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Rev date : 21-03-11

Chapter 16
Topic : Networking Principles
Date of Creation : 21.03.2011

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NETWORKING PRINCIPLES
Introduction
Networking means interconnection of computers. These computers can be linked together
for different purposes and using a variety of different cabling types.

The basic reasons why computers need to be networked are :

to share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines etc.)

to share application software (MS Office, Adobe Publisher etc.)

increase productivity (makes it easier to share data amongst users)

Take for example a typical office scenario where a number of users require access to
some common information. As long as all user computers are connected via a network,
they can share their files, exchange mail, schedule meetings, send faxes and print
documents all from any point of the network. It is not necessary for users to transfer files
via electronic mail or floppy disk, rather, each user can access all the information they
require, thus leading to less wastage of time and hence increased productivity.
Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax the Word document they are
working on, rather than print it out, then feed it into the fax machine, dial the number etc.

Small networks are often called Local Area Networks (LAN). A LAN is a network
allowing easy access to other computers or peripherals. The typical characteristics of a
LAN are :
physically limited distance (< 2km)
high bandwidth (> 1mbps)
inexpensive cable media (coax or twisted pair)
data and hardware sharing between users
owned by the user
The factors that determine the nature of a LAN are:
Topology
Transmission medium
Medium access control technique

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LAN Topologies
The common topologies for LANs are bus, tree, ring, and star. The bus is a special case
of the tree, with only one trunk and no branches.
Bus and Tree Topologies
Bus and Tree topologies are characterized by the use of a multi-point medium. For the
bus all stations attach, through appropriate hardware interfaces known as a Tap, directly
to a linear transmission medium, or bus. Full-duplex operation between the station and
the tap permits data to be transmitted onto the bus and received from the bus. A
transmission from any station propagates throughout the length of the medium in both
directions and can be received (heard) by all other stations. At each end of the bus is a
terminator, to avoid reflection of signals.
Tap
Flow of data

Terminating
Resistance

Fig. 1 (a) Bus

Station

Flow of data

Terminating
Resistance

Station

Head end

Fig. 1 (b) Tree

The tree topology is a generalization of the bus topology. The transmission medium is a
branched cable with no closed loops. The tree layout begins at a point known as the headend, where one or more cable start, and each of these may have branches. The branches

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in turn may have additional branches. Transmission from any station propagates
throughout the medium and can be received (heard) by all other stations.
However, there are two problems in this arrangement. First, since a transmission from
any one station can be received by all other stations, there needs to be some way of
indicating that for whom the transmission is intended. Second, a mechanism is needed to
regulate the transmission. To visualise the logic behind this, consider that if two stations
on the bus attempt to transmit at the same time, their signals will overlap and become
garbled. Or, consider that one station decides to transmit continuously for a long period
of time.
To solve these problems, stations transmit data in small blocks, known as frames. Each
frame consists of a portion of data that a station wishes to transmit, plus a frame header
that contains control information. Each station on the bus is assigned a unique address, or
identifier, and the destination address for a frame is included in its header.
Figure 4 illustrates the concept. In this example, station C wishes to transmit a frame of
data to A. The frame header includes As address. As the frame propagates along the bus,
it passes B, which observes the address and ignores the frame. A, on the other hand, sees
that the frame is addressed to itself and therefore copies the data from the frame as it goes
by.
A

Frame is not addressed to B;

therefore B ignores it

C transmits a frame addressed to A

Frame is meant for A, therefore

A copies it
B

Fig. 2 Frame Transmission on a Bus LAN

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So the frame structure solves the first problem mentioned above: It provides a mechanism
for indicating that who is the intended recipient of data. It also provides the basic tool for
solving the second problem, i.e. regulation of access. In particular, the station take turns
sending frames in some co-operative fashion; this involves putting additional control
information into the frame header.

Ring Topology
In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-to point
links in a closed loop. The repeater is a comparatively simple device, capable of receiving
data on one link and transmitting them, bit by bit, on the other link as quickly as they are
received, with no buffering at the repeater. The links are unidirectional, i.e. data is
transmitted in one direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise).
Each station is attached to the network at a repeater and can transmit data onto the
network through that repeater.

