Brdy 6ed Ch21 NuclearReactions

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Chapter 21:
Nuclear Chemistry
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Chemistry: The Molecular Nature

of Matter, 6E
Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop
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How are atoms formed?

Big BangIntense heat ~109 K
Cooled quickly to 106 KT of stars

e, p+, no formed and joined into nucleiatoms
Mostly H and He (as in our sun)
Rest of elements formed by nuclear reactions
Fusiontwo nuclei come together to form

another heavier nucleus
+
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Fissionone heavier nucleus splits into

lighter nuclei
+
Various other types of reactions

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
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Nuclear Shorthand
Nucleons
Subatomic particles found in the nucleus

Protons (p+)
Neutrons (no)
Nuclide
Specific nucleus with given atomic number (Z)
Atomic Number (Z)
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Number of protons in nucleus

Determines chemical properties of nuclide
Z = p+
Mass Number (A)mass of nuclide

A = no + p +
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Shorthand for Writing Nuclides

Where X = atomic symbol
A
ZX
Ex.
Cd
113
48
Th
230
90
In the neutral atom: e = p+ = Z

Isotopes
Nuclides with same Z (same number of p+), but
different A (different no)
1
1
2
1
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Hydrogen
1 p+
3
1
Deuterium
Tritium
1 p+ + 1 n o 1 p+ + 2 n o
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Radioactivity
Radioactive isotopes
Isotopes with unstable atomic nuclei

Emit high energy streams of particles or
electromagnetic radiation
Radionuclides
Another name for radioactive isotopes

Undergo nuclear reactions
Uses
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Dating of rocks and ancient artifacts

Diagnosis and treatment of disease
Source of energy
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Mass Not Always Constant

Mass of particle not constant under all
circumstances
It depends on velocity of particle relative to
observer
As approaches speed of light, mass decreases
m =
mo
1 (v / c ) 2
When v goes to zero
Particle has no velocity relative to observer

v/c 0
Denominator 1
and m = mo
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m = mass of particle
v = velocity of particle
m = rest mass
c = speed of light
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Why dont we observe mass change?

m=
mo
1 (v / c ) 2
In lab and ordinary life, velocity of particle is

small
Only see mass vary with speed as velocity
approaches speed of light, c
As v c,
(v/c) 0 and m
In lab, m = mo within experimental error
Difference in mass too small to measure directly
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Scientists began to see relationship between

mass and total energy
Analogous to potential and kinetic energies
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Law of Conservation of Mass and

Energy
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Mass and energy can neither be created nor

destroyed, but can be converted from one to
the other.
Sum of all energy in universe and all mass
(expressed in energy equivalents) in universe
is constant
Einstein Equation
E = (mo)c2
Where c = 2.9979 x 108 m/s
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Mass Defect
Rest mass of nuclide is always less than sum of

masses of all individual nucleons (neutrons and
protons) in that same nuclide
Mass is lost upon binding of neutrons and protons into
nucleus
When nucleons come together, loss of mass translates

into release of enormous amount of energy by
Einstein's relation
Energy released = Nuclear Binding Energy
Nuclear Binding Energy
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Amount of energy must put in to break apart

nucleus
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What is Mass Loss?
For given isotope of given Z and A
m = m nucleus m nucleons
or
) (
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m = m isotope Z m e N m n + Z m p
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Ex.1. Binding Energy Calculation

What is the binding energy of 7Li3+ nucleus?
3 p+ + 4 no
7 3+
3 Li
+ E
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Step 1. Determine mass loss or mass defect

A. Determine mass of nucleus
mass of 7Li3+ = m(7Li isotope) 3 me
= 7.016003 u 3(0.0005485 u)
= 7.0143573 u
B. Determine mass of nucleons
mass of nucleons = 3 mp + 4 mn
= 3(1.007276470 u) + 4(1.008664904 u)
= 7.056489026 u
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Ex.1. (cont.) Binding Energy

Calculation
C. m = mnucleus mnucleons
= 7.0143573 u 7.056489026 u
= 0.0421317 u
= mass lost by nucleons when they form nucleus
Step 2. Determine energy liberated by this
change in mass
E = (mo)c2
E = ( 0.0421217u ) 1.6605402 10 27 kg / u
2
1J
8
* 2.997925 10 m / s
kg m 2 / s 2
E = 6.287817 x 1012 J/atom
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Ex. 1. (continued)
E = 6.287817 x 1012 J/atom *
6.0221367 x 1023 atoms/mole

E = 3.78655 x 1012 J/mole
= 3.78655 x 109 kJ/mole
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Compare this to:

104 105 J/mol (102 103 kJ/mol) for chemical
reactions
Nuclear ~ 1 10 million times larger than
chemical reactions!!
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MeV (Energy Unit)
Nuclear scientists find it convenient to use a

different Energy unit: MeV (per atom)
Electron volt (eV)
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Energy required to move e across energy potential

of 1 V
1 eV = 1.602 1019 J
M(mega) = 1 x 106
So 1 MeV = 1 106 eV
1 MeV = 1.602 x 1013 J
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Ex. 1. but in MeV
For Ex. 1. Converting E to MeV gives

