EngineeringStructures, Vol.

ELSEVIER

0141-0296(95)00211-1

18, No. 9, pp. 696-706, 1996

Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0141-0296/96 $15.00 + 0.00

Seismic response of composite

flames I. Response criteria and
input motion
B. M. Broderick
Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Trini~' College, Dublin,
Ireland

A. S. Elnashai
Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Enginering Section, Imperial College, London, UK
(Received October 1994; revised version accepted October 1995)

To facilitate the evaluation of the seismic response of a class of

composite frames through the application of nonlinear dynamic
analysis techniques, response criteria which reflect the acceptable
limits of structural response are defined. These reponse criteria
relate to the behaviour of the frames at local (member) and global
(storey) levels. To ensure that the identified frame behaviour is sufficiently general in nature, the response analyses are performed
using a diverse range of earthquake loads. To this end, six recorded
accelerograms are selected on the basis of their peak ground acceleration-to-velocity (a/v) ratios. Each record is scaled to possess a
spectrum intensity equal to that of the Eurocode 8 design spectrum,
preserving the important velocity characteristics of the ground
motion, while remaining compatible with provisions of the design
code. In a companion paper, these response criteria and earthquake loads are applied in the evaluation of behaviour factors for
moment-resisting composite frames. Copyright 1996 Elsevier
Science Ltd.
Keywords:composite beams and
earthquake accelerograms

columns,

rotation

ductility,

is most relevant. As these ductility capacities are a function

of the inelastic response characteristics of the individual
members, they cannot be properly assessed by simplified
techniques. Instead, use is made of design force reduction
factors (expressed as behaviour factors, q, in the structural
Eurocodes) which seek to quantify the extent to which the
global ductility of the structure may be incorporated into
conventional design procedures. The validity of this
approach is based on the assumption that accurate and
reliable behaviour factors are provided for individual structural forms and design details. However, the response of
structures subjected to earthquake loading displays a high
degree of variability resulting from the interaction of the
characteristics of the imposed ground motions and the
properties of the particular structure under consideration.
In the following, the procedures employed and the results
obtained in relation to a series of dynamic analyses of the
seismic response of plane composite frames are described.
These analyses, the results from which are presented in a

Introduction
In composite construction, the properties of steel and concrete may be combined to offer efficient solutions to the
design of engineering structures. For building systems,
composite frames commonly form the most economical solution to the diverse requirements of stiffness, strength and
insulation. For structures required to resist earthquake
loads, this economy is especially relevant. Moreover, the
inherent ductility possessed by composite members allows
a greater level of energy dissipation to be achieved, further
increasing their applicability to earthquake resistant structures. These features are most significant in the case of
moment-resisting frames, where lateral resistance is primarily provided by the flexural resistance of the beam and
column members. While such structures present difficulties
in design analysis, principally with respect to the stability
of column members, it is here that the enhanced ductility
supply provided by properly designed composite members

696

697

Seismic response of composite frames--I: B. M. Broderick and A. S. Elnashai

companion paper ~, employ an advanced numerical intergration scheme which seeks to reduce some of the inconsistencies and inaccuracies inherent in nonlinear dynamic
analysis. In total, 20 composite frames varying in dimension and member type are analysed using six different
ground motion records. To ensure that the identified
response and behaviour is representative of typical practical
structures, each composite frame is designed according to
the requirements of the structural Eurocodes. By limiting
the range of the frames to those which fulfil Eurocode
requirements, the variability in structural response which
arises due to the differences between individual designs
will be somewhat reduced. It is then hoped that the degree
of variation between each of the structures analysed will
be sufficient to cover the majority of the reponse features
which arise in realistic composite frames. Thus, a comprehensive assessment of the demands imposed upon momentresisting composite frames and the effects of seismic loading on their capacities may be assessed. The frames investigated are composed of either steel or partially-encased
composite columns connected to composite beams by
moment-resisting connections. For each frame, the structural behaviour factors as defined in the companion paper
are identified by obtaining the ground motion intensities
sufficient to cause yield and failure. In this regard, the failure limit state is represented by the attainment of one of a
number of response criteria corresponding to a set of conditions at either individual member or storey levels.

Member rotation capacity

The response of a structure to earthquake loading involves
structural deformations in excess of those normally allowable under gravity loading. For structures designed to dissipate input seismic energy through irrecoverable inelastic
strains, these deformations can involve large excursions
into the plastic range of the constituent structural materials.
While similar inelastic behaviour is encountered in the plastic design of structures to resist gravity and other primary
loads, its extent is limited to that required to allow the redistribution of internal stress resultants. The level of inelastic
deformation involved in the seismic response of structures,
may, however, be much greater. In the 'capacity design'
approach, certain areas of a structure are preselected to be
those in which the inelastic response of the structure will
be accommodated through the formation and stable rotation
of plastic hinges, while the remaining parts of the structure
are designed to possess sufficient strength to preclude yielding. In moment-resisting frames, plastic hinges may be
allowed to form in the beams and at the base of the ground
floor columns, implying that the local rotation ductility supply provided by these members should at least equal the
demand imposed upon them by the seismic actions.
For the purposes of assessing seismic performance, the
ductility supply of individual members is most readily
expressed as the rotation achievable by plastic hinges
within the member prior to the occurrence of criteria defining failure or excessive loss of resistance. This principle is
illustrated by the moment-rotation curves of Figure 1
which show the qualitative behaviour of non-ductile, moderately ductile and highly ductile members. With reference
to Figure 1, rotation capacity may be expressed in terms of
the rotational ductility as

.o=O~-l=0yOp

(I)

q~

Ou

~'*--Oy - 4
Mp

~ response'~
highly-ductile

0p

=',

ductile /
I
/ ~~ i~ . ~\ non-ductile
response I
response

elastic!

plastic

-I

seismic
Rotation

Figure 1 Moment-rotation response of ductile and non-ductile members

in which Ou is the ultimate rotation corresponding to a limiting criterion, Oy is the rotation at yield and Op is the rotation
which occurs in the plastic hinge, namely
Op = Ou- Oy.

