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
42
21
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
43
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Ring noise
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
44
22
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Exhaust
Blowdown
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
45
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel 213
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
46
23
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel 213
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
47
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel Valve
Closure
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
48
24
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Ignition 5-10
degrees BTDC
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
49
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel 213
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
50
25
Sequence of events
for a 4 stroke engine
51
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
0
180
0
1
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression
52
26
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
0
180
0
1
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression
53
137
Intake 300
611
Pressure
Fuel 502
su
re
P
0
180
0
1
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression
54
27
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Blowdown
0
180
0
1
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression
55
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Exhaust valve
closure
0
180
0
1
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression
56
28
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Intake valve
closure
0
180
0
1
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression
57
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Fuel valve
closure
0
180
0
1
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression
58
29
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Whats
this?
su
re
P
0
180
0
1
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
720
540
4
Intake
Compression
59
P1
672
-2
2
P2
192
-2
2
P3
432
-2
2
P4
72
-2
2
P5
0
-2
2
P6
552
312
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
60
30
0
0
3
25
COMBUSTION
50
75
100
61
COMBUSTION
62
31
0
0
3
25
COMBUSTION
50
75
100
63
COMBUSTION
64
32
COMBUSTION
65
COMBUSTION
66
33
Combustion is complete
Pressure drives piston down
As volume increases, pressure decreases
COMBUSTION
67
COMBUSTION
68
34
COMBUSTION
69
0
0
3
25
COMBUSTION
50
75
100
70
35
Sequence of events
for a double acting
reciprocating compressor
71
1-2
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
HE
Discharge
2-3
Compression
Expansion
HE
Expansion
u
s
re
P
3-4
m
u
o
V
c
rn
a
le
C
Ps
Suction
Swept Volume
Volume
HE
Suction
4-1
72
36
Compression
Expansion
Clearance Volume
Pd
Pressure
1-2
Discharge
CE
Discharge
2-3
CE
Expansion
3-4
1
Ps
Suction
Swept Volume
CE
Suction
Volume
4-1
73
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
Suction
closed
AS
AP
Compression
Cylinder Pressure (Pcyl)
is above Ps and increasing to Pd.
Discharge valve opens when Pcyl
is greater than Pd (2).
1 Discharge
Ps
AP
closed
Volume
AD
74
37
3 Discharge
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
Suction
closed
AS
AP
Compression
Cylinder Pressure (Pcyl)
is above Pd and decreasing to Pd.
Discharge valves closes when Pcyl
equals Pd (3) at TDC.
1 Discharge
Ps
open
AP
Volume
75
3 Discharge
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
Suction
closed
AS
AP
Compression
Cylinder Pressure (Pcyl)
is below Pd and decreasing to Ps.
Suction valve opens when Pcyl is
less than Ps (4).
Expansion
1 Discharge
Ps
AP
closed
AD
Volume
76
38
3 Discharge
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
Suction
open
AS
Compression
Cylinder Pressure (Pcyl)
is below Ps and increasing to Ps.
Suction valve closes when Pcyl is
equal to Ps (1) at BDC.
Expansion
1 Discharge
Ps
AP
closed
Suction
AD
Volume
77
Pressure (psig)
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
0
25
50
75
Percent swept volume
100
78
39
Discharge A
Pressure
CE PT
HE PT
Suction
Pressure 1
180
360
Suction (B-C)
Compression (C-D)
Discharge (D-A)
Discharge (2-3)
Expansion (3-4)
Suction (4-1)
79
HE Discharge
180
360
Gas blowing noise is loudest at valve
opening and gradually diminishes as
gas velocity through the valve decreases.
GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE
BASIC ENGINE & COMPRESSOR ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
80
40
CE Discharge
CE Suction
180
360
81
HE Discharge
CE Discharge
CE Suction
HE Suction
180
360
82
41
600
Pressure (psig)
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
83
Quick Recap
So far, weve talked about the normal
behavior of:
2-stroke, spark-ignited recip engine
4-stroke, spark-ignited recip engine
double-acting, reciprocating compressor
84
42
Combustion
Mechanical
85
Mechanical Condition
Unbalance
Leaking valves
Detonation
Leaking rings
Misfire
Pre-ignition
Excessive Emissions
Port/bridge wear
Operating Performance
Carbon in ports
Indicated horsepower
Wrist pin
Torque
Efficiency
Ignition problems
Economic Performance
Turbocharger faults
Fuel cost
Fuel consumption
86
43
Combustion
Many of the problems we face with engines
87
Combustion
Chemical equation of combustion
88
44
Combustion
If only it was that simple
nor instantaneous
Many intermediate steps and reactions occur
This leads to other exhaust products such as
NOx, HC, CO and particulates (smoke)
89
Combustion
Why is combustion so variable?
90
45
Combustion
Results of poor combustion
91
Combustion
Typical faults
Unbalance
Dead cylinders
Early firing
Soft firing
Detonation
Pre-ignition
92
46
Engine balance
The manufacturer designed the engine to
93
Engine Balance
Cylinder pressures (balanced HBA)
Unit2 4/15/2002 9:21:55 AM
All cylinders - In Bank Order
800
700
P2
Pressure (psig)
600
P1
P4
P8
P5
P6
P3
+10%
P7
+2%
500
-2%
-10%
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
94
47
Engine Balance
Pressure rise rate (balanced HBA)
Unit2 4/15/2002 9:21:55 AM
All cylinders - In Bank Order
35
P2
P4
P8
P5
30
P3
25
P6
P1
20
P7
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
95
Engine Balance
Cylinder pressures (unbalanced HLA)
C2B-E 6/6/2001 7:22:02 AM
All cylinders - In Bank Order
700
2
600
7
8
Pressure (psig)
3
500
+10%
+2%
-2%
-10%
1
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
96
48
Engine Balance
Pressure rise rate (unbalanced HLA)
C2B-E 6/6/2001 7:22:02 AM
All cylinders - In Bank Order
20
Highly variable
3
15
8
4
10
5
6
5
0
-5
-10
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
97
Detonation
Detonation is rapid and uncontrolled combustion.
Detonation can lead to rapid failure due to high thermal and
mechanical stress.
Causes of detonation:
Mixture too rich
Clogged/dirty air intake (air inlet filters, aftercoolers or
blowers)
Incomplete scavenging
inconsistent fuel composition
Overloaded engine
Ignition timing too advanced
Highly loaded cylinders in an unbalanced engine are more
susceptible to detonation.