EB
6.287817 10 12 J/atom
=
1.602177 10 13 J/MeV
= 39.245 MeV/atom
Often wish to express binding energy per

nucleon so we can compare to other nuclei
For Li3+ with 3 1p and 4 0n this would be
3+
) 39.245MeV
=
= 5.61MeV
nucleon
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E B (Li
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Ex. 2 Calculate E released

The overall reaction in the sun responsible for
the energy it radiates is
1
1H
4
2 He
+2
0 +
1e
How much energy is released by this reaction

in kJ/mole of He?
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m(1H) = 1.00782 u
m(4He) = 4.00260 u
m(0+) = 0.00054858 u
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Ex. 2 (cont.)
m = mproducts mreactants
m = m(4He) + 2m(0e+) 4m(1H)
m = 4.00260 u + 2(0.00054858 u) 4(1.00782 u)

m = 0.02758 u
E = ( 0.02758u ) 1.6605402 10 27 kg / u
2
1J
8
2.997925 10 m / s
2
2
kg m / s
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(6.0221367 10
23
atoms / mol
E = 2.48 x 1012 J/mol

= 2.48 x 109 kJ/mol
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Your Turn!
Determine the binding energy, in kJ/mol and

MeV/atom, for an isotope that has a mass defect of
0.025861 u.
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A. -2.3243 x 109 kJ/mol; 24.092 MeV/atom

B. -3.8595 x 10-12 kJ/mol; 24.092 MeV/atom
C. -7.7529 kJ/mol; 8.03620x 10-8 MeV/atom
D. -2.3243 x 109 kJ/mol; 4.1508 x 10-2 MeV/atom
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Your Turn! - Solution
E = ( 0.025861u ) (1.6605402 10 27 kg / u )
* 2.997925 10 m/s
1J
kgm2 /s 2
= 3.8595 x 10 12 J/atom
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23 atoms
12
=
3.8595 x 10 atom 6.0221367 x 10
mol
J
12
9 kJ
or -2.3243 x 10
2.3243 x 10
mol
mol
J
1 MeV
MeV
12
= 24.092
3.8595 x 10
-13
atom 1.602 x 10 J
atom
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Binding Energies per Nucleon
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Divide binding
energy EB by
mass number,
EB/A
Get binding
energy per
nucleon
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Implications of Curve
Most EB/A in range of 6 9 MeV (per nucleon)

Large binding energy EB/A means stable
nucleus
Maximum at A = 56
56Fe largest known EB/A
Most Thermodynamically stableTD sink
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Nuclear mass number (A) and overall charge

are conserved in nuclear reactions
Lighter elements undergo fusion to form more
stable nuclei
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Implications of Curve
Ex. Fusion
2
3
1H + 1H
He + n + 17.6 MeV
4
2
1
0
Researchers are currently working to get fusion to

occur in lab
Heavier elements undergo fission to form more
stable elements
Ex. Fission
235
1
U
+
92
0n
Ba +
142
56
Kr + 3 01n
91
36
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Reactions currently used in bombs and power

plants (238U and 239Pu)
As stars burn out, they form elements in center of
Periodic Table around 56Fe
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Radioactivity
Spontaneous emission of high energy

particles from unstable nuclei
Spontaneous emission of fundamental particle or
light
Nuclei falls apart without any external stimuli
Discovered by Becquerel (1896)

Extensively studied by Marie Curie and her
husband Pierre (1898 early 1920's)
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Initially worked with Becquerel
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Fun Facts
Marie and Pierre Curie discovered Polonium

and Radium
Nobel Prize in Physics 1903
For discovery of Radioactivity
Becquerel, Marie and Pierre Curieall three shared
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911
For discovery of Radium and its properties

Marie Curie only
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Marie Curie - first person to receive two Nobel

Prizes and in different fields
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Discovery of Radioactivity
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Initially able to
observe 3 types of
decay
Labeled them , ,
rays (after 1st three
letters of Greek
alphabet)
If they pass through
an electric field,
very different
behavior
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Discovery of Radioactivity
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rays attracted to
pole
positively charged
rays attracted to +
pole
negatively charged
rays not attracted to
either
not charged
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Nuclear Equations
Used to symbolize decay of nucleus
Ex.
90
+
parent
daughter
238U
92
234Th
4
2
He
Produce new nuclei so need separate rules

to balance
Balancing Nuclear Equations
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a. Sum of mass numbers (A, top) must be same

on each side of arrow
b. Sum of atomic numbers (Z, bottom) must be
same on each side of arrow
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Types of Spontaneous Emission

1. Alpha () Emission
= He nucleus
=2n+2p
A = 4 and Z = 2
Daughter nuclei has:
A = 4
Z = 2
Very common mode of decay
if Z > 83 (large radioactive nuclides)
Most massive particle
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A by 4
Z by 2
Ex.
234
92 U
230
90Th
4
2
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Balancing Nuclear Equations