(2)

In composite members, the provision of large rotation

ductilities, which must be accommodated within plastic
hinges of finite length, requires that the component structural materials be capable of accommodating large strains
without displaying significant instability or loss of resistance. For the concrete components, this implies that crushing and spalling due to excessive compressive strains be
avoided by ensuring that adequate confinement is provided,
or by placing restrictions on the plastic neural axis depth
of the section. For the steel components, which may usually
be considered to consist of an assembly of plate elements,
ductility is enhanced by limiting plate slenderness so that
the adverse effects of local buckling are avoided. Such local
flange and web buckling may also render a structural member more susceptible to lateral buckling and, under the cyclic loading conditions of seismic response, low-cycle
fatigue. The rotation capacity of an individual member
depends, amongst others, on the critical strain at which
local instability will occur, the length of member over
which this strain occurs, the interaction of the connected
elements of the cross-section and the level of axial loading.
The rotation capacity of bare steel members, such as are
commonly employed as columns in composite frames,
which can sustain strains into the strain-hardening range
(plastic or 'Class 1' sections in Eurocode 3) may be conservatively determined by considering only the plastic
rotation of the member 2. As illustrated in Figure 2, this procedure is based on the assumption that due to the formation
of slip planes in the steel, a 'dynamic jump' to the strainhardening point occurs upon yield. Although not allowing
for the variation in strains across the section and the influence of axial forces, this assumption allows the rotation
capacity to be evaluated without determining the critical
buckling strain. Where greater rotation ductility capacities
are required, higher critical strains need to be sustained,
implying the application of more compact, and hence less
economical, steel sections.
Greater rotation capacities may also be achieved through
the use of composite steel columns where the mutual benefits provided by the steel and concrete components ensure
that local instability occurs only at high strains. In patti-

698

Seismic response of composite frames--I: B. M. Broderick and A. S. Elnashai

L

(a) L o a d i n g

(b) Bending Moments

,,-----CL~

I
I

(c) Curvature Diagram

Figuro2 Rotation of steel beam under moment gradient. [For definition

cular, by employing partially-encased composite members
with the cross-section shown in Figure 3, the traditional
benefits offered by composite columns in terms of global
stability and fire insulation may be retained, while at the
same time achieving increased rotation capacities without
resorting to uneconomical section details. Furthermore, the
inclusion of additional reinforcement, such as the transverse
links shown in Figure 3b, will ensure higher rotation
capacities even with high flange and web slendernesses.
By availing fully of the contribution to stiffness and
strength provided by floor slabs, composite beams offer an
economical means of providing flexural resistance. However, despite their frequent application to the resistance of
wind forces in tall structures, the corresponding contribution to lateral stiffness offered by composite beams has
not received much attention in earthquake resistant structures 3. While a considerable body of research exists on the
rotation capacity provided by composite beams of various
dimensions 4's, there is much less information on the level
of ductility demand imposed on these members during their
response to earthquake loading. Roeder 3 reports that there
appears to be a distrust of the ductility capacity of these
members in the cyclic loading conditions imposed by earthquake ground motion, arising due to the predominantly onedirection resistance which they provide. Although the hysVertical
Reinforcement

Reinforcing

Transverse

Hoops
/

"' "

(a) Conventional Section

with Reinforcing Hoops

Spot-Weld

(b) Section with Transverse

Bars for Improved Ductility

Figure 3 Partially encased beam-column sections

of variables, see Figure 5(b)]

teresis loops of these members are stable, they display a

pinched appearance, reducing their ability to dissipate seismic energy. It is common, therefore, for composite action
in beams to be neglected when evaluating seismic resistance; an assumption which although providing a conservative estimate of lateral stiffness and strength will have
adverse effects upon the yield mechanism of the structure.
The widespread application of partial interaction shear connections have increased doubts about the ductility supply of
composite beams, as no investigations have been performed
concerning the significance under cyclic earthquake loads
of secondary effects, such as the deformation of steel
decking and shear connectors 3. Despite these concerns, the
attractive strength and stiffness characteristics of composite
beams are universally acknowledged 6. In addition, studies,
albeit under monotonic loading, have shown that composite
beams may be designed to possess significant rotation ductility, especially in positive moment regions 4'7. In the following, it is assumed that full interaction between the steel
joist and concrete slab is provided.

