NIT Surathkal Terrabind Review

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON BLACK
COTTON SOIL TREATED WITH TERRABIND

CHEMICAL AND FLY ASH
by
VIJETHA R.V
Register No.: 11TS27F
THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA
SURATHKAL, P.O. SRINIVASNAGAR - 575 025
MANGALORE, INDIA
JULY 2013
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal
DECLARATION
by the M.Tech Student
I hereby declare that the Report of the P.G. Project Work entitled EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION
ON
BLACK
COTTON
SOIL
TREATED
WITH
TERRABIND CHEMICAL AND FLY ASH which is being submitted to the

National Institute of Technology Karnataka Surathkal, in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Technology in the
Department of Civil Engineering, is a bonafide report of the work carried out by me.
The material contained in this Report has not been submitted to any University or
Institution for the award of any degree.
11TS27F
VIJETHA R.V
(Register Number, Name & Signature of the Student)

Department of Civil Engineering
Place: NITK, SURATHKAL

Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I avail myself of this opportunity to express my gratitude and regards for Dr. A. U. Ravi
Shankar, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, who has been both the inspiration and the
instrument for the success of the entire project. I thank him for his able and timely guidance
throughout.
It gives me great pleasure to acknowledge Ms. Lekha B.M, Phd Scholar, Department of Civil
Engineering, who has supported and guided me at every stage of the project. I also express my
extreme gratitude towards Mr. Samir Das Gupta, Terra Nova Technologies, for providing,
Terrabind chemical for my present study.
I am deeply indebted to all the faculty members of the Department of civil engineering for their
knowledgeable advice and encouragement throughout the course of the study.
I sincerely acknowledge the valuable help rendered by Mr. Sadhanand and Mr. Yatish and all
other non-teaching staff of the Department of Civil Engineering, NITK.
Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their support. It would have been
impossible for me to accomplish this study without their support.
Vijetha R.V
ABSTRACT
Black cotton soil (BC) is one among the problematic soil that has a high potential for shrinking or
swelling due to change in moisture content. Destructive results caused by this soil have been
reported in many countries. Black cotton soil abundantly found in Gadag district of North
Karnataka, are susceptible to detrimental volumetric changes, with changes in moisture. There
have been many methods available for controlling the expansive nature of black cotton soil.
Chemical stabilization is one of the effective methods that can be used to stabilize these soils.
Hence, in the present work, laboratory studies has been carried-out to investigate the influence of
chemical called Terrabind on BC soil and further the influence on BC when Terrabind is added in
combination with fly ash (FA) is investigated. Basic geotechnical properties like grain size
distribution, specific gravity, consistency limits have been determined and engineering properties
like MDD, OMC, Unconfined compressive strength, CBR, Triaxial compression test has been
determined for untreated and treated soil. Swelling properties have been determined by
conducting free swell index test and swell pressure test. Durability of the soil is studied by
conducting wet-dry cycle test and freeze- thaw cycle test. Fatigue test has been conducted to
determine the fatigue life of untreated and treated BC soil. Further chemical analysis was
conducted to determine the chemical composition of untreated and treated soil. From the
experimental results it was observed that consistency limits and dry density improved marginally,
unconfined compressive strength and unsoaked CBR has increased enormously, Soaked CBR has
not increased much. Soil stabilized with Terrabind and FA has showed better results compared to
soil stabilized with Terrabind. Percentage weight loss was less than 14% for 12th cycle of freezethaw, which shows that the stabilized soil has become durable. Swelling has reduced to a great
extent. Swelling of soil stabilized with Terrabind and fly ash (FA) has reduced by 100%.
.
CONTENTS
Declaration
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Contents
List of figures
List of tables
List of Abbreviations
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
1.2 ROLE OF SUBGRADE
1.3 SOIL STABILIZATION
1.4 USES OF STABILIZATION
1.5 PRINCIPLES OF SOIL STABILIZATION
1.6 STABILIZATION USING TERRABIND CHEMICAL
1.6.1The science behind reacting clay soil with Terrabind
1.6.2 Terrabind and Fly Ash (FA)
1.6.3 Terrabind chemical constituents
1.7 NEED OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION
1.8 OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION
1.9 SCOPE OF WORK
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
10
11
2.1 GENERAL
11
2.2 IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SWELLING SOILS
11
2.3 BLACK COTTON SOIL
13
2.4 STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES
14
2.4.1 Mechanical stabilization
14
2.4.2 Chemical stabilization
15
2.5 TYPES OF STABILIZERS
17
2.5.1 Portland Cement
17
2.5.2 Quick Lime/Hydrated Lime
17
2.5.3 Fly ash
18
2.6 REVIEWS ON RESEARCH FINDINGS ON STABILIZATION OF SOIL USING