1. The sum of the mass numbers (A;
superscripts) on each side of the arrow must
be the same
2. The sum of the atomic numbers (Z;
subscripts; nuclear charge) on each side of
the arrow must be the same
230
4
Ex. 234
U
Th
+
92
90
2
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A: 234 = 230 + 4
Z: 92 = 90 + 2
226
88 Ra
222
86 Rn
4
2 He
29
2. Beta ( or e) Emission
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Emission of e
Mass number A = 0 and charge Z = 1
But How? NO e's in nucleus!
If nucleus (n rich)nuclide too heavy
1
n 1p + 0e + ~
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Beta ( or e) Emission
n p +
1
0
1
1
~
e +
0
1
Charge conserved, but not mass m E

Ejected e has very high KE + emits
Antineutrino ~
variable energy particle
Accounts for extra E generated

235
92U
214
82 Pb
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Ex.
0
1
214
83 Bi
235
93 Np
+ ~
0
1 e
+~
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3. Gamma () Emission
Emission of high energy photons

Often accompanies or emission
Occurs when daughter nucleus of some
process is left in excited state
Use * to denote excited state
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Nuclei have energy levels analogous to those

of e in atoms
Spacing of nuclear E levels much larger
light emitted as -rays
Ex. 137
137
56 Ba
56 Ba
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4. Positron (+ or e+) Emission

Emission of e+
Positive electron
Where does + come from?
If nucleus (n poor)
Nuclide too light
1
1p
1
0n
0
+1e
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Balanced for charge,

but NOT for mass
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4. Positron (+ or e+) Emission

Product side has much greater mass!
Reaction costs energy
Emission of Neutrino
Variable energy particle
Equivalent of antineutrino but in realm of
antimatter
e+ emission only occurs if daughter nucleus

is MUCH more stable than parent
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19 K
0
+1 e
38
18 Ar
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4. Positron (+or e+) Emission

What happens to e+?
Collides with electron to give matter

anti-matter annihilation and two high
energy -ray photons m E
0
1 e
0
+ 1e
Annihilation radiation photons

Each with E = 511 keV
What is antimatter?
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Particle that has counterpart among

ordinary matter, but of opposite
charge
High energy light, massless
Detect by characteristic peak in
-ray spectrum
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5. Electron Capture (EC)

e in 1s orbital
Lowest Energy e
Small probability that e is
near nucleus
e actually passes through
nucleus occasionally
1
0
1
p
+
e
If it does: 1
0n
1
Net effect same as e+ emission
electron capture
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195
0
Au
+
79
1 e
195
78 Pt
+ X rays +
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6. Neutron Emission = ( 01n )
Fairly rare
Occurs in n rich nuclides
Does not lead to isotope of different element
137
53 I
136
53 I
1
0n
7. Proton Emission = (11p )
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Very rare
57
30 Zn
56
29 Cu
1
1p
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8. Spontaneous Fission
NO stable nuclei with Z > 83
Several of largest nuclei simply fall apart
into smaller fragments
Not just one outcome, usually several
differentsee distribution
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256
100 Fm
125
49 In
120
47 Ag
131
51Sb
136
53I
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SummaryCommon Processes
1. Alpha () Emission
4
2 He
Very common if Z > 83
2. Beta () Emission e
Common for n rich nuclidesbelow belt of stability
3. Positron (+) Emission e+
Common for n poor nuclidesabove belt of stability
4. Electron Capture (EC)
Occurs in n poor nuclides, especially if Z > 40
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5. Gamma () Emission
Occurs in metastable nuclei (in nuclear excited state)
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Learning Check
Complete the following table which refers to

possible nuclear reactions of a nuclide:
Emission Z = n
p
2
2
A New
Element?
yes
+1
yes
+1
+1
yes
+1
+1
yes
no
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EC
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Learning Check
Balance each of the following equations

4
239
235
2 He
a. 94 Pu 92 U + ____
b.
131
53 I
c.
27
15 P
d.
40
20 Ca
f.
88
38 Sr
27
14 Si
238
92 U
1
0n
84
36 Kr
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e.
233
92 U
131
54 Xe
0
1e +
____
0
1e +
+
____
70
30 Zn
72
30 Zn
+ 4
+ 2
116
46 Pd
1
0n
1
0n
204
82 Pb
____
160
62 Sm
____
+ E
+E
56
28 Ni
____
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Your Turn!
What is the missing species, mn X ,in the following

nuclear reaction?
n
m
Cf
239
94
Pu
238
94
Pu
242
96
Cm + 01 n
Am
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A.
B.
C.
D.
247
98
238
95
X + 42 He
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What Holds Nucleus Together?