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
98
49
Detonation
Engine PT parade (Ajax DPC-720-LE-H-2)
K203 - E 11/21/1996 2:13:03 PM
All cylinders - In Bank Order
600
550
Pressure (psig)
500
P3 Detonating
Cylinder
450
400 P1
350
300
P2
P4
+10%
+2%
-2%
-10%
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
45
90
315
360
99
Detonation
Multiple PT cycles for a power cylinder (P3)
K203 - E - P3 PT3 11/21/1996 2:13:03 PM
550
500
Detonation
Detonation
Detonation
450
400
350
Misfire
Misfire
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Samples
100
50
Soft Firing
Soft Firing occurs when the pressure in the cylinder
rises too late (also called late firing).
The PFP is usually low and late.
Causes of soft fires:
incomplete scavenging
air/fuel ratio too lean causing slow flame front
air/fuel ratio too rich for proper combustion
late ignition timing
poor fuel composition
101
Soft Firing
Engine pressure signature comparisons
1A - E 5/22/1997 10:34:26 AM
All cylinders - In Bank Order
800
700
P1R
Pressure (psig)
600
500
P3R
P5R
P4R
P3L
P1L
P2R
P4L
P5L
P2L
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
102
51
Soft Firing
PT: comparison to normal (HBA)
20905-E Cylinder P8 7/14/1999 6:46:53 AM Period 3
550
137
500
223 Intake
118
242 Exhaust
Fuel 213
450
273
400
Normal
Pressure (psig)
350
300
250
200
Soft (Late)
Fire
150
100
50
0
0
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
45
90
135
315
360
103
Soft Firing
PV: comparison to normal (HBA)
20905-E cylinder P8 7/14/1999 6:46:53 AM Period 3
550
500
450
Pressure (psig)
400
350
300
Normal
250
200
150
100
50
0
Soft (Late)
Fire
0
25
50
% swept volume
75
100
104
52
Soft Firing
Another example comparing engine PTs (CB QUAD)
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM
All cylinders - In Bank Order - CRC is corrected
1000
Pressure (psig)
900
P3L
800
P4L
P4R
P1R
700
P5L
P2R
P3R
P5R
P6L
P6R
+2%
-2%
-10%
600
500
+10%
P2L
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
105
Early Firing
Early firing occurs when the pressure in the cylinder
rises too early.
The PFP is usually high and close to TDC.
Causes of early firing:
air/fuel ratio too rich
early ignition timing
warm air temperature
106
53
Early Firing
engine pressure comparison
1A - E 5/22/1997 10:34:26 AM
All cylinders - In Bank Order
800
700 P1R
P3R
Pressure (psig)
600
P5R
P4R
500
P1L
P3L
P4L
P2R
P5L
P2L
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
107
Dead Cylinders
Dead cylinders have no discernable
combustion.
Causes of dead cylinders:
ignition problem
improper air/fuel charge
108
54
Dead Cylinders
Cylinder comparisons of peak pressures (QUAD)
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM
All cylinders - In Bank Order - CRC is corrected
1000
Pressure (psig)
900
P4L
P3L
800
P4R
P1R
700
P5L
P2R
P3R
P5R
P6L
P6R
+10%
+2%
-2%
-10%
600
500
P2L
400
P1L
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
109
Dead Cylinders
Cylinder comparisons of pressure shape & timing
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM
All cylinders - To Center of Plot - CRC is corrected
1000
900
800
Pressure (psig)
700
600
500
400
300
P1L
Dead Cylinder
200
100
0
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
45
Crank Angle (deg)
90
135
180
110
55
Dead Cylinders
Cylinder comparisons of pressure rise rate
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM
All cylinders - To Center of Plot - CRC is corrected
35
30
Normal
25
20
Other cylinders
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
45
90
Crank Angle (deg)
135
180
111
Dead Cylinders
Pressure and pressure rise rate relationship
C402 - E Cylinder P1L 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM Period 4
CRC is corrected
1000
900
-125
100
119
Pressure (psig)
800
Normal PT
700
600
500
400
PT
300
200
100
0
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
45
Crank Angle (deg)
90
135
180
112
56
Dead Cylinders
PV comparison to normal
C402 - E cylinder P1L 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM Period 4
CRC is corrected
1000
900
800
700
600
Normal
500
400
300
200
Dead Cylinder
100
0
0
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
25
50
75
% swept volume
100
113
Pre-ignition
Pre-ignition is the premature combustion of the air/fuel
mixture before the normal ignition event (autocombustion).
PFP may occur before TDC causing excessive force on
the piston, wrist pin, connecting rod and bearings.
The mechanical and thermal stress resulting from preignition can cause cracked heads, torched or seized
pistons.
Causes of pre-ignition
hot spots in the cylinder caused by ash or carbon
build up
hot spots created by detonation
early ignition timing is not normally considered preignition.
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
114
57
Pre-ignition
PT comparison to normal
1000
900
-145
800
Pressure (psig)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Normal
0
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
Angle (deg)
45
90
135
180
115
Pre-ignition
PV showing 2 crank revolutions
Negative work
Positive work
Positive work
116
58
Combustion
Analysis summary
Observation
Characteristics
Normal
average PFP
Low cycle-to-cycle deviation in cylinder PFP
PFP angle consistent and at expected location
Similar exhaust temperatures among power cylinders
Unbalanced
Detonation
Often audible
High PFP with early PFP angle
Very high pressure rise rate compared to other cylinders
Often develops a shock wave that is seen in the PT
Combustion may make more noise than normal
117
Combustion
Analysis summary (cont.)
Observation
Characteristics
Soft Firing
Type of misfire
Average PFP lower than normal
PFP angle later than normal
Low pressure rise rate when compared to other cylinders (or
history)
May be followed by detonation
Increased exhaust temperature
Early Firing
118
59
Combustion
Analysis summary (cont.)