TRADITIONAL ADMIXTURES
19
2.7 REVIEWS ON RESEARCH FINDINGS ON STABILIZATION OF SOIL USING

NON TRADITIONAL ADMIXTURES
22
2.8 DURABILITY STUDIES
25
2.9 SUMMARY
26
3.0 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1SOIL SPECIMEN
27
27
27
3.2 pH OF SOIL BY ELECTROMETRIC METHOD
27
3.3 CONDUCTIVITY OF SOIL BY ELECTROMETRIC METHOD
28
3.4 SILICA CONTENT IN SOIL BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD
29
3.5 IRON OXIDE (Fe2O3) IN SOIL BY COLORIMETRIC METHOD
30
3.6 R2O3 (Al2O3 + Fe2O3) IN SOIL BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD
31
3.7 CHLORIDE CONTENT IN SOIL BY ARGENTOMETRIC METHOD 32

3.8 Ca AND Mg OXIDE IN SOIL BY TITRIMETRIC METHOD
33
3.9 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS RESULTS ON UNTREATED AND TREATED SOIL

36
4.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
37
4.1 GENERAL
37
4.2 MATERIALS USED
37
4.2.1 Soil
37
4.2.2 Terrabind
38
4.2.3 Application of Terrabind to BC Soil
38
4.2.4 Class C Fly ash
38
4.2.5 Terrabind dosage
39
4.3 TESTS CONDUCTED ON SOIL
40
4.3.1 Specific Gravity test
40
4.3.2 Grain size analysis test
40
4.3.3 Consistency limits test
40
4.3.4 Compaction tests
41
4.3.5 Unconfined Compression Test
42
4.3.6 California Bearing Ratio Test
42
4.3.7 Triaxial compression test
43
4.3.8 Free swell index
44
4.3.9 Swell pressure
45
4.3.10 Durability
4.3.11 Fatigue test
45
47
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50
5.1 GENERAL
50
5.2 TESTS ON BASIC PROPERTIES OF BLACK COTTON SOIL
50
5.3 RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED ON BC SOIL TREATED WITH

TERRABIND CHEMICAL AND TERRABIND+ FLY
51
5.3.1 Plasticity Characteristics
51
5.3.2 Compaction test results
53
5.3.3 Unconfined compression test results
54
5.3.4 CBR test results
56
5.3.5 Triaxial test
57
58
58
5.2.8 Durability
59
5.3.9 Fatigue
61
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
63
6.1 SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDIES
REFERENCES
65
66
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig No.
Description
Page No
2.1: Distribution of black cotton soil in India
14
4.1: Black cotton soil
37
4.2: Casagrande apparatus for determination of liquid limit
41
4.3: Samples prepared for the determination of plastic limit
41
4.4: UCS Samples
42
4.5: Determination of CBR
43
4.6: Triaxial compression testing setup
44
4.7: Free swell index setup
45
4.8: Samples prepared for freeze-thaw & wet-dry cycle test
47
4.9: Samples prepared for freeze-thaw & wet-dry cycle test
47
4.10: Schematic Diagram of Accelerated Fatigue Load Test Set-up
48
5.1: variation of liquid limit of treated soil for different curing period
52
5.2: variation of Plastic limit of treated soil for different curing period
53
5.3: variation of Plasticity index of treated soil for different curing period
53
5.4: variation of maximum dry density of treated soil for different curing
54
5.5: Variation of UCS of treated soil for different curing period
55
5.6: Variation of Unsoaked CBR of treated soil for different curing period
57
5.7: Variation of Soaked CBR of treated soil for different curing period
57
5.8: Graphical representation of freeze-thaw cycles for untreated and treated