Consider nucleus
no + p+ in close proximity
Strong p+ + p+ repulsions
no spread p+'s apart
n/p ratio as Z
Strong Forces
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Force of attraction between nucleons

Holds nuclei together
Overcomes electrostatic repulsions between
protons
Binds protons and neutrons into nucleus
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Table of Nuclides
Chart where Rows = different Z (At. #)

Columns = different N (# n)
Symbol entered if element is known
Stable nuclei
Natural abundance entered below symbol

Shaded area
Trend of stable nuclei = Belt of Stability
~ Z = N (for 1 to 20)
Unstable nuclei
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Give type(s) of radioactive decay (spontaneous)

Outer edges, most of atoms
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# of neutrons (N = # on)
Table of Nuclides
Atomic number (Z = # of protons)

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Table of Nuclides
Note: only a small corner of table is

shown. (complete is in CRC)
Shaded area = Stable Nuclei
Trend of stable nuclei = diagonal line =
Belt of Stability
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~ Z = N (for 1 to 20)
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Belt of Stability
1.5n:1p
Stable nuclide, natural
: Unstable nuclide, natural
Unstable nuclide, synthetic
1.4n:1p
Band of Stability
N/Z as Z
1.3n:1p
1.2n:1p
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1n:1p
Ratio N/Z = 1
As Z , #N > Z and
e emitters
1.1n:1p
Each isotope is a dot

Up to Z = 20
1n:1p
e+ emitters
By Z = 82, N/Z ~1.5

N = # neutrons
Z = # protons
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How To Predict if Nuclei is Stable

1) Atomic Mass = weighted average of masses of
naturally occurring isotopes, i.e. most stable ones
2) Compare Atomic mass of element to A (atomic
mass number) of given isotope and see if it is
more or less
At. Mass > A
too light to be stable
too heavy to be stable
At. Mass < A
Ex.
At. Mass
180Os
190.2
135I
Conclusion
Too light, n poor
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Too heavy, n Rich

126.9
Final Note:
All nuclei with Z > 83 are radioactive
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More Patterns of Stability

If we look at stable and unstable nuclei, other
patterns emerge
283 stable nuclides (out of several thousand known
nuclides)
If we look at which have even and odd Z and N;
patterns emerge
Z
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even even
even odd
odd even
odd odd
# stable
nuclides
165
56
53
9
2H, 6Li, 10B, 14N
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More Patterns of Stability

Clearly NOT random: even must imply
greater stability
Not too surprising
Same is true of electrons in molecules
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Most molecules have an even number of

electrons, as electrons pair up in orbitals
Odd e molecules, radicals, are very
unstable, i.e. very reactive!!
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Magic Numbers
Look at binding energies, see certain

numbers of protons and neutrons result in
special stability
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Called Magic Numbers

1n and 1p in separate shells
Magic numbers (for both 1n and 1p) are
2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
For e pattern of stability is:
2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86(Noble gases)
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Magic Numbers
Special stability of Noble Gases due to

closed shells of occupied orbitals
Structure of nucleus can also be
understood in terms of shell structure
With filled shells of 1n and 1p having added
stability
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At some point adding more 1n to higher

energy neutron shells decreases stability
of nuclei with too high n/p ratio
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Your Turn!
Isotopes above the band of stability are more

likely to:
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A. emit alpha particles

B. emit gamma rays
C. capture electrons
D. emit beta particles
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Radioactive Nuclei Found in Nature

Non-naturally occurring elements (man-made
unstable) are denoted by having atomic mass in
parentheses
All nuclei with Z > 83 are radioactive
Yet some elements with Z between 83 and 92 occur
naturally
Atomic weight is NOT in parentheses
How can this be?
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There are 3 heavy nuclei, which have very long halflives

Long enough to have survived for billions of years
Each parent of natural decay chain

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Decay Chains
half-life () = 4.5 billion years

emitter
Daughter 234Th is also radioactive
emitter
Half-life much shorter
Long sequence of emissions, and
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Recall that emission changes A by 4, while

emission A = 0
Result: every member of chain has
A = (4n + 2)
where n = some simple integer
55
238U
92
3m
214Pb
82
234Th
90
5109 y
218Po
84
Decay Chain
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238Uranium
4d
222Rn
86
27 m
214Bi
83
25 d
2103 y
,
20 m
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206Pb
82
234Pa
91
226Ra
88
214Po
84
138 d
7 hr
8104 y
234U
92
5.7105 y
230Th
90
210Pb
82
4
1.610 s
, 22 y
210Po
84
5d
210Bi
83
A stable
isotope
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Pe
57
rs
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Decay Chains
Final stable member of sequence is 206Pb

Some intermediate nuclides have reasonably
short half-lives
Still found in nature because they are constantly
being replenished by decay of nuclei further up
chain
Pe
Uranium-containing minerals (pitchblende is

most famous) contain many radioactive
elements
58
rs
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Your Turn!
When the reaction, 22286 Rn

the particle emitted is:
218
84
Po +
n
m
,X occurs,
Pe
A. an alpha particle
B. a beta particle
C. an electron
D. a gamma ray
59
rs
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Transmutation
Change of one isotope for another