Observation
Characteristics
Dead Cylinder
Pre-ignition
119
Combustion
PT for a dead cylinder, soft fire, and detonation
K203 - E Cylinder P3 11/21/1996 2:13:03 PM Period 1
109
600
126
FUEL VALVE 206
550
500
Pressure (psig)
450
400
Detonation
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
Dead
Cylinder
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
Crank Angle (deg)
315
360
120
60
Combustion
PV for a dead cylinder, soft fire, and detonation
K203 - E cylinder P3 11/21/1996 2:13:03 PM Period 1
550
500
450
Pressure (psig)
400
350
300
Detonation
250
200
Soft (Late) Fire
150
100
Dead Cylinder
50
0
0
25
50
% swept volume
75
100
121
Valves
Liners
Rods and wrist pins
Rings
Ignition systems
122
61
Valve Train
Rocker Arm
Valve Lifter
Push Rod
Valve Springs
Valve Stem
Exhaust Port
Valve Seat
Cam Follower
Cam Lobe
123
Valve Train
Common problems
Mechanical
Loose/worn rocker arm
Improper lifter clearance
Broken springs
Incorrect spring tension
Worn valve guide
Worn or mis-timed cam
Excessive cam gear lash
Leakage
Burnt valves
Deposits on valve seat
Damaged seat
Bent valve stem
124
62
Valve Train
Incorrect clearance
Lift
Crank Angle
Valve opens
late & sharp
Normal
Lift
Excessive
Lash
Vibration
Valve closes
early & drops
on seat
125
Valve Train
Hydraulic lifters
126
63
Valve Train
Excessive EV clearance (KVGR with solid lifters)
K1F - E 12/13/1994 11:19:43 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
P8
-2.5
-2.5
P9
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
P10
P4
P7
P3
0.0
P2
0.0
-2.5
P1
2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
P
P6
90
180
P11
P12
P5
-2.5
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
127
Valve Train
Vibration comparison for a leaking EV (KVGR)
2.5
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
720
128
64
Valve Train
PT and PV: leaking exhaust valves (KVGR)
Intake 294
500
580
150
390 Exhaust
500
450
400
Pressure (psig)
2 low PFP
400
Normal
Normal
3 low expansion
350
350
300
300
250
250
200
150
1 low compression
450
200
150
100
100
50
50
3
0
0
0
45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)
25
50
% swept volume
75
100
129
Valve Train
Worn rocker arms (KVGR)
K1D - E 2/3/1997 10:52:37 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
720
130
65
Valve Train
Worn cam gear (KVS)
NO-4 - E 2/28/1995 1:38:59 PM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
2
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
-2
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
720
131
Valve Train
Worn cam gear (KVS)
NO-4 - E Cylinder P12 2/28/1995 1:38:59 PM
161
INTAKE VALVE 325
1000
161
INTAKE VALVE 325
1000
900
900
800
800
700
700
- P6 VT4
600
500
- Scale 2.0
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
Pressure (psig)
Pressure (psig)
600
500
45
90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)
45
90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)
132
66
Valve Train
Leaking fuel valve (HLA)
C2A-E 10/10/2001 6:28:53 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Ultrasonic ULT:
1F 0
-5
5F
-5
Hard closures
2F 0
-5
-5
3F 0
Leakage
-5
-5
4F 0
-5
6F
7F
8F
-5
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
3600
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
133
Valve Train
Leaking fuel valve (HLA)
C2A-E Cylinder 8 10/10/2001 6:28:53 AM Period 9
130
110
700
230 Intake
250 Exhaust
283
Fuel 213
--------------
- 8FV ULT
600
-- Scale 4.0
500
---------------
Pressure (psig)
Leak as
P rises
- 8 ULT
-- Scale 4.0
400
300
---------------
200
- 8 VT4
-- Scale 2.0
-
100
--------------
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Angle (deg)
134
67
Valve Train
Analysis summary
Fault
Normal
Characteristics
Valve opening events are quiet or absent
Valve events are similar across the entire engine
Closing events are at expected crank angle, single
Worn rocker
bushing
Excessive
lifter
clearance
135
Valve Train
Analysis summary (cont.)
Fault
Broken
valve spring
Worn valve
guide
Cam gear
faults
Characteristics
Impact noises on opening and closure
Valve may close late
Roughness seen in vibration pattern as valve opens
and closes
Valve may hang up in the guide and not close at the
correct time
May see gas leakage if valve does not seat properly
Impacts in the vibration as gear teeth pass each other
May cause excessive wear on the cam lobe leading to
136
68
Valve Train
Analysis summary (cont.)
Fault
Leaking
valves
Improper
valve
seating
Characteristics
Blowby pattern appears when pressure rises in the
cylinder
Multiple impacts on valve closure as valve finds the
seat
Look for differences in valve closure across the engine
Can be caused by beat-out seat, worn/broken/incorrect
spring, worn guide, loose rocker arm, bent valve stem
May see blowby pattern when pressure is high in the
cylinder
137
138
69
Piston slap
Piston slap occurs when the piston skirt
139
Piston Slap
Low frequency vibration showing piston slap (HLA)
C2A-E 6/5/2001 8:23:09 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Acceleration VTL:
0 5
-5
-5
0 6
-5
-5
0 7
-5
-5
0
-5
-5
45
90
45
90
140
70
Piston Slap
Low frequency vibration showing piston slap (HLA)
C2A-E Cylinder 3 6/5/2001 8:23:09 AM Period 6
130
110
Pressure (psig)
700
Not always visible
in ultrasonic
600
Fuel 213
230 Intake
250 Exhaust
283
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
270
315
141
Piston Rods
Excessive wrist pin and connecting rod
142
71
Piston Rods
Wrist pin load for a 2-stroke engine
Wrist pin load in a 2 stroke engine
250000
Gas force
Vibration occurs
around BDC
where load is minimal
200000
Total force
Force (lbs)
150000
Inertia
100000
50000
-50000
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
405
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
Degrees
143
Piston Rods
Wrist pin load for a 4-stroke engine
Wrist pin load in a 4 stroke engine
250000
Gas force
200000
Total force
Force (lbs)
150000
Vibration occurs
around TDC
where load reverses
Inertia
100000
50000
-50000
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
405
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
Degrees
144
72
Piston Rods
Excessive wrist pin clearance (KVS)
K200 - E Cylinder P6 1/16/1996 9:39:11 AM Period 6
137
INTAKE VALVE 300
--------------
700
600
Pressure (psig)
500
P6 VT4
400
- - Scale 2.0
300
200
100
0
-------------0
45
90
135 180
225
495
540 585
630
675 720
145
Piston Rings
Worn or improperly loaded rings
146
73
Liners
Scuffing and scoring
Liner scuffing or scoring is often seen as symmetric
PFP
