Math 61, Winter 2015 Schaeffer

Discrete Structures
Homework assignment 2, due Monday, January 26th

More on induction
Strong induction is a proof technique related to the kind of induction we saw in Lectures 12
and HW1. As with the standard kind of induction you know and love, we use strong induction
to prove claims of the form n b P (n):
The base case proceeds as in standard induction: Prove P (b).
In the inductive step, fix a value n > b, and prove that P (n) is true assuming that P (m)
is true for all m satisfying b m < n. This assumption is called the [strong] inductive
hypothesis.
Here is an example of a strong induction proof: Remember that a prime number p is an integer
2 whose only divisors are 1 and p. A number n 2 that is not prime is called composite, and
it is an elementary fact that every composite number is divisible by a prime number.
Let P (n) be the statement n is a product of prime numbers. We want to prove
that P (n) is true for all n 2.
(Base case.) P (2) is true because 2 is prime.
(Inductive step.) Now let n > 2. If n is prime, we are done. If n is composite,
then it is divisible by some prime number p, so we may factor n = p (n/p)
where n/p is an integer. Now, 2 n/p < n, so by the strong inductive
hypothesis, P (n/p) is true. Hence, n/p is a product of prime numbers, so n is
as well.
1. Consider the following function:
b : {all strings over the alphabet {0, 1}} Z0
given by b(0 1 d ) =

d
X

k 2k . For example,

k=0

b(01101) = 0 1 + 1 2 + 1 4 + 0 8 + 1 16 = 2 + 4 + 16 = 22.
Prove that b is surjective: For all n 0 there is a finite sequence s over {0, 1} such that
b(s) = n. Use strong induction.

2. Another bad induction proof:

Claim: For all n 1, if S is a set of n horses, then all the horses in S are the
same color.
Base case: If |S| = 1, then clearly all the horses in S are the same color.
Inductive step: Suppose that n 1 and that |S| = n + 1. Label the horses in
S: S = {h1 , . . . , hn , hn+1 } and let S 0 = {h1 , . . . , hn } and S 00 = {h2 , . . . , hn+1 }.
Since |S 0 | = |S 00 | = n, all the horses in these sets are the same color. Since
every horse in S is in either S 0 or S 00 all the horses are the same color.
Explain why this proof doesnt work.

Functions and relations

3. For each function below, determine whether the function is injective, surjective, bijective,
or neither injective nor surjective.
If the function is not injective, give two different elements of the domain that map to the
same element of the codomain. If the function is not surjective, give an element of the
codomain that is not in the range.
If the function is bijective, write down the functions inverse.
a. The function f : {1, 2, 3} P({1, 2, 3}) given by x 7 {1, x}.
b. The function f : Z Z Z given by (a, b) 7 a + b.
c. The function f : R R defined by f (x) = x 2 + 4x + 1.
d. The function f : R R defined by f (x) = x 3 .
e. The function f : Z Z defined by f (x) = x 3 .
f. The function f : R R defined by f (x) = e x .
g. The function f : R (0, ) defined by f (x) = e x .
h. The function f : {0, 1} {0, 1} {1, 2, 3, 6} given by (a, b) 7 2a 3b .
4. Let n be a positive integer. A partition of n is a decreasing list of numbers (separated by
+) whose sum is n. For example, the following are partitions of 5:
1+1+1+1+1

2+1+1+1

2+2+1

3+1+1

3+2

4+1

Let Ak (n) be the set of partitions of n that have exactly k terms, and let Bk (n) be the
set of partitions whose largest term is k.
Explain how to construct a bijective function f : Ak (n) Bk (n) and how to construct
an inverse f 1 : Bk (n) Ak (n). Conclude that |Ak (n)| = |Bk (n)|.
Hint: Think of a good way to draw partitions.

5. Let X be a set. We are going to prove the following claim:

There is no surjection f : X P(X).
where P(X) is the power set of X.
Our argument will be a proof by contradiction. In a proof by contradiction, we assume
the opposite of the claim were trying to prove (the contradiction hypothesis), and then
we show that this assumption leads to a contradiction (the absurd conclusion).
Assume for contradiction that there is a surjection f : X P(X). Consider
the set J = { y X : y
/ f (y ) }. Because J X, J P(X), so (since f is
a surjection) there exists z X such that f (z) = J. Because z X, either
z J or z
/ J.
Finish the proof by explaining how this last conclusion leads to a contradiction.
Hint: If z J, then what must be true about z?
6. Remember that a partially ordered set (poset for short) is a set S with a relation that
is reflexive, transitive, and antisymmetric. It is good fun to draw finite posets as Hasse
diagrams. In a Hasse diagram, one writes down all the elements of the poset, and then
draws an arrow x y if x y , x 6= y , and there are no elements in between x and y .
Draw Hasse diagrams of the following posets:
a. The power set of {1, 2, 3} with the partial order .
b. The set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} with the partial order (note that every total order is also
a partial order, but not vice versa).
c. The set {1, . . . , 15} with the partial order | (divisibility).
7. For each n 1, let Tn be the set of all tilings of the 1 n strip with squares and dominoes.
As you proved in HW1, |Tn | = Fn+1 where Fm is the mth Fibonacci number.
Consider the following relation on Tn : If A and B are two tilings of the 1 n strip, we
say A B if there is a rotation of the plane that takes A to B.
For example, the tilings of the 1 5 strip below are 6= but they are (rot. by radians):

a. Explain why is an equivalence relation.

b. Explain why every -equivalence class has either cardinality 1 or cardinality 2.

c. We call a tiling of the 1 n strip with squares and dominoes self-symmetric if its
-equivalence class contains only itself. For example,

are some self-symmetric tilings of the 1 6 strip.

Let T + (n) be the number of self-symmetric tilings of the 1 n strip with squares
and dominoes. Prove that

T ( n1
if n is odd, and
+
2 )
T (n) =
T ( n2 ) + T ( n2 1) if n is even.
where T (m) is the number of ways to tile the 1 m strip with squares and dominoes.
d. Let T (n) be the number of non-self-symmetric tilings of the 1n strip with squares
and dominoes, so T (n) = T + (n) + T (n).
Explain why partitions (breaks up) Tn into T + (n) equivalence classes of cardinality
1 and 21 T (n) equivalence classes of cardinality 2.
e. Write down a formula for |Tn /|, the number of -equivalence classes on Tn in terms
of the Fibonacci numbers. In words, |Tn /| is the number of ways to tile the 1 n
strip with squares and dominoes up to symmetry.
As an example, |T5 /| has 5 elements (represented by the red boxes):