Caused by
1. Radioactive decay
2. Bombardment of nuclei with high energy particles
particles from natural emitters

Neutrons from atomic reactors
Protons made by stripping electrons for hydrogen
Pe
Protons and particles can be accelerated in

electrical field to give higher E
Mass and energy of bombarding particle enter target
nucleus to form compound nucleus
60
rs
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Processes
NON-SPONTANEOUS Nuclear
Fusion
Occurs in starsright now

How elements formed
12
4
16
2
1
3
C
+
He
O
+
H
+
H
6
2
8
1
1
2 He +
C + 11p
12
6
N +
13
7
Induced Fission
Mo + 01n
98
42
Mo +
99
42
Pe
Bombard heavy nuclei with neutron
U + 01n
235
92
Ba +
142
56
Kr + 2 01n
92
36
61
rs
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Compound Nucleus
Designated with *
High energy due to velocity of incoming particle
Energy quickly redistributed among nucleons, but
usually unstable
To get rid of excess energy, nucleus ejects
something
Neutron
Proton
Electron
Gamma radiation
Pe
Decay leaves new nucleus different

from original
62
4
2 He
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Ex. Transmutation
14
7N
Pe
Bombard- Target
ing particle nucleus
18
9F
Compound
nucleus
17
8O
1
1p
New
High
nucleus energy
particle
63
rs
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Transmutation
Can synthesize given nucleus in many ways:

4
2 He
1
1p
2
1H
23
11 Na
26
12 Mg
25
12 Mg
27
13 Al
27
13 Al
27
13 Al
Pe
Once formed, compound nucleus has no

memory of how it was made
Only knows how much energy it has
64
rs
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Transmutation
Decay pathway depends on how much energy
26
12 Mg
26
1
13 Al + 0 n
25
1
12 Mg + 0 n
23
11 Na
0
0
1
1p
1
1p
4
2 He
Pe
27
13 Al
27
13 Al
65
rs
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Transmutation
Used to synthesize new isotopes

> 900 total
Most not on band of stability
All elements above 93 (neptunium) are man

made
Includes Actinides above 93 + 104 112 + 114
Heavier elements made by colliding two

larger nuclei
Pe
Also known as fusion

62
28 Ni
208
82 Pb
270
Ds
110
269
110 Ds
1
0n
66
rs
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Your Turn!
What would be the element produced from the

192
59
fusion of 27 Co with 76 Os ? The species would
be in a high energy state and in time would
undergo decay to other species.
Pe
A. No
B. Lr
C. U
D. Hs
67
rs
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Measuring Radioactive Decay

Atomic radiation = ionizing radiation
Creates ions by knocking off electrons
Geiger Counter
Pe
Detects and radiation with enough E to

penetrate window
Inside tube, gas at low P, form ions when radiation
enters
Ions cause current to flow
Amount of current relates to amount of radiation
68
rs
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Measuring Radioactive Decay

Scintillation Counter
Surface covered with chemical

Emits tiny flash of light when hit by radiation
Emission magnified electronically and counted
Film Dosimeters
Pe
Piece of photographic film

Darkens when exposed to radiation
How dark depends on how much radiation exposure
over time
Too much exposure, person using must be
reassigned to other work
69
rs
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Activity
Number of disintegrations per second

Used to characterize radioactive material
A = kN
k = 1st order decay constant in terms of number of
nuclei rate than concentration

N = number of radioactive nuclides
Pe
N
A=
= kN
t
Law of radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is 1st order kinetics process

70
rs
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Units of Activity
SI unit
Bequerel (Bq)
1 disintegration per second (dps)

1 liter of air has ~ 0.04 Bq due to
14C
in CO2
Older unit
Curie (Ci)
Pe
3.7 x 1010 dps = 3.7 x 1010 Bq

Activity in 1.0 g 226Ra = 1 Ci
71
rs
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Half-Life
Time it takes for number of nuclides present at

time t, Nt , to fall to half of its value.
ln 2 0.693
t1 =
=
2
Half-lives are used to characterize nuclides

If you know half-life:
Pe
Can use to compute k

Can also calculate A of known mass of radioisotope
72
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Ex. 3
What is the activity of 1.0 g of strontium-90?