Crankcase pressure may increase due to blowby
resulting from the liner wear
GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE
SHORT COURSE: BASIC ENGINE & COMPRESSOR ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
147
Liners
Liner groove (KVS, P2, 10 rotations)
NO-6 - E 12/21/1995 8:14:16 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
P2 (MMM)
P2 (1)
P2 (Med 2)
P2 (3)
P2 (4)
P2 (5)
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
P2 (6)
P2 (7)
P2 (8)
P2 (9)
P2 (10)
-2
-2
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
148
74
Liners
Liner groove (KVS)
NO-6 - E Cylinder P2 12/21/1995 8:14:16 AM Period 2
151
1000
800
Pressure (psig)
-------------610
700
600
500
- - Scale 2.0
400
300
200
100
20
0
340
45
90
135
180
225
270
380
--------------
700
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
P2 VT4
149
Liners
Liner groove (KVS)
NO-6 - E 12/21/1995 8:14:16 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
Crosstalk from P1
exhaust blowdown
P2 (MMM)
P2 (1)
P2 (Med 2)
P2 (3)
P2 (4)
P2 (5)
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
P2 (6)
P2 (7)
P2 (8)
P2 (9)
P2 (10)
-2
-2
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
150
75
Liners
Crosstalk from exhaust event on P3 (KVS)
NO-6 - E 12/21/1995 8:14:16 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
2
P1 0
0 P7
422
-2
2
17
-2
2
P2 0
0 P8
662
-2
2
257
-2
2
P3 0
0 P9
182
-2
2
497
-2
2
P4 0
0P10
542
-2
2
137
-2
2
P5 0
0P11
302
-2
2
617
-2
2
P6 0
0P12
377
62
-2
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
-2
720
151
Liners
Liner wear (KVS)
NO-6 - E 3/19/1996 1:28:36 PM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
Chatter as loaded
rings pass over wear
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
-2
90
180
270
360
450
540
630 720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
720
152
76
Liners
Liner wear (KVS)
NO-6 - E Cylinder P7 3/19/1996 1:28:36 PM Period 2
151
Pressure (psig)
1000
--------------
610
900
800
700
600
500
- - Scale 2.0
400
300
200
100
P7 VT4
-------------0
45
90
135
180 225
270
315
360
405
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
Angle (deg)
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
153
Liners
Liner wear confirmed by symmetric cursor (KVS)
NO-3 - E Cylinder P5 5/1/1995 8:06:19 AM Period 2
161
INTAKE VALVE 325
Pressure (psig)
1000
--------------
621
900
800
700
- P5 VT4
600
500
- - Scale 2.0
400
300
200
100
128
45
232
488
592
--------------
90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)
154
77
Liners
Liner wear (KVS)
NO-3 - E 5/1/1995 8:06:19 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
1
P1
-1
-1
P2
-1
-1
P3
-1
-1
P4
-1
-1
P9
0 P11
-1
-1
P6
P8
0 P10
P5
P7
0 P12
-1
-1
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
155
Liners
Port bridge wear (HLA)
C2A-E 10/10/2001 6:28:53 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Ultrasonic ULT:
10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
-10
45
90
135
180
225
270
315 360 0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
156
78
Liners
Port bridge (HLA)
C2A-E Cylinder 4 10/10/2001 6:28:53 AM Period 6
130
110
700
Fuel 213
230 Intake
250 Exhaust
283
Excessive
ring noise
600
Pressure (psig)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Angle (deg)
270
315
360
157
Ignition Systems
Provide the energy to begin the chain
158
79
Ignition Systems
Ignition Primaries
Zener
Gates
5.5
5.0
P4L
P1R
P5L
P4R
P2L
P5R
P3L
P2R
P6L
P3R
P1L
P6R
4.5
Voltage (V)
4.0
3.5
TDC
3.0
Voltages should
be similar
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
159
Ignition Systems
Ignition secondaries
Capacitor
Discharges
Secondary Voltage
Arc Duration
Indication of
ionization voltage
Time (ms)
160
80
Ignition Systems
Typical ignition secondary patterns
C402 - E 09/09/1998 12:02:53 PM
P5LR
(Med 1)
P4LL
(Med 1)
Ignition timing angle = 5.9
P6LL
(Med 1)
P4LR
(Med 1)
Ignition timing angle = 5.9
P6LR
(Med 1)
P5LL
(Med 1)
Ignition timing angle = 6.1
5 0
161
Ignition Faults
Timing
162
81
Ignition Faults
Typical spark plug problems
strong spark
Insufficient gap ionization voltage
decreases, weak spark
Fouling build up of contaminants decreases
gap and causes ionization voltage to
decrease
Plug wear or metal flaking increases gap
therefore increases ionization voltage
163
Ignition Faults
Cables
164
82
Ignition Faults
Coils
condition
165
Ignition Faults
Two bad coils plug did not fire
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM Secondary Ignition (Y Axis: mV -- X Axis: ms)
0
P1LL
-250
P1RL
P1RR
P2RL
P1LR -250
0
P2LL
P2RR
-250
0
-250
P3RL
P3LR
-250
0
-250
0
P3LL
-250
0
-250
0
P2LR
-250
-250
0
-250
P3RR
-250
166
83
Ignition Faults
Reversed coil
10JVGE-E 4/24/2001 7:34:26 AM
200
200
100
P1C 0
P1C -0
-100
-200
200
200
100
P2C 0
P2C -0
-100
-200
200
200
100
P3C 0
P3C -0
-100
-200
200
200
100
P4C 0
P4C -0
-100
-200
0
167
168
84
ring leaks
slamming
excessive lift
crosshead knocks
valve flutter
cylinder stretch
broken springs
main bearings
Performance
Auxiliary equipment
capacity
horsepower
169
170
85
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
171
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
172
86
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
173
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
174
87
Actual
PV
750
700
VEd
Pressure (psig)
650
600
Theoretical
PV
550
500
450
VEs
400
350
0
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
175
VEd
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
VEs
400
350
0
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
176
88
VEd
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
VEs
400
350
0
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
177
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
178
89
Head End
ne = 1.26
nc = 1.26
n ratio = 1.00
Crank End
ne = 1.24
179
Head End
ne = 1.35
nc = 1.10
Normal n ratio = 1
n ratio = 1.00
Crank End
ne = 1.24
180
90
Head End
ne = 1.35
nc = 1.23
Normal n ratio = 1
n ratio = 1.00
Crank End
ne = 1.24
181
Head End
ne = 1.26
nc = 1.26
n ratio = 1.00
Crank End
ne = 1.24
182
91
discharge capacity.
Flow Balance =
Suction Capacity
Disch arg e Capacity
183
discharge temperatures.
The actual discharge temperature is measured in the discharge
nozzle.
The theoretical discharge temperature is calculated from the gas
properties, Ts, Pd and Pd.
A high DTD indicates that the discharge gas is hotter than
expected.
This is often caused by friction as the gas passes through a
restriction such as a leaking valve or ring.