Fig 3 Ring
Topology

As with the bus and tree, data is transmitted in frames. As a frame circulates past all other
stations, the destination station recognizes its address and copies the frame into a local
buffer as it goes by. The frame continues to circulate until it reaches the source station,
where it is ultimately removed
Because multiple stations share the ring , medium access control is needed to determine
when each station may insert frames.

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C
C
A

A
A

A
(a)

(c) A copies the frame

C transmits a frame
addressed to A

as it goes by

C
A
B

B
A

A
(b) Frame is not addressed to B
therefore B ignores it

Fig. 4

(d)

C absorbs the
returning frame

Frame Transmission on a Ring LAN

Star Topology
In the Star type topology, each station is directly connected to a common central node.
Typically, each station attaches to a central node, referred to as the star coupler, via two
point-to point links, one for transmission in each direction.
In general, there are two alternatives for the operation of the central node :
One method is for the central node to operate in a broadcast fashion. The transmission of
a frame from one station to the Central Node is retransmitted in all of the outgoing links.
In this case, although the arrangement is physically a star, it is logically a bus; a
transmission from any station is received by all other stations, and only one station at a
time may transmit (successfully).

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Another method is for the central node to act as a frame switching device. An incoming
frame is buffered in the node and then retransmitted on an outgoing link to the destination
station.

Central Hub,
Switch/
Repeater
Fig 5

Medium Access Control

All LANs consist of a collection of devices that have to share the networks transmission
capacity. Some means of controlling access to the transmission medium is needed to
provide for an orderly and efficient use of that capacity. This is the function of medium
access control (MAC) protocol.
The key parameters in any medium access control technique are-where and how.
Where refers to whether control is in a centralized or distributed fashion. In a
centralized scheme, a controller is designated that has the authority to grant access to
the network. A station wishing to transmit must wait until it receives permissions from
the controller. In a decentralized network, each station collectively performs a
medium access control function to dynamically determine the order in which stations
transmit. A centralized scheme has certain advantages, such as the following:
It may afford greater control over access for providing such things as priorities,
overrides, and guarantee capacity.
It enables the use of relatively simple access logic at each station.
It overcomes the problems of distributed co-ordination among peer entities.

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The principal disadvantages of a centralized scheme are:

It creates a single point of failure

It may act as a bottleneck, reducing the performance
The pros and cons of distributed schemes are mirror images of the points made
above.

The second parameter, how, is determined by the topology and is a trade-off among
competing factors such as- including cost, performance, and complexity. Access control
techniques could follow the same approach used in circuit switching, viz. frequencydivision multiplexing (FDM), and synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM). Such
techniques are generally not suitable for LANs because the data transmission needs of the
stations are unpredictable. It is desirable to allocate capacity in an asynchronous
(dynamic) fashion, more or less in response to immediate demand. The asynchronous
approach can be further subdivided into three categories: round robin, reservation and
contention.
Round Robin
With Round robin, each station in turn is given an opportunity to transmit. During that
period, the station may decline to transmit or may transmit subject to a specified upper
bound, usually expressed as a maximum amount of data transmitted or time for this
opportunity. In any case, the station, when it is finished, relinquishes its turn, and the
right to transmit passes to the next station in logical sequence. Control of this sequence
may be centralized or distributed. Polling is an example of a centralized technique.
When many stations have to transmit data over an extended period of time, round robin
techniques can be very efficient. If only a few stations have data to transmit over an
extended period of time, then there is a considerable overhead in passing the turn from
station to station, as most of the stations will not transmit but simply pass their turns.
Under such circumstances, other techniques may be preferable, largely depending on
whether the data traffic has a stream or bursty characteristic. Stream traffic is
characterized by lengthy and fairly continuous transmissions; examples are voice
communication, telemetry, and bulk file transfer. Bursty traffic is characterized by short,
sporadic transmissions, (interactive terminal-host traffic fits this description).