The half-life = 28.1 years
Step 1. Convert t to seconds
365 day 24 hr 60 min 60 s
28.1 yr
1 yr
1 day
1 hr
1 min
= 8.86 10 8 s
Step 2. Convert t to k
=
Pe
k =
ln 2
t 12
0.693
8.86 10 s
= 7.82 10
10
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Ex. 3 (cont)
Step 3. Convert g
90Sr
to number of atoms (N)
1 mol Sr 6.02 10 23 atoms Sr

1.0 g Sr
90 g Sr
1 mol Sr
= 6.69 10 21 atoms Sr
Step 4. Calculate Activity = kN
A = 7.82 10 10 s 1 6.69 10 21 atoms Sr
Pe
A = 5.23 1012 atoms Sr/s 1 disintegration/atom

A = 5.23 1012 dps or 5.23 1012 Bq
74
rs
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Ex. 4
3H, tritium, is a emitter with a half-life

t = 12.26 yrs. MW = 3.016 g/mol. How
many grams of 3H are in a 0.5 mCi sample?
Step 1. Convert half-life to s as Ci is in
disintegrations per second (dps)
12
365.25d
= (12.26yr )
yr
24hr 3600s
8
= 3.87 10 s
d hr
Step 2. Convert t to k
Pe
ln 2
k =
t1
ln 2
3.87 10 s
= 1.79 10
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Ex. 4 (cont)
Step 3. Convert Ci to dps

1Ci
A = 0.5mCi
1000mCi
10
3
.
7
10
dps
7
= 1.85 10 dps
Ci
Step 4. Calculate g 3H to get this activity
A 1.85 10 7 dps
16
= 1.03 10 atoms
N = =
9
1
k 1.79 10 s
Step 5. Convert atoms to g
3.016 g
23
6.022 10 atoms / mole mol
Pe
3
1H =
1.03 1016 atoms
= 5.2 108 g
76
rs
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Exposure Units
Not all materials equally absorb radiation, thus

activity doesnt describe effect of exposure
1 gray (Gy) = 1 J absorbed energy/kg material
SI unit of absorbed radiation
1 rad = absorption of 102 J/ kilogram of tissue
Older unit
1 Gy = 100 rad
Pe
These units dont take into account type of

radiation
77
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Exposure Units
Sieverts (Sv)
SI unit of dose equivalent, H
Depends on amount and type of radiation as well

as type of tissue absorbing it
H=DQN
H = dose in Sv
D = dose in Gy
Q = radiation properties
N = other factors
Pe
Rem = older unit
1Rem = 102 Sv
Still used in medicine
78
Exposure to Radiation
rs
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Typically X-ray = 0.007rem or 7mrem

0.3 rem/week is maximum safe exposure set by
US govt.
25 rem (0.25 Sv): Causes noticeable changes in
human blood
100 rem (1 Sv):
Radiation sickness starts to develop
200 rem (2 Sv):
Severe radiation sickness
400 rem (4 Sv):
Pe
50% die in 60 days

Level of exposure or workers at Chernobyl when steam
explosion tore apart reactor
600 rem (6 Sv): lethal dose to any human

79
rs
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Your Turn!
Workers cleaning up the Fukushima reactors were

exposed to as much as 400 mSv units of radiation per
hour. How many rems of exposure does this
correspond to?
Pe
A. 4000 rem
B. 400 rem
C. 40 rem
D. 4 rem
100 mrem 1 rem

= 40 rem
400 mSv
mSv 1000 mrem
80
rs
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Why is Radiation Harmful?
Not heat energy
Ability of ionizing radiation to form unstable ions

or neutral species with odd (unpaired) electrons
Free radicals
Pe
Chemically very reactive

Can set off other reactions
Do great damage in cell
radiation
H O H
H O
H O H
H+
0
e
-1
O H
81
rs
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Which Types are Most Harmful?

High energy gamma () radiation and X-rays
Massless
High velocity
Penetrate everything but very dense materials,
such as lead
Which type is least harmful?

Alpha () particles
Pe
Most massive
Quickly slow after leaving nucleus
Dont penetrate skin
82
rs
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Background Radiation
Presence of natural radionuclides means we cant

escape exposure to some background radiation
Cosmic rays (from sun) hit earth
Turn 14N 13C

13C emits particles
Incorporated into food chain from CO2 via photosynthesis
Radiation from soil and building stone
From radionuclides native to Earths crust

Top 40 cm of soil hold 1 g radium () /sq kilometer
40K emit particles
Pe
Total average exposure 360 mrem/year

82% natural radiation
18 % man made
83
rs
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Radiation Intensity
Intensity of radiation varies with distance

from the source
Farther from emitter, lower intensity of
exposure
Relationship is governed by Inverse
Square Law, where:
Pe
I is intensity and
d is distance from source
I1 d22
=
I2 d12
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rs
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Ex. 5
If the activity of a sample is 10 units at 5

meters from the source, what is it at 10 m?
2
I1 d1
10units (5m )
I2 =
=
= 2.5units
2
2
d2
(10m )
What distance is needed to reduce 1 unit at 1
yd to the 0.05 units?
Pe
d2 =
I1 d12
1 unit (1yd ) 2
=
I2
0.05 units
= 20yd 2 = 4.8yd
85
rs
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Your Turn!
Pe
How far away from a radioactive source producing 40

rem/hr at a distance of 10 m would you need to be to
reduce your exposure to 0.4 rem/hr?
A. 32 m
B. 100 m
C. 200 m
D. 1000 m
d2 =
( 40 rem )(10 m)
0.4 rem
= 100 m
86
rs
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Radioactive DecayKinetics
Spontaneous decay of any nuclide follows
first order kinetics
May be complicated by decay of daughter nuclide