BC soil
61
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
Description
Page No
1.1 Physical properties of Terrabind
2.1 Classification of swelling soils as per (IS: 1498)
13
3.1: Chemical composition of untreated and treated BC soil
36
4.1: Physical properties of FA
39
5.1: Results of basic soil properties of untreated black cotton soil
50
5.2: Variation of LL, PL and PI of untreated and treated soil
52
5.3: MDD and OMC of untreated and treated soil for different curing period
54
5.4: UCS results of untreated and treated soil for different curing period
55
5.5: CBR test results of untreated and treated soil for different curing period
56
5.6: Triaxial test results of untreated and treated soil for different curing periods
58
5.7: FSI test results of untreated and treated soil for different curing period
58
5.8: Swell pressure test results of untreated and treated BC soil
59
5.9: Freeze and thaw test results of untreated and treated BC soil
60
5.10: Fatigue test results of untreated BC soil
61
5.11: Fatigue test results of soil treated with Terrabind
62
5.12: Fatigue test results of soil treated with Terrabind and Fly ash
62
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities of any country. Mobility is
provided by the transportation infrastructure and this has a huge impact on the
development and welfare of the population. In several countries, lack of transportation
infrastructure and regulatory controls are jointly impacting economic development.
Moreover, transport systems are among the various factors affecting the quality of
life. Though there are several modes of transport, like road, rail, air, and water, in
many countries road networks cater to the majority of transportation needs. Hence
roadways are the lifeline of our country and the development of road infrastructure
has played a very important role in faster development of the Indian economy. For
example, in India, as per the National Highways Authority of India, about 65% of
freight and 80% passenger traffic is carried by the roads. The National Highways
carry about 40% of total road traffic, though only about 2% of the road network is
covered by these roads. Rural areas have very poor access. About 33% of villages in
India still do not have all-weather road and remains cut-off during monsoon. Average
growth of the number of vehicles has been around 10.16% per annum over recent
years (The Automobile industry in India is rapidly growing with an annual production
of over 2.6 million vehicles). Hence only roads are considered in this project. The
growth of the population has created a need for better and economical vehicular
operation which requires good highways having proper geometric design, pavement
condition and maintenance. The highways have to be maintained so that comfort,
convenience and safety are provided to the travelling public. Problematic soil such as
expansive soil is normally encountered in foundation engineering designs for
highways, embankments, retaining walls, backfills etc. Expansive soil are normally
found in semi-arid regions of tropical and moderate climate zones and are abundant,
where the annual evaporation exceeds the precipitation and can be found anywhere in
the world. (Chen 1975).
Expansive soil is one among the problematic soil that has a high potential for
shrinking or swelling due to change of moisture content. Destructive results caused by
this type of soil have been reported in many countries. Rural roads, national and state
highways in the North Karnataka are facing problem due to early distress in the
pavement due to the poor strength of soil under wet condition. Sub-grade is the major
component of a pavement. The performance of the pavement is dependent on the type
and properties of the sub-grade soil. Various techniques are used for stabilization of
sub-grade soil. Hence, it is necessary to have a proper diagnostic study of the soil to
be used as sub grade.
1.2 ROLE OF SUB GRADE

The Sub-grade refers to the in-situ soil on which the stresses from the overlying
roadway will be distributed. The Sub-base or Sub-base course and the base or base
course materials are stress distributing layer components of a pavement structure.
The Pavement structure consists of a relatively thin wearing surface constructed over
a base course and a sub-base course, which rests upon an in-situ sub-grade. The
wearing surface is primarily asphalt/concrete. The properties of all the pavement
structure layers are considered in the design of the flexible pavement system. They
notified that the construction of long lasting, economical flexible pavement structures
requires sub-grade materials with good engineering properties. The sub-grade should
possess desirable properties to extend the service life of the roadway section and to
reduce the required thickness of the flexible pavement structure. These desirable
properties include strength, drainage, ease and permanency of compaction, and
permanency of strength.
A sub grade performance generally depends on two interrelated characteristics:
Load bearing capacity: The sub grade should be capable of withstanding oncoming
loads. This load bearing capacity is often affected by degree of compaction, moisture
content, and soil type. A sub grade that can support a high amount of loading without
excessive deformation is considered good.
Volume changes: Soil may undergo volume change when exposed to excessive
moisture or freezing conditions. Some clay soil shrink and swell depending upon their
moisture content, while soil with excessive fines may be susceptible to frost heave in
freezing areas.
1.3 SOIL STABILIZATION