R e s p o n s e criteria for composite frames

To assess the seismic performance of composite frames
from the results of dynamic analyses, a set of criteria corresponding to the conditions at which structural failure occurs
are defined. These criteria are invoked whenever the resistance or ductility demands imposed during an earthquake
exceed the capabilities of the structure under consideration.
In practice, the attainment of such criteria should imply the
collapse, in whole or in part, of the structure. However,
before this condition is reached, the properties and behaviour of the structure will be drastically altered from its preearthquake condition. Given the complex nature of building
structures, it is not possible to accurately capture this
deterioration in conventional analyses. Therefore, the criteria chosen to define structural failure should reflect not
only the limits of reliable structural response, but also the
limitations of the analytical tools employed.
The application of such criteria will ensure that a con-

Seismic response of composite frames--I: B. M. Broderick and A. S. Elnashai

servative estimate of structural failure will be achieved. In
this instance, the dynamic analysis program employed,
ADAPTIC, is able to accurately trace structural response
well into the inelastic range of material response, even
when gross deformation of individual members or the structure as a whole has occurred. In essence, as the limits to
which the program can be relied upon to accurately compute structural response coincide with the conditions at
which much permanent damage will occur, the failure criteria derived therefrom relate to a damage limit state. Thus,
the limits of response identified from the evaluation of analytical results with respect to these criteria may be conservatively and reliably applied to future designs. Hereafter,
the following sections detail the definitions of failure
employed in the later described assessments of the performance of composite frames. These failure criteria are
arranged in two groups: those relating to failure on a global
or individual storey level and those defining the limits of
response for individual members. In total, seven separate
failure criteria are employed. As described, the definitions
of these criteria are based upon the combined results of
experimental and numerical studies, in addition to commonly applied design guidance. Where necessary these
definitions are supplemented by engineering judgement,
applied conservatively.

Storey response criteria

Interstorey drift. To limit the structural and non-structural damage incurred during a seismic event, an upper
limit is placed on the maximum allowable interstorey drift.
The most convenient method of defining this criterion is in
terms of the interstorey drift index, A~, defined as
Ai_

~i--~i_l ~< 0.03,

h/

Degradation of lateral resistance. During the large

amplitude displacement oscillations produced by the
strong-motion period of the earthquake, the level of lateral
resistance provided by each structure will increase to a
maximum level determined by the bending resistances of
its structural members. After this point, second-order
effects and the loss of strength displayed by compression
concrete at high strains will cause a decrease in lateral
resistance. While such a decrease does not imply failure in
itself, particularly as the level of resistance displayed at this
stage will be in excess of its design value, a progressive
reduction in resistance is displayed thereafter, implying an
unstable and unreliable response. Thus, for each half-cycle
of displacement response, the lateral resistance provided in
each storey is monitored to determine the maximum value
occurring. The condition that subsequent values of resistance must not decrease below 90% of this maximum is then
employed as a failure criterion.
Local response criteria

Storey stability. Eurocode 8 requires that the stability

index, defined in equation (4) be evaluated for each storey
of the structure;
Ptotd r

(4)

where, for the storey under consideration, Ptot is total gravity load, dr is the design interstorey drift, Vtot is the total
seismic design shear and h is the height. In addition to the
above restriction on interstorey drift, as a further check on
the stability, the stability index of each storey is monitored
throughout its response and compared with the limit prescribed by Eurocode 8, namely,
0 ~< 0 . 3 .

while that of equation (4) imposes a similar limit on deformation in terms of a structure's resistance and gravity loading. To ensure that the strength demands imposed on a
structure are not excessive, the formation of plastic hinges
is also monitored. The formation of a column hinging collapse mechanism implied by the simultaneous existence of
plastic hinges at the upper and lower ends of each column
constitutes a state of failure. In this regard, the occurrence
of a plastic hinge is identified by the exceedance of the
yield strain in both tension and compression flanges of the
column. The formation of other mechanisms which do not
lead to storey instability are not taken as implying the
occurrence of a failure condition.

(3)

where 8i is the instantaneous displacement at floor level i

and hi is the height of the storey under consideration. As
indicated in equation (3) a limit of 3% is placed on Ai; a
value which is intended to limit p-A effects as well as
restricting the amount of damage incurred, while also
reflecting the ability of sway frames to undergo relatively
large global deformations.

0 = V,o~h'

699

(5)

Collapse mechanism formation. The condition of equation (3) limits the allowable deformation in each storey,

Steel columns. A number of models based on plate buckling theory have been proposed for the prediction of the
rotation capacity of steel members 2,8-~. To ensure these
capacities are sufficient to meet the level of demand experienced in the dissipative zones of earthquake resistant
frames, it is of primary importance that a critical member
is capable of attaining a level of strain in its compression
flange in excess of that at which strain-hardening occurs.
In this regard, the present provisions of the structural design
codes in placing limits on sectional slendernesses are sufficient for the level of ductility required in conventional
design processes. In seismic design, however, higher
rotation ductility demands may require that critical buckling strains be far in excess of that at which strain hardening
commences, implying that the provision of smaller b/t
ratios may be necessary. Inelastic plate buckling theory,
which relies upon the application of modified material
properties to elastic relationships, cannot be relied upon to
predict these high critical strains.
To overcome this difficulty, a more rigorous approach
to the evaluation of the rotation ductility capacity of steel
members was undertaken by Kato ~~,~2 which accounted for
the change from elastic to inelastic material properties
along the length of the member, allowed for the yield plateau in the stress-strain response and employed a critical
buckling strain, rather than the plastic hinge length, as a
limiting condition. To facilitate the numerical and derivational procedure, Kato employed a simplified model of
an I-section consisting of two flanges which possessed the
same combined area and moment of inertia as the actual

Seismic response o f composite frames--I: B. M. Broderick and A. S. Elnashai

700

section
initially

(Figure4a).