184
92
Discharge
175
Usually less
than Td
Temperature (F)
150
Usually warmer
than Ts
125
100
Suction
75
50
25
0
S2
S1
D2
D1
Head End (Stage# 1)
S2
S1
D2
Crank End (Stage# 1)
D1
185
Compressor Faults
Pressure Leaks
186
93
Pressure Leaks
Sources of leaks and analysis tools
Analysis tools
PV card
Vibration patterns
Temperatures
Flow Balance
LogP-LogV
Examples
Suction valves
Discharge valves
Packing
Rings
187
Pressure Leaks
CE suction valve leak: PT/VT
1250
-------------- -------------- -------------- ---------------------------
1200
3CD4 ULT
- Scale 30.0
126 DGF
1150
1100
Pressure (psig)
1050
3CD3 ULT
- Scale 30.0
148 DGF
1000
950
900
3CS2 ULT
- Scale 30.0
86 DGF
850
800
750
3CS1 ULT
- Scale 30.0
78 DGF
700
650
600
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
188
94
Pressure Leaks
HE Suction valve leak: PT/VT
Unit1-C cylinder 4 1/22/2002 8:35:12 AM HE Period 4, CE Period 7
-------------- 4HD3 VT1
- Scale 8.0
- 95 DGF
--------------- 4HD4 VT1
- Scale 8.0
- 94 DGF
--------------- 4HS1 VT1
- Scale 8.0
- 61 DGF
--------------- 4HS2 VT1
- Scale 8.0
- 73 DGF
--------------
1000
Pressure (psig)
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
189
Pressure Leaks
HE Suction valve leak: PV
Unit1-C cylinder 4 1/22/2002 8:35:12 AM HE Period 4, CE Period 7
1000
Pressure (psig)
950
900
850
HE PT
HE
theoretical
PT
800
750
700
650
0
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
190
95
Pressure Leaks
HE Suction valve leak: LogP-LogV
Crank End
Head End
nc = 0.73
ne = 1.14
End 4H Step 9 = 61.1%
n ratio = 1.55
n ratio = 1.02
End 4C Step 9 = 66.3%
nc = 1.34
ne = 1.36
191
Pressure Leaks
HE Suction valve leak: Valve Cap Temps
High
temperature
100
90
Discharge
80
Temperature (F)
70
60
Suction
50
40
30
20
10
0
S1
S2
D3
D4
Head End (Stage# 1)
S1
S2
D3
Crank End (Stage# 1)
D4
192
96
Pressure Leaks
HE suction valve leak: Health Report
Compressor Health Report
Unit Name:
Location:
Unit1-C
Pipeline 1
Model:
UnitMfr:
Mechanical Efficiency, %
Overall Efficiency, %
95
85
14.0
9
86
89
Clr
Cyl Stg Set
(%)
End
Pressure
Ps
Pd
(psig)
Rod ConRod
Diam Length
(ins)
(ins)
Bore
(ins)
HBA
CLARK
Date:
Serial No.:
1/22/2002 8:35:12 AM
302
Specific Gravity
DPDW, Discharge Pressure, psi
TAMB, Ambient Temperature, F
11
0.554
946
46
Rod
Load
(%)
SVE DVE
(%) (%)
1H
61 10.500
N/A 45.000
710
939
54F
81F
1.32
14.79
181.9
-0.4
12.6
0.96
-10
41C
74
61
1C
712
953
54F
81F
1.33
15.56
185.9
-1.7
2.5
0.99
-12
33T
84
67
2H
61 10.500
N/A 45.000
719
941
53F
81F
1.30
15.18
182.7
5.3
11.8
0.98
-7
40C
75
62
2C
715
957
53F
81F
1.33
15.62
187.3
2.5
-1.7
0.97
-11
33T
84
69
3H
61 10.500
N/A 45.000
723
940
53F
81F
1.29
15.57
193.6
11.6
15.7
0.97
-6
40C
76
64
3C
726
948
53F
81F
1.30
15.16
182.2
13.5
6.5
0.99
-6
32T
80
65
4H
61 10.500
N/A 45.000
724
929
52F
88F
1.28
13.16
185.6
13.4
15.6
1.34
39C
85
54
4C
727
952
@ 296
@ 296
@ 300
@ 296
52F
88F
1.30
16.13
194.6
12.6
6.3
1.01
33T
86
70
1760
1739
90
92
@ 300
@ 296
%
%
1494
1573
0
1573
RPM
RPM
RPM
RPM
RPM
RPM
193
Pressure Leaks
Leaking rings
C-140 cylinder 4 07/26/2002 11:55:03 AM
Head End
1800
1600
1500
1400
1200
1100
1000
0
nc = 1.45
ne = 1.48
n ratio = 1.02
1300
Crank End
Pressure (psig)
1700
25
50
75
compressor.
Iron oxide was coming through the
pipeline wearing the rings down.
Filters were installed in the suction inlet
to solve the problem.
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
nc = 1.51
n ratio = 0.86
ne = 1.30
100
194
97
Pressure Leaks
Severely leaking rings
PV curve for a severe ring leak
1000
Head End
nc = 1.62
900
850
Pressure (psig)
950
800
nc = 1.73
ne = 3.37
750
25
50
75
Percent swept volume
100
195
Pressure Leaks
Analysis summary
Observation
Typical characteristics
Gas passing vibration pattern when the differential pressure across the valve
Discharge valve
leak
Gas passing vibration pattern when the differential pressure across the valve
Expansion through the discharge valve may actually lower the valve cap and
discharge temperature.
Cylinder end capacity drops
Expansion and compression lines on PT and PV above theoretical
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
196
98
Pressure Leaks
Analysis summary (cont.)
Observation
Typical characteristics
Packing leak
packing to confirm.
Packing temperature increases. Check packing vent flow rate if so equipped.
Expansion and compression lines on PT and PV below theoretical
Gas passing vibration pattern near crank end when the pressure in the crank
Ring leak
law: PVn=constant.
197
Compressor Faults
Valve Dynamics
198
99
Valve Dynamics
Some causes of valve failures
199
Valve Dynamics
Approach to analysis
Compare vibration patterns and look for differences
check history
check similar valves
Valve opening event is usually larger than closing
event
Valve closure is usually quiet. The sealing element is
lowered onto seat by the springs as the gas velocity
drops near TDC and BDC
Monitor valve loss since it represents wasted energy
200
100
950
900
--------------
Pressure (psig)
800
950
--------------
1CD3 VT1
- Scale 5.0
84 DGF
750
900
1CD4 VT1
- Scale 5.0
105 DGF
1CS1 VT1
- Scale 5.0
73 DGF
--------------
Pressure (psig)
650
800
750
--------------
1CD4 VT1
- Scale 5.0
86 DGF
700
850
1CS2 VT1
- Scale 5.0
73 DGF
--------------
45
90
135
--------------
1CS1 VT1
- Scale 5.0
180
225
52 DGF270
Crank Angle (deg)
315
360
--------------
700
1CS2 VT1
- Scale 5.0
52 DGF
650
0 DYNALCO
45 CONTROLS
90
2003
201
Valve Dynamics
Multiple opening events
RTC10002 - C cylinder 2 8/6/1992 11:27:32 AM HE Period 1, CE Period 1
Channel Resonance is corrected
200
175
Pressure (psig)
150
125
100
75
50
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
202
101
Valve Dynamics
Flutter
JC1A cylinder 5 1/29/2001 10:18:56 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 6
2250
-------------- 5CD2 ULT
- Scale 10.0
- 183 DGF
2000
Pressure (psig)
1750
1500
1250
1000
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
203
Valve Dynamics
Analysis summary
Observation
Typical characteristics
Hard opening
Hard closure
Late closure
Broken springs
Early closure
the force required to start motion is greater than the force required to
sustain it.
If slamming occurs at both opening and closing, it is likely that the springs
are too light or that they have been weakened or broken due to excessive
cycling.
High lift valves such as poppet valves may take some time to close. If
closure is too late the drag of the gas in the wrong direction may slam the
valve closed.