Stabilization is the process of blending and mixing materials with a soil to improve
certain properties of the soil. The process may include the blending of soil to achieve
a desired gradation or mixing of commercially available additives that may alter the
gradation, texture or plasticity, or act as a binder for cementation of the soil. Soil
stabilization is the collective term used to denote any physical, chemical or biological
method or any combination of such methods employed to improve certain properties
of natural soil to make it serve adequately for an intended engineering purpose. The
different uses of soil pose different requirements of mechanical strength and
resistance to environmental forces, controlling method to be used for the stabilization.
Stabilization is being used for a variety of engineering works, the most common
application being in the construction of road and air-field pavements, where the main
objective is to increase the strength or stabilization of soil and to reduce the
construction cost by making best use of locally available materials. In other words,
stabilization includes compaction, preconsolidation, drainage and many other such
processes. A cement material or a chemical is added to a natural soil for the purpose
of stabilization. The decreasing availability and increasing cost of construction
materials and uncertain economic climates force engineers to consider more
economical methods for building roads.
There is an urgent need to identify new materials, improve construction techniques to
achieve economy in construction cost. Commonly used materials are fast depleting
and this has led to an increase in the cost of construction. Hence, the search for new
materials and improved techniques to process the local materials for better
performance has received an increased impetus. When poor quality soil is available at
the construction site, the best option is to modify the properties of the soil so that it
meets the pavement design requirements. This has led to the development of soil
stabilization techniques. Since the nature and properties of natural soil vary widely, an
appropriate stabilization technique has to be adopted for a particular situation after
considering the soil properties. Soil improvement by mechanical or chemical means is
widely adopted. In order to stabilize soil for improving strength and durability, a
number of chemical additives, both inorganic and organic, have also been used.
1.4 USES OF STABILIZATION
Pavement design is based on the premise that minimum specified structural quality
will be achieved for each layer of material in the pavement system. Each layer must
resist shearing, avoid excessive deflections that cause fatigue cracking within the
layer or in overlying layers, and prevent excessive permanent deformation through
densification. As the quality of a soil layer is increased, the ability of that layer to
distribute the load over a greater area is generally increased so that a reduction in the
required thickness of the soil and surface layers may be permitted.
Quality Improvement: The most common improvements achieved through
stabilization include better soil gradation, reduction of plasticity index or swelling
potential, and increases in durability and strength. In wet weather, stabilization may
also be used to provide a working platform for construction operations. These types of
soil quality improvement are referred to as soil modification.
Thickness reduction: The strength and stiffness of a soil layer can be improved
through the use of additives to permit a reduction in design thickness of the stabilized
material compared with an unstabilized or unbound material. The design thickness
strength, stability, and durability requirements of a base or sub base course can be
reduced if further analysis indicates suitability.
1.5 PRINCIPLES OF SOIL STABILIZATION
The principles of soil stabilization are:
1. Densification of soil by decreasing the air voids.
2. Increasing the compaction using well graded soil mass.
3. Designing the soil mix for intended stability and durability values.
4. Reducing the adsorbed water layer of clay particle to achieve maximum
compaction.
The process of soil stabilization is useful in the following applications,
1. Reducing the permeability of soil.
2. Increasing the bearing capacity of foundation soil.
3. Increasing the shear strength of soil.
4. Improving the durability and life span of the structures under adverse moisture
and stress conditions.
5. Improving the natural ground for the construction of highways and airfields.
6. Controlling the grading of soil and aggregates in the construction of bases and
Sub bases of the highway and airfields.
The needs for soil stabilization in the present scenario are
1. Limited financial resources make it difficult to provide a complete network
road network system using conventional method of construction.
2. Effective utilization of locally available soil and other suitable stabilizing
agents.
3. Environment friendly procedures to encourage the use of industrial wastages
to reduce the cost of construction of roads.
1.6 STABILIZATION USING TERRABIND CHEMICAL