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Reservation
For stream traffic, reservation techniques are well suited. In general, for these techniques,
time on the medium is divided into slots, similar to synchronous TDM. A station wanting
to transmit, reserves future slots for an extended or even an indefinite period. Again,
reservations may be made in a centralised or distributed manner.
Contention
For bursty traffic, contention techniques are more appropriate. With these techniques, no
control is required to determine whose turn it is; all stations contend for time. These
techniques are by nature distributed. Their principal advantage is that they are simple to
implement and, under light to moderate load, quite efficient. For some of these
techniques, however, performance tends to collapse under heavy load.
Although both centralised and distributed reservation techniques have been implemented
in some LAN products, round robin and contention techniques are the most common.
The specific access techniques are discussed further in this chapter. Table 2 lists the
MAC protocols that are defined in LAN standards.
Table 2

Standardised Medium Access Control Techniques

Bus Topology

Ring Topology
Token Ring
(IEEE 802.5 & FDDI)

Switched Topology

Round Robin

Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)

Polling (IEEE 802.11)

Request/ Priority
(IEEE 802.12)

Reservation

DQDB (IEEE 802.6)

Contention

CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3)

CSMA (IEEE 802.11)

CSMA/CD
(IEEE 802.3)

MAC Frame Format

The MAC layer receives a block of data from the LLC layer and is responsible for
performing functions related to medium access and for transmitting the data. MAC

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implements these functions, by making use of protocol data unit at its layer; in this case,
the PDU is referred to as a MAC frame.
The exact format of the MAC frame differs for the various MAC protocols in use. In
general, all of the MAC frames have a format similar to that of Figure 6. The fields of
this frame are:

MAC control: This field contains any protocol control information needed for
the functioning of the MAC protocol. For example, a priority level could be
indicated here.

Destination MAC Address: The destination physical attachment point on the

LAN for this frame.

Source MAC Address: The source physical attachment point on the LAN for this
frame.

LLC: The LLC Data from the next higher layer.

CRC: The cyclic redundancy check field (also known as the frame check
sequence, FCS, field). This is an error-detecting code, as we have seen in HDLC
and other data link control protocols

MAC
Frame

MAC
control

Destination
Source
MAC Address MAC Address

1 or 2

1 octet

LLC
PDU

DSAP

I/G

SSAP

CRC

Variable

LLC control

DSAP value

LLC PDU

Information

C/R

SSAP value

FIG. 6 LLC PDU with generic MAC Frame format.

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BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS

There are a number of components which are used to build networks. An understanding
of these is essential in order to support networks.
Network Adapter Cards
A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing the connection to the
network. Adapter cards come from many different manufacturers, and support a wide
variety of cable media and bus types such as - ISA, MCA, EISA, PCI, PCMCIA.
New cards are software configurable, using a software programs to configure the
resources used by the card. Other cards are PNP (plug and Play), which automatically
configure their resources when installed in the computer, simplifying the installation.
With an operating system like Windows 95, auto-detection of new hardware makes
network connections simple and quick.
Cabling
Cables are used to interconnect computers and network components together. There are 3
main cable types used today:

twisted pair

coaxial

fiber optic

The choice of cable depends upon a number of factors like :

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number of computers involved

speed

bandwidth i.e. how fast data is to be transferred

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Repeaters
Repeaters extend the network segments. They amplify the incoming signal received from
one segment and send it on to all other attached segments. This allows the distance
limitations of network cabling to be extended. There are limits on the number of repeaters
which can be used. The repeater counts as a single node in the maximum node count
associated with the Ethernet standard (30 for thin coax).

Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of failures or fault conditions.
Disconnecting one side of a repeater effectively isolates the associated segments from the
network.

Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network distance limitations. It does
not give you any more bandwidth or allow you to transmit data faster.