Pulsation may cause the pressure differential to increase suddenly
causing hard closure.
Pulsation may cause the pressure differential to decrease suddenly
204
102
Valve Dynamics
Analysis summary (cont.)
Observation
Typical characteristics
Flutter
Occurs when the valve plate oscillates between the seat and the guard. It
occurs because the flow of gas through the valve is insufficient to lift the
plate fully off the guard. On the vibration pattern, you will see multiple
opening and closing impacts.
Very heavy oscillation usually indicates that the springs are too stiff. Light
oscillation usually indicates that the lift is too high. Valve flutter may also
be present if there is excessive pulsation in the suction or discharge lines.
To correct the problem, reduce the valve lift and/or spring tension;
minimize pressure pulsation.
Multiple opening
If valve lift is too great, the gas velocity will not be sufficient to keep the
valve open. The valve will then open and close multiple times. To correct
the problem, reduce valve lift to increase the pressure drop across the
valve.
Pulsations may cause the pressure differential across the ring to decrease
and increase to the point that the valves close and reopen.
Heavy springs may cause the valve to close early. The cylinder pressure
may cause the valve to reopen late in the stroke.
205
Valve Dynamics
Analysis summary (cont.)
Observation
Typical characteristics
Excessive loss
Valve and passage loss calculated from the PV > 10% (rule of thumb)
Gas passing vibration patterns when the valve is open caused by high
velocity.
Valve lift or flow area insufficient.
Some of the sealing elements in the valve may be stuck reducing the
Mechanical vibration
206
103
Compressor Faults
Losses
207
Compressor Losses
Calculating HP
PLAN
IHP =
33,000
where:
P : Area inside the PV card
L : Stroke length
A : Area of the piston
N : cycles per minute (RPM)
208
104
Compressor Losses
Pressure drop
The actual indicated power consumed compressing
209
Compressor Losses
No-loss IHP
K200 - C cylinder 4 8/29/1996 10:52:08 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 8
800
Actual
PV
750
700
Theoretical
PV
Pressure (psig)
650
600
No-loss indicated
power (IHP).
550
Minimum IHP
required to move
the gas
500
450
400
350
0
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
210
105
Compressor Losses
Total IHP
K200 - C cylinder 4 8/29/1996 10:52:08 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 8
800
Total discharge
loss, IHP
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
Total indicated
power (IHP),
including losses.
600
550
Total suction
loss, IHP
Actually required
to move the gas.
500
450
400
350
0
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
211
Compressor Losses
Magnitude of losses
valve design
suction and discharge pressure
suction and discharge temperature
compressor speed
gas composition
suction and discharge piping design
compressor passage design
212
106
Pulsation
Pressure waves caused by the suction and discharge
213
Pulsation
Nozzle Pressure Trace
RTC21000 - C cylinder 1 4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM
Channel Resonance is corrected
Pressure in
discharge
nozzle
850
Pressure (psig)
800
750
700
Pressure in
suction
nozzle
650
600
550
500
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
214
107
Pulsation
Total HE Power
RTC21000 - C cylinder 1 4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM HE Period 1
Channel Resonance is corrected
850
800
Pressure (psig)
750
700
600
550
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
215
Pulsation
No-loss HE Power
RTC21000 - C cylinder 1 4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM HE Period 1
Channel Resonance is corrected
850
800
Pressure (psig)
750
700
No-loss IHP
650
600
550
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
216
108
Pulsation
Total losses
RTC21000 - C cylinder 1 4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM HE Period 1
Channel Resonance is corrected
850
800
Pressure (psig)
750
650
600
550
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
217
Pulsation
Valve and Passage loss
RTC21000 - C cylinder 1 4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM HE Period 1
Channel Resonance is corrected
850
800
Pressure (psig)
750
650
600
550
25
50
Percent swept volume
75
100
218
109
Pulsation
Effect on HP
Compressor Horsepower And Capacity Report
Unit Name:
Location:
RTC21000 - C
FLL
Load Step:
Cyl
End
Model:
Unit Mfr:
TCV10
DRESSER RAND
Date:
Serial No.:
Stage:
4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM
bhp/mmscfd
Calc.
Theor.
New Stage
1H
158
514
541
-10.67 103.52
30.56
23.79
-2.08
20.13
32.00
35.05
0.913
16.9
14.0
1C
92
565
595
14.04
58.39
42.59
30.47
2.48
10.33
39.82
38.49
1.035
15.5
14.6
3H
132
546
575
29.33
28.31
36.02
32.57
5.37
5.18
37.00
35.27
1.049
16.3
15.5
3C
87
587
618
28.89
58.15
31.82
17.08
4.92
9.91
40.93
38.80
1.055
15.9
14.1
5H
127
609
641
27.22
101.62
32.76
38.29
4.47
16.70
36.86
38.90
0.948
17.4
14.1
5C
94
592
623
33.22
51.00
33.20
28.36
5.61
8.61
40.72
38.98
1.044
16.0
14.6
3413
3593
206.95 170.57
3.58
11.75
227.34
225.49
16.3
14.5
Stage Totals:
122.04 400.99
Auxiliary Power
Compressor Total Power
This is equivalent to
Rated driver load to
Current torque level is
61
3654
3632
4200
86.4
bhp at
330 RPM
bhp and 225.49 mmscfd at 332
bhp and 224.14 mmscfd at 330
bhp at
330 RPM
% of rated load at rated speed.