The need to replace clay soil in the embankment/ sub grade layer is eliminated/
reduced with Terrabind treatment. The reaction of Terrabind with clay soil creates a
permanent reaction in the molecular structure of clay soil particles rendering reduced
swell potential, greater compaction, load bearing and soil particle cohesiveness.
Terrabind will improve engineering properties (compaction, cohesion, load bearing)
of soil and crushed macadam road base designs by 25% - 150%.
Conventional soil stabilization techniques involve chemicals molecules attaching to

clay soil grains. However, these chemicals molecules get washed away with rising
ground water. Terrabind alters the very molecular structure thus the characteristics of
the soil clatter permanently. With terrabind, road developers can reduce pavement
thickness, lower initial construction costs, improve logistical efficiency. Lower life
cycle costs and minimize human error while increasing road base strength and
durability when compared to their planned design mix. World over, this stabilization
technology has proved its capability. Terra Nova technologies manufactures the same
technology in India at a lower cost.
1.6.1
The science behind reacting clay soil with Terrabind
1. Terrabind attacks the clay lattice of the soil which alters the ionic charge in
clay and creates a chemical bond between the clay particles.
2. Terrabind reduces shrink and swell by forming a chemical and physical bond
between the clay particles that resist water absorption. This allows the
moisture content of the soil to stabilize which reduces the movement of the
soil.
3. Terrabind breaks down the capillary action of soil particles thus reducing the
moisture retentive nature of most expansive soil.
4. Terrabind distributes the mineral ions evenly throughout the mixture, thereby
increasing particulate attraction and decreasing voids resulting in increased
material density and hardness while maintaining flexibility.
5. The interaction of its components activates and binds the naturally occurring
mineral cements in soil together to form a material analogous to most
sedimentary rocks.
6. More effective than lime in high sulphate soil (lime reaction in such soil leads
to volume expansion leading
1.6.2
Terrabind and Fly Ash (FA)
Terrabind in combination with Fly ash is highly recommended for use in combination
with Terrabind. Terrabind has a catalyst effect when combined in clay soil with fly
ash. 5%-10% fly ash (Class C) by weight of soil is an ideal range.
1.6.3
Terrabind chemical constituents
Terrabind is an advanced proprietary electrolyte lignin emulsion and a highly

concentrated liquid chemical. The science behind Terrabinds formulation focuses on
creating three primary changes in soil molecules;
1. Alter the ionic exchange responsible for water attraction in soil molecules.
2. Break down capillary action responsible for water retention (swell/shrink).
3. Activate aluminosilicates within soil to increase particle binding and layer
density.
Lignins and lignosulphonates: Lignin is the active chemical compound responsible
for binding cells and fibres in trees and plants. Lignins provide the required tensile
and compressive strength for trees to grow vertically without being drawn to the
ground.
Terrabind
formulation
consists
of
proprietary combination
of
lignosulphonates (that contain calcium hydroxide) and organic lignins that allow for
polymeric binding between soil grains.
Electrolyte emulsion: The electrolyte emulsion attacks the clay lattice of soil by
altering the ionic charge in clay and breaking down the capillary action of clay soil
particles thus reducing the ability for soil particles to attract and retain moisture. This
results in reduced shrink and swell of soil particles. The electrolyte emulsion also
stabilizes the moisture level resulting in reduced soil particle movement.
The process of mechanical mixing of the electrolyte emulsion and lignins in Terrabind
and with soil activates aluminosilicates present in soil that catalyses the absorption of
mineral ions resulting in strong polymeric binding, greater layer density and reduced
voids.
The addition of cementitous binders (lime/fly ash/cement) with Terrabind treatment of