1)/2

Material behaviour was represented

a rigid-plastic-strain hardening model
(Figure 4b) and later by a quadrilinear model ~L,2
These models are used to trace the moment-curvature
response corresponding to elastic, plastic-flow and strain
hardening states in both the tension and compression
flanges. Double integration of the resulting curvature distribution provides the structural rotations and displacements.
If the axial load is expressed in terms of the stress ratio p
= O-o/O-y,where O'o is the applied axial stress and cry is the
yield stress, then for ( s - 1)/2 < p, (where s = o-JO-y represents the normalized critical stress), the tension flange
will be responding elastically when the compression flange
reaches o'~, while for (s - 1 ) / 2 / > p > 0, the tension flange
yields prior to failure. These variations in axial load give
rise to three expressions for rotational ductility as for (s <

by

s-1

[El

(6)

/J,o - 4(1--p~-(s-p) 2 ~ ~ ( 2 s - 3 p + l ) ( s - l )
h E~t

+ 3h~-(s-2p+ 1
for(s-

)]

1)/2 >/ p > 0

/xo - 2 ( 1 - p ) ( s - p )

2 E~t ~[(2s-2p---1 )2(2s-p+l

h~,

+ 2p2(p+3)]+ 3h_~%(s-2ps+l)J,

(7)

while for p = 0

, rE,

)]+3,

S(s2_l)]

(8)

The determination of the critical buckling stress O'er,

required for the evaluation of equations ( 6 ) - ( 8 ) could be
determined from conventional local buckling theory 9:.
However, as this would require an accurate evaluation of
both the inelastic material properties, plate stiffnesses and
the amount of restraint provided to the flange outstand by
the web, Kato instead conducted a series of stub column
tests from which expressions for the critical stress were
derived by linear regression. For milid steel, this
expression is ~2
1
S

= 0.689 +

0.651
O{f

0.0553
+- _+ 0.0303

(9)

O~w

in which a s = [E(b-/b)2]/~ryrand aw = [E(tw/d)2]/~rywrepresent the slenderness of the flange and the web, respectively. The above relationships are further employed in the
derivation of expressions for the flange and web width-tothickness ratios required to achieve a given level of
rotational ductility capacity.
Unlike predictions based on plate theory, the solution for
the critical buckling stress given by equation (9) does not
increase asymptotically with decreasing (b/t), instead tending towards a maximum level dependent on the resistance
provided by the web. This feature is most probably a consequence of quality control measures in the steel production
process through which the ultimate stress/yield stress ratio
is restricted to a maximum level, typically of the order of
1.2. Kato's method therefore reflects the true behaviour of
steel structures as found in practice, at least as far as the
experimental sample is concerned. The implications of
higher ultimate stresses on the accuracy of equation (9)
have not been reported, making it difficult to evaluate its
sensitivity in this respect.

Partially-encased composite beam-columns. In experiments and during actual earthquakes, composite structures
have been seen to achieve significant improvements in
rotation ductility over that displayed by equivalent steel
structures j3. In particular, the interaction of the concrete
and steel components allow properly detailed partiallyencased composite beam-columns to undergo multiple
stable oscillations at high rotational ductilities by ensuring
that confinement of the compression concrete and resistance
to local and lateral buckling of the compression elements
of the steel section is sustained at high levels of curvature
and strain ~4:6. In addition to the reinforcement detailing
characteristics of these members, the relevant dimensions
and material properties of the various components of their
cross-sections determine the maximum rotations that can
be reliably achieved. The evaluation of member ultimate
rotation capacities cannot be performed by the examination
of cross-sections alone, as allowance must be made for the
spread of plasticity along the length of the member arising
due to curvature distributions which are dependent on
highly variable moment-curvature relationships.
To determine the rotation ductility capacity of members
with the cross-sections shown in Figure 3, a parallel procedure to that employed by Kato for bare steel members is
employed ~5. The simplified models shown in Figure 5 are
used to determine the moments and curvatures at each critical point in the monotonic response of a cantilever member.
Under earthquake loading, the columns in a frame may be
considered to behave as a collection of cantilever elements,

Ocl . . . . .

I
I
I

Est
I

Est

I
I

l it

%
(rcr
(a) Equivalent Steel Section

(b) Rigid-Plastic Strain Hardening Model

Partially-Encased Composite Section

Equivalent Three Element Model

Figure 4 Section and material models for the evaluation of the

Figure 5 (a) Equivalent model of partially encased composite

rotation capacity of steel members 11

section

701

Seismic response of composite frames--I: B. M. Broderick and A. S. Elnashai

30

Osc

Esh

:2
iiiiiiLIIII_!!illi iiiii

Figure5 (b) Trilinear steel material model

z 1
......... i ..

rt
fe

.i ........

True Response

O.