RPM
RPM
219
Horsepower
Cost of horsepower loss
Engine And Compressor Economic Condition Report
Unit Name:
Location:
RTC21000 - C
FLL
Load Step:
Percent Load:
Model:
Unit Mfr:
TCV10
DRESSER RAND
Date:
Serial No.:
4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM
3
86.4 %
UNIT COSTS
Fuel Cost:
Brake Power from the load:
Cost of Each BHP:
1673.37
3654.50
0.46
$/day
bhp
$/bhp-day
8675.17
7434.80
BTU/BHP - hr
BTU/BHP - hr
1240.36
239.26
7282.35
87388.25
BTU/BHP - hr
$/day
$/month
$/year
ENGINE COSTS
Percent of Fuel Cost
Actual Fuel Consumption:
Predicted Fuel Consumption:
Deviation From Predicted:
Cost of Deviation:
14.3
397.38
153.18
0.78
bhp
bhp
mmscfd
bhp
bhp
$/day
$/day
$/day
10.3
4.0
0.4
%
%
%
245.46
7471.32
89655.86
$/day
$/month
$/year
14.7
484.72
14753.67
177044.11
$/day
$/month
$/year
172.86
66.63
5.97
220
110
221
Compressor Rods
Compressor piston rods bear all the force that is
222
111
Compressor Rods
Forces
Gas force - exerted by pressure on both sides of the
piston
Inertial force - exerted by the mass and acceleration
223
Compressor Rods
Gas force
Gas ForceCE = PCE AreaCE
2
2
AreaCE =
piston diameter (piston rod diameter )
4
[(
2
2
AreaHE =
piston diameter ( tailrod diameter )
4
[(
Compression
(PHE AreaHE ) > (PCE AreaCE )
]
Tension
(PHE AreaHE ) < (PCE AreaCE )
224
112
Compressor Rods
Gas force
K200 - C cylinder 1 9/23/1998 9:52:15 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 9
60000
600
50000
40000
550
30000
10000
0
-10000
500
Pressure (psig)
20000
450
Zero Rodload
400
-20000
-30000
350
-40000
Gas force
300
-50000
-60000
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
225
90
180
270
360
90
180
270
360
90
180
270
360
Velocity
x (instantaneous acceleration)
Differentiate piston displacement (top
graph) with respect to time to derive the
velocity (middle), then the differential of
velocity with respect to time gives
acceleration (bottom)
Rod load due to inertia takes the form of the
acceleration curve
Inertial forces are more significant in:
Acceleration
Displacement
Compressor Rods
Inertial force
226
113
Compressor Rods
Inertial force
K200 - C cylinder 1 9/23/1998 9:52:15 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 9
60000
600
50000
40000
550
30000
10000
0
-10000
500
Pressure (psig)
20000
450
Zero Rodload
400
-20000
350
-30000
Inertia
-40000
300
-50000
Maximum Rodload Compression: 60000
-60000
250
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
227
Compressor Rods
Total rod load force
K200 - C cylinder 1 9/23/1998 9:52:15 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 9
60000
600
50000
40000
550
30000
10000
0
-10000
500
Pressure (psig)
20000
450
Zero Rodload
400
-20000
-30000
350
Inertia
-40000
Gas force
300
-50000
-60000
Total
250
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
228
114
Compressor Rods
Tension only
301C - C cylinder 4 7/17/1997 8:23:05 AM HE Period 5, CE Period 6
75000
1000
Rod is in
tension
throughout the
cycle
900
50000
25000
700
Pressure (psig)
800
600
Zero Rodload
500
400
-25000
300
Inertia
-50000
Gas force
Total
200
100
-75000
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
229
Compressor Rods
Compression only
RTC13003 - C cylinder 2 11/9/1992 8:08:46 AM HE Period 1, CE Period 1
50000
40000
20000
10000
0
-10000
Rod is in
compression
throughout
the cycle
1050
1000
Pressure (psig)
30000
950
900
Zero Rodload
850
Unloaded CE
-20000
800
-30000
750
-40000
700
Inertia
Gas force
Maximum Rodload Compression: 50000
-50000
Total
650
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
230
115
Compressor Rods
Crosshead pin knock
RTC13002 - C cylinder 3 12/4/1991 7:43:52 AM HE Period 1, CE Period 1
60000
1100
50000
1050
30000
1000
20000
950
Pressure (psig)
40000
10000
0
-10000
- 3T VT1
-
900
Zero Rodload
- Scale 0.5
850
800
-20000
-30000
750
-40000
700
Inertia
-50000
Gas force
650
Total
--------------
-60000
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
231
Compressor Rods
Excess load
C-47 cylinder 1 07/26/2001 7:24:05 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 1
Channel Resonance is corrected
Maximum Rodload Tension: 11000 -------------1XH
VTL
- Scale
5.0
Zero Rodload -------------1XA
VT1
- Scale
1.0
Inertia
Gas force
Total
Maximum Rodload Compression: 11000 --------------
350
10000
300
Pressure (psig)
5000
250
200
-5000
150
-10000
100
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
232
116
Compressor Rods
Crosshead knock
C-47 cylinder 1 07/26/2001 7:24:05 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 1
Channel Resonance is corrected
350
10000
300
Pressure (psig)
5000
250
200
-5000
Crosshead
Knock
150
-10000
100
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360
233
Compressor Rods
Analysis summary
Observation
Typical characteristics
The crosshead pin, crosshead, piston, linkages and rod are stressed above
Insufficient rod
load reversal
Knock at reversal
Check the low frequency vibration reading types. Look for knocks when the
the duration of this reversal shall not be less than 15 degrees of crank
angle, and the magnitude of the peak combined reversed load shall be at
least 3 percent of the actual combined load in the opposite direction.
Unloading crank end suction valves can lead to insufficient reversal.
Adjust the loading on the compressor.
234
117
235
Rod Motion
Why is it important?
Ideally, rods should have translational recip motion
only
Motion is more complex due to:
imperfect alignment
flexibility of the rod
236
118
Rod Motion
Cylinder rod runout and history (at 240 degrees)
2 ROD RODOUT cylinder 2-RR Top Probe Rod Motion 6/4/2002 9:48:02 AM
3.5
Current
3.0
Rod Motion (mil)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
-0.0
-0.5
Previous
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
0
45
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
90
6/26/2001
135
180
225
270
315
Rod Motion History at 240 degrees for the Top Probe.
9/18/2001
11/27/2001
2/21/2002
6/4/2002
360
237
Rod Motion
Rod runout
Probe Overlay Runout (mil) Top Probe and Bottom
Bottom probe
sees rod
rising
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
Top probe
sees rod
dropping
-5
-6
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
238
119
Rod Motion
Analysis summary
Observation
Typical characteristics
The probes see the rod dropping most at 90 and 270 degrees
The liner is tapered, with most wear occurring in the crank end.
The liner is tapered, with most wear occurring in the head end.
The rod is worn where the separation occurs. If this is around BDC,
appearing to rise at TDC and BDC. The most common type of liner
wear has a barrel shape, more in the center than at the ends.
Check for excessive packing wear.
Check cylinder alignment.
Check for excessive packing wear.
Check cylinder alignment.
239
Frame Faults
240
120
bearing
There should be no metal-to-metal contact
We can often hear impact-type vibration if
the journal hits the bearing
the bearing shell is loose
analyzer
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
241
Insufficient oil
on startup
while running
Fatigue
detonation
overload
non-uniform dynamic loading
Contaminated oil
particles
water
main bearings
bent conrod
Improper installation
excessive or insufficient
clearance
damaged bearing or journal
Cavitation in the oil
Improper oil viscosity
Fretting while stationary
242
121
bearings:
Measurement location
Shortest transmission path is near frame cross
members
Measurement types
Low frequency phased acceleration
Unphased (free running) velocity
243
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
1.0
0.5
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
244
122
Typical characteristics
to find it. This will also help eliminate crosstalk from some other
component.
Always check oil analysis data. Look for babbitt material and dirt
that might contribute to wear.