soil further strengthens soil because Terabind catalyses the activation of
aluminosilicates in soil along with the calcium hydroxide present in cementitous
binders. Additionally, the properties of emulsions allows for greater workability of the
materials with lesser moisture thus resulting in a more uniform mix and greater
absorption of cementitous components with soil molecules.
Table 1.1 shows the physical properties of Terrabind chemical.
Table1.1 Physical properties of Terrabind
Description
Properties
Form
Liquid
Odor
Sharp,sulfurous
Color
Dark Amber
Toxicity
See Cautions
Wetting Ability
Excellent
Detergency
None
Foaming
None
Emulsification
None
Phosphates
None
Storage
2 Years
Cold Stability
Excellent
Flash Point
None
Boiling Point
182 degrees C
Solubility in Water
Complete
Specific Gravity
1.7
Ph
Weight per gallon
14.19 lb.
1.7 NEED OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION

In recent years, more attention has been given to the use of various non-traditional
chemicals such as sulfonated oils, potassium compounds, ammonium chloride,
enzymes, polymers and so on as soil stabilizers due to expansion in manufacturing
capacity, low cost, and relatively wide applicability compared to standard stabilizers
(hydrated lime, Portland cement, and bitumen) which require large amounts of
stabilizers to stabilize soil thus leading to higher costs. The process has not been
subjected to a rigorous technical investigation and is presently carried out using
empirical guidelines based on experience. Thus we need to investigate the
stabilization mechanism of some of the commercially available chemical based
products to better understand their potential value for road construction.
Terrabind is one such chemical manufactured by Terra Nova technologies for the first
time in India. World over, this stabilization technology has proved its capability.
Limited laboratory experiments are performed to determine if these products improve
the material properties of soil and if they offers superior mechanical properties
compared to other types of stabilization for which comprehensive laboratory and field
performance already exists. It becomes therefore important to perform a research
study that can give required scientific support to the use of Terrabind as soil stabilizer.
Since black cotton soil is one of the problematic soils, terrabind is used to stabilize
this soil to prove its capability.
1.8 OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION
The investigation is carried out on black cotton soil (expansive soil), which is a major
type of soil available in Northern Karnataka. In order to overcome the high shrinkage
and swelling properties of this soil, stabilization is a must to prevent destruction of
structures built on it. This soil is having very poor geotechnical properties. The liquid
limit and plasticity index are very high (>50 and >30 respectively) and to improve
these properties, laboratory investigation has been conducted by stabilizing the soil
with Terrabind chemical. Although there are variety of chemicals available in the
market, only limited research has been performed on effectiveness of use of these
chemicals as stabilizing agent. Proper investigation is very much essential to

determine the potential of Terrabind in improving the geotechnical properties of soil.
Objectives of the present investigation are:
1) The general objective of this investigation is to study the engineering properties of
black cotton soil treated with a Terrabind Stabilizer. The influence of applying
this stabilizer has been examined via various laboratory tests.
2) To study the suitability of the commercial stabilizer for stabilizing BC soil.
3) To Study the fatigue behavior of stabilized soil under repeated load condition.
4) To determine the durability of the treated and untreated BC soil.
5) To study the swelling characteristics of treated soil.
6) To determine the chemical composition of untreated and treated soil.
1.9 SCOPE OF WORK