~:~t

0.4

0.8
s/b

--~ s

1.2

E = 210,000

1.6

N/rnm 2

yield stress = 275 N/mm 2

Ecl

Ec

Ec2

Ec3
. . . . . . . .
Flange Buckling Strain
No r m a l l z e a L . r a lcal ~ t r a l n -

Figure 5 (c) Multi-linear concrete material model

Yield Strain

allowing a curvature distribution to be derived from an

assumed bending moment distribution (Figure 6). Ultimate
rotations may then be determined from the curvature distribution pertaining upon the attainment of the critical flange
buckling strain. These critical strains are determined from
an analytical model based on plate buckling theory and calibrated against experimental results. Figure 7 presents a
design chart, derived from the results of this model, which
allows the critical strain to be determined from the flange
slenderness and transverse link spacing. In Table 1, the
rotation ductility capacities obtained with this method are
compared with those identified in experimental studies on
cantilever members where 2~y and Au refer to the yield and
ultimate tip displacement, respectively. It can be observed
that reasonable agreement is achieved considering the accuracy to which the ultimate rotation can be defined and that

:~ I ~ ~ - - - - - - : - - k - : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . .
~11! ~

V'~ $t ~ ,

:!

Cu~rature"J

Moment-Curvature Characteristic

i
I

i ........
~_iifL
I

=! i /

Bending Moment Diagram

I
'

! J~t
YL5

tt

--/-- .....
F"
L
,'
Composite Cantilever Member

-L

oi

"1

Curvature Distribution

Figure 6 Determination of m e m b e r curvature distribution from

bending m o m e n t distribution and sectional moment-curvature
characteristic

Figure 7 Design chart for the evaluation of critical strain from

transverse link spacing (s/b) and flange slenderness (b/t)
the method is sufficiently conservative to be applied in
future designs. Moreover, it provides a rational method
through which a failure criterion for these members can be
evaluated in terms of rotation ductility.

Composite beams. The rotation capacity of composite

beams is limited by a variety of possible failure modes.
During its response to an earthquake, a composite beam
will be required to resist large imposed end moments,
whose direction will be reversed with each oscillation of
the structure. Moreover, the extent of the negative moment
region near each support will vary continuously, with
consequent implications for rotation ductility supply. Hereafter, the main parameters affecting the rotation capacity
of composite beams in both positive and negative moment
regions are identified. Full interaction between the steel and
concrete components is assumed and the contribution of
permanent formwork or sheeting is neglected.
Early investigations ]7 into the behaviour of simply-supported composite beams indicated that they could be
strength-softening, or 'load-shedding', in character due to
the presence of excessive compressive strains in the slab
concrete. Further studies indicated that this behaviour could
be controlled by limiting the depth of the plastic neutral
axis of the composite section so that strain hardening occurs
in the tension flange of the joist prior to the attainment of
the nominal crushing strain in the concrete ~8. Experimental
and analytical studies 7 have been used to derive design
expressions which ensure that rotation capacities are sufficient for plastic design methods, however, these capacities
may still be exceeded in seismic response situations. However, slab failure is not often encountered in post-earthquake reconnaissance, suggesting that other factors contrib-

702
Table 1

Seismic response o f composite frames--I: B. M. Broderick and A. S. Elnashai

Experimental and analytical rotation ductility

Test

capacities

El

My

Ay

Mo

(Nmm 2)

(kNm)

(mm)

(kNm)

Au
(mm)

/z,j

IC02-Exp.
-Anal.

2.62 x 1012
2.85 1012

61.1
80.8

11.2
13.6

89.8
90.4

66
73.2

4.9
4.4

ICA2-Exp.
-Anal.

2.61 1012
3.07 1012

71.1
81.4

11.0
10.7

90.0
89.5

75
73.6

5.8
5.9

ICB2-Exp.
-Anal.

2.93 x 1012
4.35 x 1012

78.4
113.3

10.8
10.5

118.7
119.3

60
51.5

5.5
4.9

ute to the ductility supply. Primary amongst these is the

effective breath of the slab which contributes to the bending
resistance of the beam. While design code values for effective breadth are based on elastic shear lag theory, experimental studies have shown that larger effective breadths
may be assumed at the ultimate limit state. This difference
has implications for capacity design, where it is required
that column yield strengths be greater than the ultimate
beam bending resistances.
The behaviour of composite beams under negative
moment is similar to that of steel members in that rotation
ductility is limited by local instability in the elements of
the steel section. However, the design guidelines for steel
members cannot be applied directly to composite beams as
additional features of their response must also be included 5.
Principal amongst these is the compressive axial force
imposed on the steel section which balances the tension in
the reinforcing bars and varies according to the moment
gradient. Due to the increased bending resistance of the
member, webs in composite beams are exposed to proportionately higher shear forces than in their steel equivalents. In addition, the presence of a net compressive axial
force on the steel joist implies that a greater depth of the
web will be in compression, increasing its susceptibility to
web buckling. This places even greater importance on the
interaction of the various failure modes which can affect
the member in negative moment regions; namely, local
flange and web buckling and lateral buckling of the compression flange. Experimental investigations 19 have shown
that for stocky sections flange buckling will usually precede
web buckling, but that significant loss of resistance is only
experienced after the occurrence of web buckling.
The significant differences between the behaviour of
composite beams under positive and negative moment
requires that separate failure criteria must be defined in
either case. Whereas the locations of the points of contraflexure in columns are easily determined from the bending moment distribution provided by finite element analyses, those occurring in beam elements under seismic
loading are less well defined. Hence, while it is possible
to continuously reevaluate the rotation between points of
restraint and contraflexure in column members, a large
number of finite elements are required to accurately perform the same exercise for beams. It is not practical therefore to define the local failure criteria for composite beams
in terms of rotation ductilities. In any case, as observed by
Kemp 5, composite beam yield rotations are often associated
with the occurrence of yield in the longitudinal reinforcement. Depending on the design details of the individual
beam under consideration, this condition may be associated
with a wide range of compression strains in the steel joist.