245
Conventional vibration
Some concepts
Applications
246
123
Conventional Vibration
Some concepts
Vibration is the response of a machine, structure,
Imbalance of a rotor
247
Conventional Vibration
Free-running, non-phased data
Vibration is recorded independent of crankshaft
position
Returns
Common applications:
Structural vibration
Supports, foundations
Turbochargers
Oil and water pumps
Pressure pulsation
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
248
124
Conventional Vibration
Overall level
We can use a single number to indicate how
SINUSOIDAL MOTION
UPPER
We use guidelines to
evaluate overall
vibration severity
RMS
NEUTRAL
PEAK PEAK
TO
PEAK
LOWER
249
Conventional Vibration
Spectrum
250
125
Conventional Vibration
Acceleration, velocity and displacement
Type
Useful frequency
range
Applications
Displacement
up to 30Hz
(1800 CPM)
Mechanical looseness
Imbalance
Misalignment
Oil film bearing faults
Velocity
Imbalance
Misalignment
Vane/blade passing
Oil film bearing faults
Rolling element bearing faults
Pulsation, acoustics
Acceleration
Vane/blade passing
Early rolling element bearing wear detection
Gear faults
251
Frame Faults
Frame vibration
252
126
Frame vibration
Behavior
In relative terms, reciprocating machinery has high
Mass imbalance
Misaligned bearings
Dynamic loading from the engine and compressor
Mechanical looseness (bolts, clearance)
253
Horizontal displacement,
oil pump end, mil-p-p
High
7
6
Broken anchor
bolts discovered
5
4
Vertical displacement,
oil pump end, mil-p-p
High
3
2
High
1
0
After repair
Low
Low
-1
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
254
127
Frame vibration
Overall levels
100,000
10,000
100
1,000
100
10
VE
RY
RO
UG
RO
H
UG
HT
H
LY
RO
FA
UG
I
H
GO R
OD
VE
RY
GO
SM
OD
OO
VE
TH
RY
EX
SM
TR
O
EM
OT
EL
YS H
MO
OT
H
SL
IG
0.1
.62
8I
N/
SE
.31
C
4I
N/
SE
.15
C
7I
N/
SE
.07
C
85
IN
/S
.03
EC
92
IN
/S
.01
EC
96
IN
/
SE
.00
C
98
IN
/S
.00
EC
49
IN
/S
EC
0.01
0.001
can be easily
compared with
norms to determine
vibration severity
For frame vibration
this is usually
enough
255
1.75
2C
mil (pseudo-pk-pk)
1.50
3C
4C
5C
6C
Peak At Frequency
2.185 at 322.5
0.293 at 645.0
0.119 at 487.5
0.081 at 2595.2
0.044 at 975.1
0.044 at 2272.6
0.044 at 1297.6
0.032 at 1132.6
0.032 at 1942.6
0.032 at 810.1
Watch for
increases in the
overall level and in
low orders of run
speed
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
324.091
Testpoint
: OPEV VIB
No. Of Lines
: 400
No. Of Averages : 4
Calc
Overall
:
2.200
7C
8C
Trap Overall
: 2.200 9C
Engine speed is
324 RPM. This is
the first order of
run speed.
0.25
0.00
0
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
500
1000
1500
cpm
2000
2500
256
128
Frame Vibration
Analysis summary
Observation
Troubleshooting
Check the cylinder supports for loose bolts or cracked base. Depending
Check anchor bolt torque. Look for cracks in the concrete base.
257
Auxiliary Equipment
Turbocharger/Blower
258
129
Turbocharger/blower vibration
Behavior
There may be many forcing functions present
Structural faults
Shaft faults
Gear faults
Bearing faults
Vane faults
259
Turbocharger
Normal velocity spectrum (Elliot on KVR 512)
206-T Testpoint PWRH 3/10/2003 11:10:17 AM
1X
0.30
ips (pseudo-pk)
Turbo speed
15277.696
0.35
2X
Peak At Frequency
0.050 at 1050.0
0.040 at 900.0
0.033 at 2475.0
0.029 at 1950.0
0.026 at 3525.0
0.025 at 1425.0
0.020 at 375.0
0.015 at 1575.0
0.013 at 2100.0
0.012 at 3150.0
0.25
Small
component at
1X. Slight at
2X and 3X run
speed
0.20
0.15
Testpoint
: PWRH IPP
No. Of Lines
: 800
No. Of Averages : 4
Calc3X
Overall
: N/A
Trap Overall
: 0.140
0.10
0.05
0.00
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
cpm
35000
40000
45000
50000
55000
260
130
Turbocharger
Normal acceleration spectrum (Elliot on KVR 512)
206-T Testpoint PWRH 3/10/2003 11:10:17 AM
2.5
15.278
1X
g (pseudo-pk)
2.0
2X
Turbo speed
3X
4X
5X
6X
7X
8X 9X
Testpoint
: PWRH GP
No. Of Lines
: 800
No. Of Averages : 4
Calc Overall
: N/A
Trap Overall
: 1.500
10X
Peak At Frequency
0.566 at 109875.0
0.306 at 94875.0
0.260 at 102750.0
0.250 at 97875.0
0.247 at 96750.0
0.208 at 108000.0
0.208 at 118500.0
0.191 at 105750.0
0.188 at 106500.0
0.146 at 85500.0
1.5
1.0
Components at
1X, 2X and 3X
are very small
0.5
0.0
0
50
100
150
kcpm
200
250
261
Turbocharger
Rotor Rub (Elliot turbo on KVR 512)
206-T Testpoint PWRH 7/2/2003 3:09:23 PM
6.0
Turbo speed
16.083
5.5
1X
5.0
2X
3X
4X
5X
6X
7X
8X
9X
10X
Peak At Frequency
4.612 at 31875.0
4.418 at 8250.0
4.362 at 40125.0
1.917 at 56250.0
1.806 at 16125.0
1.167 at 49125.0
0.889 at 24000.0
0.861 at 38625.0
0.834 at 48000.0
0.667 at 30750.0
4.5
4.0
g (pseudo-pk)
Testpoint
: PWRH GP
No. Of Lines
: 800
No. Of Averages : 4
Calc Overall
: N/A
Trap Overall
: 11.900
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
50
100
150
kcpm
200
250
262
131
Turbocharger
Rotor Rub (Elliot turbo on KVR 512)
263
Troubleshooting
the unit is mounted high off the floor, lower stiffness may
worsen the response.
phenomenon appears near order of shaft speed.
vibration energy from gears is transmitted. When gear teeth nolonger mesh properly, they generate vibration at gear mesh
frequency.
phases before failure. These can be described as:
Early
264
132
Engine/Compressor Analysis
Some final thoughts
In this whirlwind tour of analysis weve:
characterized the normal behavior of engines and
compressors
listed common failure modes
provided examples of many of them
discussed the physical behavior behind them
This is a well developed subject:
many analysis techniques
various ways of getting the data
community of analysts that can provide support
265
133