For now consider single step decay processes
Rate of reaction for 1st order process

A products
In nuclear reaction, consider rate based on
number of nuclei N present
Pe
dN
= kN
Rate of Reaction =
dt
87
Pe
Plot ln N (y axis) versus t (x

axis)
Yields straight lineindicative of
1st order kinetics
Plot of N vs. time gives an
exponential decay.
kt
N = number of nuclei present at

time t
No = number of nuclei present at t
=0
ln N
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The integrated form is:

ln N ln No = kt
Radioactive DecayKinetics
N = Noe
88
is used as a metabolic tracer in

hospitals. It has a half-life, = 8.07
days. How long before the activity falls to
1% of the initial value?
N
t
ln
2
= kt =
ln
N = N o e kt
No
12
131I
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Ex. 6
ln 2
Pe
t =
N
1 2 ln
No
1
(8.07 days ) ln
100
=
ln 2
t = 53.6 days
89
rs
on
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Your Turn!
How many hours will it take a radioisotope with

a half-life of 10.0 hours to drop to 12.5% of its
original activity?
Pe
A. 30.0 hrs
B. 20.0 hrs
C. 40.0 hrs
D. 63.2 hrs
12.5% of original activity is 3 half-lives or
30.0 hrs.
90
rs
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Radioisotope Dating
How old is an object?
Fields Geology, Archeology, and Anthropology
Pe
Nature provides us with natural clocks or

stopwatches
A) Radiocarbon Dating (Willard Libby
Nobel Prize in 1960)
Cosmic rays (from space) enter atmosphere
Some react with N in atmosphere forming
radioisotope 14C
emitter with t = 5730 yr
14
7N
1
0n
14
6C
1
1H
91
Dating
rs
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14C
becomes incorporated into atmospheric

CO2 in very small quantities
14C
14C/12C
ratio in air is slightly greater than Earths

crust because of ongoing enrichment
Living organisms breath, eat, etc
14C/12C
equilibrate with atmosphere
Radioactive 14C is uniformly distributed

around globe
Pe
Tested experimentally
Checked vs. counting tree rings, etc.
For precise work, use correction based on
alternate methods
92
Dating
rs
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14C
HOW? Freshly cut wood samples have

~15.3 cpm per gram of total carbon
cpm = counts per minute

Ao = 15.3 cpm/g total C
Assumption: Ao was always 15.3 cpm,

i.e. cosmic radiation is constant
When organism dies
Pe
it stops eating, breathing, etc

14C starts to decrease
93
Dating
rs
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14C
Wooden implement in Egyptian tomb (~3000

BC)
Have about half activity of fresh sample
~5000 years have elapsed
Method is applicable for objects

Few hundred to ~20,000 years
Beyond this
Activity of sample is very low

Experimental uncertainties too big
Pe
This method used for dating
1. Charcoal in cave paintings

2. Linen wraps on Dead Sea scrolls
94
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Ex. 7
Geologists examine shells found in cliffs.

Shells are CaCO3 and are made by living
organisms. The activity of the shells is
found to be 6.24 cpm/g total C. How old
is the cliff formation?
Can use N/No and
A
t ln 2
= kt =
ln
A/Ao interchangeably
Ao
t 12
Pe
as
A = kN
A = 6.24 cpm/g total C
Ao = 15.3 cpm/g total C Since ratio, k cancels
t = 5730 yr
95
rs
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Ex. 7 (continued)
A t ln 2
ln
=
12
Ao
Rearranging and solving for t

A
t 1 2 ln
Ao
t =
ln 2
Pe
6.24 cpm
(5730 yr ) ln
15.3 cpm
t =
ln 2
t = 7414 yr
96
rs
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B) Other Isotopes Provide Natural

Clocks
Minerals (moon rocks) dated using isotopes
with much longer half-lives
9 yr
40
0
40
t
=
1.27
x
10
+ 18 Ar
19 K + 1 e
40
K
Compare 40
ratios in rock
Ar
238
92U
206
82 Pb
+ 8 24He + 6
0
1
t = 4.5 x 109 yr
Pe
Rock with no other source of Pb can be

dated using 238U ratios
206
Pb
97
rs
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Ex. 8
A sample of rock is found to contain 0.232g

of 206Pb and 1.605g 238U. Assuming that all
the 206Pb now present came from the decay
of 238U, calculate the time since the
solidification of this rock.
Step 1. Mass of 238U that decayed =
U
0.232 g
206
Pb
238
206
Pb
Pe
238 g / mol
206 g / mol
= 0.268 g 238U decayed

98
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Ex. 8 (continued)
Step 2. Mass of 238U in rock initially (t = 0)