Thus, the definition of a unique rotation ductility capacity

is more difficult in the case of composite beams than in the
case of columns.
The definition of beam failure criteria is therefore restricted to the maximum compression stresses which can occur
in elements of the member prior to the occurrence of local
instability. In positive bending, the risk of tensile failure is
minimal, hence only compression failure of the concrete
slab needs be considered. In a similar fashion, rupture of
longitudinal reinforcement in negative moment regions is
unlikely to occur prior to the occurrence of local instability
in the steel joist. Compression failure of the concrete slab
is assumed to occur whenever the strain at the top of the
member exceeds 0.0035. Given the relative slab and joist
dimensions, the assumption of full interaction and the effective beam widths employed in this study, the occurrence of
this failure condition is most unlikely. Composite beams
are more vulnerable to excessive compression strains in the
steel joist. The maximum compressive stress which each
flange outstand can support prior to local buckling can be
determined from equation (9). For each beam member, the
lower bound obtained from this equation is employed as
the failure condition in negative bending.

Selection and scaling of earthquake ground

motions
In dynamic seismic response analysis, if the site of the
structure under consideration is known, suitable earthquake
ground motions may be selected from records reflecting the
ambient seismological and geotechnical conditions. Otherwise, the ground motion dependence of important response
parameters must be considered by employing a wider range
of earthquake loads, each scaled to a common intensity.
Peak ground acceleration to velocity (a/v) ratio
Zhu et al. 2 define three categories of earthquake ground
motions as: (a) 'normal' ground motions exhibiting significant energy content over a broad range of frequencies;
(b) ground motions producing accelerograms possessing
many large-amplitude, high-frequency oscillations; and (c)
records in which the significant response is contained in a
few long duration acceleration pulses. It has been proposed 2 that the peak ground acceleration to peak ground
velocity ratio (a/v) is a simple, yet meaningful means of
identifying the characteristics of individual accelerograms.
For instance, as the velocity characteristic is obtained from
an integration of the ground accelerations, the peak ground
velocity is associated with the moderate to low frequency
waves of the accelerogram, leading to the long duration

Seismic response of composite frames--I: B. M. Broderick and A. S. Elnashai

acceleration pulses of the type (c) motions producing low
a/v ratios. Similarly, due to the frequency-dependent
attenuation of seismic waves, attenuation of velocity with
distance is slower than the attenuation of acceleration, causing accelerograms recorded near the earthquake source to
possess comparatively high a/v ratios. In addition, the filtering effect of the ground medium causes long duration
records to be associated with a high a/v ratio while structures on rock and firm soils will experience relatively
shorter duration and higher frequency base excitation.
Sawanad et al. 2~ performed a statistical study on a selection
of Japanese earthquake records from which it was concluded that lower a/v ratios will be exhibited by earthquakes with lower predominant frequencies, broader
response spectra, longer durations and increased magnitudes, epicentral distances and predominant site periods.
These patterns have been confirmed for Californian records 2 and collections of North American and Eurasian
accelerograms 22.23, indicating that a range of a/v ratios will
include each of the significant seismological features likely
to affect structural response.
Significantly, it can be expected that earthquake records
possessing high a/v ratios will be more critical for stiffer
structures, whereas low a/v records will place greater
demands on more flexible structures. This feature is
implicitly reflected by the prescription of different design
acceleration spectra for structures located on various soil
types. The National Building Code of Canada, however,
expresses its design spectra in terms of peak ground velocity, with a correction being applied in the accelerationdependent low period range (T < 0.5 s) to account for the
ratio of expected peak ground accelerations and velocities.
Ground motions are classified in the following ranges:
low

: a/v < 0.8 g/ms -~

normal : 0.8 g/ms -~ ~< a/v <~ 1.2 g/ms -1

high

: 1.2 g/ms -~ < a/v.

(10a)
(10b)
(10c)

Because a closer correlation is achieved between strength

supply and demand, these provisions lead to more uniform
displacement ductility demands 2,23. The implied variety of
ductility demands experienced by structures designed to
different codes places increased emphasis on the need to
include a meaningful range of accelerograms in any analysis procedure.

Accelerograms for the analysis of composite frames

Six accelerograms are selected, consisting of two records
in each of the a/v ratio ranges defined in equation (10).
The location and dates of the events are given in Table 2,
along with the properties of the recording site and direction
of the recording. The peak ground motions for each record
are detailed in Table 3. The selection consists of three Californian and three Eurasian records, including the commonly-employed North-South component of the Imperial
Valley earthquake recorded at El Centro in 1940, and two
orthogonal accelerograms recorded at Emeryville during
the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989. These last two are
significantly different from the majority of records from
this event, as they were recorded at a very soft soil site.
Of the Eurasian events, the Gazli earthquake possesses the
largest local magnitude and peak ground accelerations of
the set, while the Friuli record is included on the basis of
its very high a/v ratio and unusual acceleration time-his-