Main Network Segment

Repeater

Workstation

Fig. 7 Use of Repeaters in a Network

Summary of Repeater features :

increases traffic on segments

have distance limitations
limitations on the number of repeaters that can be used
propagate errors in the network
cannot be administered or controlled via remote access
cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths)

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no traffic isolation or filtering is possible

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Bridges
Bridges interconnect Ethernet segments. Most bridges today support filtering and
forwarding, as well as Spanning Tree Algorithm. The IEEE 802.1D specification is the
standard for bridges.

During initialization, the bridge learns about the network and the routes. Packets are
passed onto other network segments based on the MAC layer. Each time the bridge is
presented with a frame, the source address is stored. The bridge builds up a table which
identifies the segment to which the device is located on. This internal table is then used to
determine which segment incoming frames should be forwarded to. The size of this table
is important, especially if the network has a large number of workstations/ servers.

Network Segment A

Network Segment B

Bridge

Fig. 8 Use of Bridge in a Network

The diagram above shows two separate network segments connected via a bridge. Note
that each segment must have a unique network address number in order for the bridge to
be able to forward packets from one segment to the other.
The advantages of bridges are

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since bridges buffer frames, it is possible to interconnect different segments

which use different MAC protocols

since bridges work at the MAC layer, they are transparent to higher level
protocols

by subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is increased

and the network becomes easier to maintain

used for non routable protocols like NETBEUI which must be bridged

help in localizing the network traffic by only forwarding data onto other
segments as required (unlike repeaters)

Routers
In an environment consisting of several network segments with differing protocols and
architectures, a bridge may not be adequate for ensuring fast communication among all of
the segments. A network this complex needs a device which not only knows the address
of each segment, but also determine the best path for sending data and filtering broadcast
traffic to the local segment. Such a device is called a router.
Routers work at the Network layer of the OSI model. This means they can switch and
route packets across multiple networks. They do this by exchanging protocol-specific
information between separate networks. Routers read complex network addressing
information in the packet and, because they function at a higher layer in the OSI model
than bridges, they have access to additional information.
Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge:

Filtering and isolating traffic

Connecting network segments

Routers have access to more information in the packet than bridges, and use this
information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are used in complex network situation
because they provide better traffic management than bridges and do not pass broadcast
traffic. Routers can share status and routing information with one another and use this
information to bypass slow or malfunctioning connections.

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How Routers Work

The routing table found in routes contain network addresses. However, host addresses
may be kept depending on the protocol the network is running. A router uses a table to
determine the destination address for incoming data. The table lists the following
information:

All known network addresses

How to connect to other networks

The possible path between those routers

The cost of sending data over those paths

The router selects the best route for the data based on cost & available paths.
Using the router addressing scheme, administrators can break one large network into
many separate networks, and because routers do not pass or even handle every packet,
they act as a safety barrier between network segments. This can greatly reduce the
amount of traffic on the network and the wait time experienced by users.
Routable Protocols
Not all protocols work with routers. The one that are routable include:

DECnet

IP

IPX

OSI

XNS

DDP (AppleTalk)

Protocols which are not routable include:

LAT (local area transport, a protocol from Digital Equipment Corporation.)

NetBEUI
Summary of Router features:

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operate at the protocol level

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remote administration and configuration via SNMP

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support complex networks

the more filtering done, the lower the performance

provides security

segment the networks logically

broadcast storms can be isolated

often provide bridge functions also

more complex routing protocols used (such as RIP, IGRP, OSPF)

Hubs
There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are simple splitters or combiners that group
workstations into a single segment, whereas active hubs include a repeater function and
are thus capable of supporting many more connections.
Nowadays, with the advent of 10BaseT, hub concentrators are being very popular. These
are very sophisticated and offer significant features which make them radically different
from the older hubs which were available during the 1980's. These 10BaseT hubs provide
each client with exclusive access to the full bandwidth, unlike bus networks where the
bandwidth is shared. Each workstation plugs into a separate port, which runs at 10 Mbps
and is for the exclusive use of that workstation, thus there is no contention to worry about
like in Ethernet.
In standard Ethernet, all stations are connected to the same network segment in bus
configuration. Traffic on the bus is controlled using CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access) protocol, and all stations share the available bandwidth.
Backplane
PORT 1