No = 1.605 g + 0.268 g = 1.873 g
ln 2 * t
1.873
ln
=
1.605 4.5 10 9 yr
N o ln 2 * t
ln
=
t 12
N
0.1544 =
0.693147 * t
9
4.5 10 yr
Pe
0.1544 4.5 10 9 yr
t =
0.693147
t = 1.0 x 109 yr
99
rs
on
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Your Turn!
A wooden bowl fragment found at an old camp site

thought to be approximately 11,000 years old was
submitted for carbon-14 analysis. The sample was
found to have 4.67 cpm/g total C. What is the actual
age of the sample?
4260 yrs
3347 yrs
9810 yrs
2523 yrs
t = {5730 yrs x ln(4.67/15.3)}/ln2 = 9810 yrs
Pe
A.
B.
C.
D.
100
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Fission
Induce by bombarding
unstable nucleus with
a slow neutron
Nuclear chain reaction
Neutrons generated
keep going
Pe
With small mass of

235U reaction
continues, but easily
controlled
Some neutrons are
lost to environment
101
rs
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Fission
Critical mass
Too much 235U in one

place
Too many neutrons
absorbed
Too few lost
Uncontrollable fission
Leads to explosion
Pe
Use control rods to

absorb excess
neutrons and keep
reaction from
going critical
102
rs
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Nuclear Reactor
No chance of nuclear explosion
Critical mass requires pure 235U

Reactor rods 2 4% 235U rest non-fissionable
238U
Core meltdown possible
If heat of fission not carried away by cooling water

Or
Explosion possible
Pe
High heat of fission splits H2O into H and O, which

recombine very exothermically and cause explosion
What happened at Chernobyl
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rs
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Nuclear Reactors
Could it happen at U.S. reactors?
Extremely unlikely
Chernobyl only single containment system
U.S. has all double containment systems
U.S. extra backup systems - both computer and
mechanical that would prevent
Pe
104
Pe
rs
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Nuclear Reactor
Use heat from nuclear reaction to heat steam turbine

Use to generate electricity
105
rs
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Your Turn!
Which of the following fission reactions is

balanced?
A.
235
92
U + 01 n
B.
235
92
U + 01 n
142
56
Ba +
92
36
Kr + 01 n
235
92
U + 01 n
141
56
Ba +
92
36
Kr + 2 01 n
Pe
C.
142
56
D.
235
92
U + 01 n
Ba +
142
55
92
36
Cs +
Kr + 2 01 n
92
36
Kr + 2 01 n
106
rs
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Nuclear Fusion
Occurs when light nuclei join to form heavier

nucleus
On a mass basis, fusion yields more than five
times as much energy as fission
Source of the energy released in the explosion
of a H-bomb
The energy needed to trigger the fusion is provided
by the explosion of a fission bomb
Pe
Source of energy in stars
107
rs
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Thermonuclear Fusion
Uses high temperatures to overcome electrostatic

repulsions between nuclei
T required are >100 million C
Atoms want to fuse stripped of electrons
High initial energy cost
Plasma
Electrically neutral, gaseous mixture of nuclei and electrons
Make plasma very dense (>200g/cm3

Brings nuclei within 2 fm = 21015 m
Pressures = several billion atms
Pe
Not there yet, major problem
Containment of high temperature and pressures

Magnetic field current approach
108

Brdy 6ed Ch21 NuclearReactions

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.

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature

How are atoms formed?

Cooled quickly to 106 KT of stars

Fusiontwo nuclei come together to form

Fissionone heavier nucleus splits into

Various other types of reactions

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Subatomic particles found in the nucleus

Specific nucleus with given atomic number (Z)

Atomic Number (Z)

Number of protons in nucleus

Mass Number (A)mass of nuclide

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Shorthand for Writing Nuclides

In the neutral atom: e = p+ = Z

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Isotopes with unstable atomic nuclei

Another name for radioactive isotopes

Dating of rocks and ancient artifacts

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Mass Not Always Constant

When v goes to zero

Particle has no velocity relative to observer

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Why dont we observe mass change?

In lab and ordinary life, velocity of particle is

In lab, m = mo within experimental error

Difference in mass too small to measure directly

Scientists began to see relationship between

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Law of Conservation of Mass and

Mass and energy can neither be created nor

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Rest mass of nuclide is always less than sum of

When nucleons come together, loss of mass translates

Nuclear Binding Energy

Amount of energy must put in to break apart

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

What is Mass Loss?

For given isotope of given Z and A

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Ex.1. Binding Energy Calculation

Step 1. Determine mass loss or mass defect

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Ex.1. (cont.) Binding Energy

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

E = 6.287817 x 1012 J/atom *

6.0221367 x 1023 atoms/mole

Compare this to:

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

MeV (Energy Unit)

Nuclear scientists find it convenient to use a

Energy required to move e across energy potential

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Ex. 1. but in MeV

For Ex. 1. Converting E to MeV gives

Often wish to express binding energy per

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

Ex. 2 Calculate E released

How much energy is released by this reaction

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E

m = m(4He) + 2m(0e+) 4m(1H)