703

tory. The acceleration histories show a large degree of variation in the number of acceleration cycles of significant
magnitude contained within each of them. In this regard,
the E1 Centro and Gazli records are the most onerous, while
the significant content of the Friuli record is contained in
only a few acceleration pulses. The composite frames
whose analytical responses are presented in a companion
paper generally possess fundamental natural periods in the
range 0.7-1.2 s. Only the Gazli record fails to possess
maximum spectral accelerations in this range, while the
Loma Prieta NS record in particular continues to significantly amplify the response of structures of period well in
excess of one second.
Figure 8 compares the acceleration response of spectra
of each of the six earthquake records and the EC8 design
spectra for each of the soil types A, B and C. In each case,
the peak ground acceleration has been scaled to 0.25 g and
the damping ratio set at 5%. The variation in the range of
periods in which large amplification occurs, even within
a/v classifications, is obvious. The shapes of the spectra for
both Loma Prieta records and that for the Spitak earthquake
are similar, as are those of the E1 Centro and Gazli records.
In contrast, the spectra for the Friuli record is quite unique.
Overall, the envelope of the response spectra of the selected
earthquakes is seen to completely encompass the design
spectra at all but the lowest and highest frequencies. In
addition, for the initial stages of the descending region of
the design spectrum, in which the fundamental periods of
the frames under consideration here are located, the
majority of spectra clearly exceed the code requirements.

Scaling of accelerograms for seismic analysis

As both strength and ductility demand are highly dependent
on ground motion intensity, it is important, if the effects
of other features such as frequency content and duration of
loading are to be assessed, that the intensity of each record
is similar. Moreover, to ensure the compatability of the
response with that due to the design event, the seismic
energy imparted to the structure by the imposed base accelerations should be scaled to equal that implied in the code
design spectrum. As earthquake forces are proportional to
the instantaneous acceleration caused by the imposed base
motions, accelerograms are normally scaled to a peak acceleration prior to their application in dynamic analysis.
Although this method is simple to apply and agrees with
the usual provisions of design codes, peak ground velocity
is more significant in the range of response periods encountered with moment resisting frames. A number of studies
on large selections of earthquake records 22,23 have confirmed that the degree of spectral dispersion is reduced in
the low period range when acceleration scaling is applied
and a similar reduction is observed at longer periods with
velocity scaling.
In an investigation of the behaviour of reinforced concrete buildings under earthquake loads, Kappos 25 scaled
earthquake records to possess equal values of spectrum
intensity, SI, defined as the area under a pseudo-velocity
spectrum curve between the periods of 0.1 and 2.5 s
SI(/3) =

2.5

Sv(T,/3)dT,

(11)

O.1

in which /3 represents the fraction of critical damping, Sv

is the pseudo-spectral velocity and T is the response period.

S e i s m i c response o f c o m p o s i t e f r a m e s - - I : B. M. Broderick a n d A. S. Elnashai

704

Table 2 Ground motion records selected for dynamic analyses

Ground motion records
Record label

Earthquake event

Direction

Epicentral distance

Soil type

Magnitude ML

Fruili

Friuli
(6 May 1976)
Gazli
(17 May 1976)
Loma Prieta
(17 October 1979)
Imperial Valley
(18 May 1940)
Spitak
(17 December 1988)
Loma Prieta
(17 October 1979)

EW

52 km

Rock

6.4

EW

14 km

7.3

S80W

97 km

Intermediate
stiffness
Soft

7.1

S00E

8 km

Stiff

6.6

Trans.

27 km

6.8

N10W

97 km

Intermediate
stiffness
Soft

Gazli
L. Prieta EW
El Centro
Spitak
L. Prieta NS

7.1

Table 3 Corrected properties of ground motion accelerograms

Ground motion record properties
Record

Peak ground
acceleration (g)

Peak ground
velocity (m sec 1)

a/v ratio
g m 1 sec 2

Period of maximum
amplification (s)

Fruili
Gazli
L. Prieta EW
El Centro
Spitak
L. Prieta NS

0.159
0.724
0.213
0.344
0.182
0.250

0.080
0.606
0.216
0.365
0.237
0.433

1.99
1.20
0.99
0.94
0.77
0.58

0.95
0.13
0.65
0.26
0.36
1.20

Table 4 Scaling of accelerograms to design peak ground acceleration and EC8 design spectrum spectral intensity
Scaling of ground motion accelerations
aglr~o)
(g)

[ ag(design)]/

SIEQ

SIEc8/SIEQ

[ag{r,a)]
(=A)

(m)

(=B)

Total scale
(=AxB)

ag{........ )
(g)

Fru i li
Gazli
L. Prieta EW
El Centro
Spitak
L. Prieta NS

0.159
0.724
0.213
0.344
0.182
0.250

1.56
0.35
1.17
0.73
1.37
1.00

143.7
71.3
116.3
100.5
95.6
192.3

1.20
2.42
1.48
1.72
1.80
0.90

1.89
0.84
1.74
1.25
2.47
0.90

0.301
0.608
0.371
0.430
0.500
0.225

Mean,/~
Std. dev., ~
COV = ~//~

0.312
0.194
0.62

1.03
0.40
0.39

119.9
39.1
0.33

1.75
0.38
0.22

1.52
0.58
0.38

0.406
0.126
0.31

Record

The pseudo-spectral velocity is obtained from a comparison

with respect to period of the acceleration response spectrum, viz,

Sv(Ti,/3) -

S,(T,,/3).
2rr

T~
'