PORT 2

PORT 3

PORT 4

Fig. 9 Connecting Work Stations to a Hub

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10BaseT Hubs dedicate the entire bandwidth to each port (workstation). The W/S attach
to the Hub using UTP. The Hub provides a number of ports, which are logically
combined using a single backplane, which often runs at a much higher data rate than that
of the ports.
Ports can also be buffered, to allow packets to be held in case the hub or port is busy.
And, because each workstation has its own port, it does not contend with other
workstations for access, having the entire bandwidth available for its exclusive use.
The ports on a hub all appear as one Ethernet segment. In addition, hubs can be stacked
or cascaded (using master/ slave configurations) together, to add more ports per segment.
As hubs do not count as repeaters, this is a better solution for adding more workstations
than the use of a repeater.
Hub options also include an SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) agent. This
allows the use of network management software to remotely administer and configure the
hub.

The advantages of the newer 10 BaseT hubs are :

Each port has exclusive access to its bandwidth (no CSMA/ CD)

Hubs may be cascaded to add additional ports

SNMP managed hubs offer good management tools and statistics

Utilise existing cabling and other network components

Becoming a low cost solution

Ethernet and fast Ethernet (CSMA/ CD)

The most commonly used medium access control technique for bus/ tree and star
topologies is carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). The
original baseband version of this technique was developed by Xerox as part of the
Ethernet LAN. Ethernet is currently the most popular network architecture. This
baseband architecture uses bus topology, usually transmits at 10 Mbps, and relies on
CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the main cable segment. The Ethernet specification
performs the same functions as the OSI physical and Data Link Layer of data
communications. This design is the basis of IEEEs 802.3 specification.

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Ethernet Features
Ethernet media is passive which means it draws power from the computer and thus will
not fail unless the media is physically cut or improperly terminated.
The following list summarizes Ethernet features:

Traditional topology
Other Topologies
Type of Architecture
Access Method
Specifications
Transfer Speed
Cable Types

Linear Bus
Star Bus
Baseband
CSMA/ CD
IEEE 802.3
10 Mbps or 100 Mbps
Thicknet, Thinnet, UTP
xxxx

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Review Questions
1. Which topology requires a central controller or hub?
(1) Mesh (2) Star (3) Bus (4) Ring
2. Which topology requires a multipoint connection?
(1) Mesh (2) Star (3) Bus (4) Ring
3. In which topology, a break in cable will stop all transmissions?
(1) Mesh (2) Star (3) Bus (4) Ring
4. In which layer of OSI model, the router works?
(1) Physical layer (2) Network layer (3) Data layer (4) both Data and Network
5. In medium access control which technique is well suited for stream traffic?
(1) Contention (2) Round Robin (3) Reservation (4) none of them
6. The function of the repeater is to
(1) to give more bandwidth
(2) to transmit the data faster.
(3) to amplify the incoming signal received from one segment and send it on to all
other attached segments
(4) All of above
7. At which layer the Bridges work
(1) MAC layer (2) IP Layer (3) Both layer (4) None of them
8. For bursty traffic, which technique would be more appropriate?
(1) Contention (2) Round Robin (3) Reservation (4) none of them
9. Which field in MAC frame provides an error-detecting code?
(1) LLC (2) CRC (3) DSAP (4) SSAP
10. Which Protocols are not routable?
(1) DECnet (2) IP (3) XNS (4) NetBEUI
11. Which Protocols are routable?
(1) LAT (2) DECnet (3) NetBEUI (4) All of them
..
(1) Write any four routable protocols
(2) On which factors the choice of cable depends upon?
(3) Name the protocols which are not routable
(4) What are the advantages of LAN?
(5) Explain the working principle of the Ring topology
(6) What are the advantages of Bridge in LAN Networking?
(7) List the various components used in LAN networking ( any 4)
(8) Write the various topology used in LAN Networking
(9) Write the different features of Routers
(10) Explain the working principle of the HUB

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