(12)

where Sa is the spectral acceleration. Thus Sv may be considered to be a reflection of the acceleration response spectrum and the spectrum intensity, SI, considered to be the
area under the psuedo-spectral velocity characteristic
between the limits indicated. The effect of scaling to equal
spectrum intensitites is to ensure that earthquake records
possess equal energy contents between the periods 0.1 and
2.5 s. It has been demonstrated 26 that such a procedure sig-

nificantly reduces response spectral dispersion in the range

0.5-3.0 s, producing a more consistent level of displacement ductility demand.
As the composite frames being investigated here generally possess natural periods in the range 0.7-1.2 s, base
excitation scaling to a peak ground velocity would be most
appropriate to ensure equal loading intensities. However,
Eurocode 8 does not make any allowance for such a procedure, instead requiring that seismic loading be uniquely
defined in terms of a peak ground acceleration. As all records possess a unicue a/v ratio, scaling the ground motions
to a common velocity will destroy the equivalence between
the records and the design spectra. To overcome this difficulty, use is made of the spectrum intensity. Inspection of
equations (11) and (12) indicates the dependence of this

Seismic response of composite frames--I: B. M. Broderick and A. S. Elnashai

0.75-

Conclusions
.

i ~

,a,

c~i

:.,

1.2 ~ alv

" *

(High)
O"

0.04

0. l

" "~"'~ -~"

Period (s)

0.75
El

:~

I t

/.

0.5

I .,

-,~. i ~/~.-

'i >

Centro

"._'. ",

-., /.'~-'~ ".\

ECS-C,,A

......:.:

.<
........

r~

0.8 < j)v_< 1.2

(Intermediate)

0
0.04

0.1

"k.--.k.
,

"~

"'" "~'""
5

Period (s)

0.75
,-.

.~
0.5
m
<o

~ 0.25

705

Z"
) : ~.-.~.~-~..',

-'., "

L,,'%

,: i i .X,';,,

L.Prieta (NS)

Ecs-ct, B

.,;~

(c)
a/v <0.8

flow)
0

,...,,..,.

.....

0.04

O.1

Period (s)

Figure 8 C o m p a r i s o n of response spectra f o r g r o u n d m o t i o n s

classified by a/v ratio with the EC8 linear elastic design spectra
f o r subsoil classes A, B and C. (Peak G r o u n d Acceleration =
0.25 g; d a m p i n g ratio = 5%)

quantity on the spectral accelerations, hence it agrees with

the provisions of the design code. A two-stage scaling procedure is therefore employed, details of which are provided
in Table 4. In fulfilment of Eurocode 8 requirements, the
selected accelerograms are first scaled to a peak ground
acceleration of 0.25 g, after which they are rescaled so that
their spectrum intensities are equal to that of the code
design spectrum obtained with a ground acceleration of
0.25 g. The total scale applied to the ground accelerations
is then the product of two operations, and the peak values
in the resulting accelerograms correspond to the design
earthquakes. Further scaling of these accelerograms to provide loading intensities greater than or less than the design
loads is then performed in a linear fashion As the velocity
responses are obtained from the integration of these accelerograms, scaling of ground acceleration in this fashion will
preserve the original a/v ratios.
Comparison of the mean and standard deviation values
for the full set of earthquakes shows that the overall effect
of the scaling operation is to increase the maximum ground
accelerations, but to reduce the level of variability between
them. More importantly, the resulting level of variation in
each response parameter should also be less. In addition,
the overall increase in the severity of loading caused by
the scaling operation further ensures that the acceleration
response spectra of the individual earthquakes will fully
envelop the design spectrum for all response periods of
interest.

In Eurocode 8, the ability of ductile structures to dissipate

input seismic energy through stable inelastic deformations
is reflected in the reduction in seismic forces through the
application of behaviour factors. A reliable evaluation of
these behaviour factors, whether for individual structures
or for a general class of structure, must account for the
actual behaviour of both the structure as a whole and the
members of which it is composed. For the evaluation of
the seismic performance of moment-resisting composite
frames, criteria have been defined which reflect the
response at both local (member) and global (storey) levels.
At local level, expressions for the rotation ductility capacity
of steel and partially-encased columns are employed. These
expressions are based on the critical buckling strain in the
elements of the steel sections. For composite beams, separate failure criteria have been defined to reflect the contrasting behaviour of these members in sagging and hogging bending regions. In general, the selected response
criteria should not only reflect the limits of acceptable
structural response, but should also account for the limits
within which the analytical techniques employed remain
accurate.
In order that the range of earthquake loads to be applied
in dynamic analysis is sufficiently wide to capture the general response characteristics of composite frames, a rational
basis is required for the selection of accelerograms. To this
end, a selection based on the peak acceleration-to-velocity
ratio ensures that a range of seismological characteristics
are included. It is also essential, however, that each of these
selected accelerograms be scaled to a common intensity. It
is unlikely that conventional peak acceleration scaling will
achieve this due to the additional dependence of seismic
response parameters on the velocity characteristics of the
ground motions. Instead, a scaling procedure based on
equal spectral intensities should be employed whenever
more uniform spectral ductility demands are desired. By
employing this technique, the magnitude of the applied
loads may be scaled to equal that implied by code design
spectra, in this instance that stipulated in Eurocode 8.
In a companion paper ~, the response criteria and earthquake ground motions selected herein are employed in the
evaluation of the seismic performance of composite frames.
From the identified responses, the structural behaviour factors actually displayed by the individual structures are
evaluated. The procedures outlined here allow these behaviour factors to be considered to be typical of the general
class of composite frame under investigation, while the
degree of conservatism with which they have been applied
ensures that any ensuing results may be reliable applied to
improved design procedures.
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2
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4
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