To meet the above mentioned objectives, BC soil obtained from Gadag district
situated in North Karnataka is used for the study. Laboratory experiments are
performed to evaluate the geotechnical properties of the soil. To find the variation in
strength properties, soil is blended with commercially available chemical called
Terrabind and further Terrabind + fly ash combination is also tried on the soil and its
strength properties were determined. The performance of Terrabind treated soil is
investigated for different curing period. To study the performance of soil (untreated
and treated) under repeated load condition, fatigue test has been conducted under
different load condition and its performance at different curing period is studied.
Swell pressure test and free swell index test is conducted on treated and untreated soil
to determine the improvements in swelling properties of treated soil. Chemical
composition of soil is determined by performing various laboratory chemical tests.
Further freeze-thaw and wet-dry test is performed to determine the durability of the
stabilized soil.
10
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
For centuries humankind has wondered at the instability of earth materials, especially
expansive soil. One day they are dry and hard, and the next day wet and soft.
Expansive soil has always presented problems for lightly loaded structures,
pavements, by consolidating under load and by changing volumetrically along with
seasonal moisture variation. The results are usually excessive deflections and
differential movements resulting in damage to foundation systems, structural
elements, and architectural features. In a significant number of cases the structures
become unusable or uninhabitable. Even when efforts are made to improve these
soils, the lack of appropriate improvements sometimes results in volumetric changes
that are responsible for billions of dollars of damage each year. (Warren and Kirby
2004).Therefore, we need to do more to develop our knowledge of proven methods to
deal with expansive soil, support research for further improvement of these methods,
and work towards better quality control and quality assurance for their application.
Expansive soil has a high potential for shrinking or swelling due to change of
moisture content. The primary problem that arises with regard to expansive soil is that
deformations are significantly greater than the elastic deformations and they cannot be
predicted by the classical elastic or plastic theory. Movement is usually in an uneven
pattern and of such a magnitude to cause extensive damage to the structures resting on
them. Expansive soil can be found on almost all the continents on the Earth.
Destructive results caused by this type of soil have been reported in many countries.
2.2 IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SWELLING SOILS

For identification of swelling soils, some laboratory tests are available. Clay minerals
can be known by microscopic examination, X-ray diffraction and differential thermal
analysis. From clay minerals by the presence of montomorillonite, the expansiveness
11
of the soil can be judged. Another simple way of finding out expansiveness in
laboratory is free-swell test.
It is reported that good grade high swelling commercial Bentonite will have a free
swell values 1200% to 2000%. Soil having free swell values as low as 100% may
exhibit considerable volume change, when wetted under light loading, and should be
viewed with caution. Where soils is having free swell values below 50% seldom
exhibit appreciable volume changes, even under very light loadings. But these limits
are considerably influenced by the local climatic conditions (Holtez and Gibbs
1956).
The free swell test should be combined with the properties of the soil. A liquid limit
and plasticity index, together pointers to swelling characteristic of the soil for large
clay content. Also the shrinkage limit can be used to estimating the swell potential of
a soil. A low shrinkage limit would show that a soil could have volume change at low
moisture content. Weather a soil with high swelling potential will actually exhibit
swelling characteristics depends on several factors. That of greatest importance is
difference between field soil moisture content at the time the construction is under
taken and the equilibrium moisture content that will finally be achieved under the
conditions associated with the complicated structure. If the equilibrium moisture
content is considerable and higher than field moisture content, then the soil is of high
swelling capacity, vigorous swelling may occur by upward heaving of soil or structure
by the development of large swelling pressure.
Potentially expansive soils are usually recognized in the field by their fissured or
shattered condition, or obvious structural damage caused by such soils to existing
buildings. The potential expansion or potential swell or the degree of expansion is a
convenient term used to classify expansive soils from which soil engineers ascertain
how good or bad the potentially expansive soils are. Many criteria are available to
identify and characterize expansive soils, such as liquid limit, plasticity index, free
swell index (Sridharan and Prakash 2000) .The following table gives the various
criteria proposed for classifying expansive soils.
12
Table 2.1 Classification of swelling soils as per (IS: 1498)
Degree of
expansion
Low
Medium
High
Very high
L.L
(%)
20-35
35-50
50-70
70-90
P.I
(%)
< 12
12-23
23-32
> 32
FSI
(%)
< 50
50-100
100-200
> 200
Degree of
severity
Non critical
Marginal
Critical
Severe
2.3 BLACK COTTON SOIL

In India, large tracts are covered by expansive soil known as black cotton soil. Black
cotton soil occurs mostly in the central and western parts and covers an area of about
5.4 lakh square kilometers and thus form about 20% of the total area of India, which
extends over the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh as shown in the Fig. 2.1. The major area of their
occurrence is the south Vindhyachal range covering almost the entire Deccan Plateau
(Muthyalu et al. 2012). Deposits of BC soil in the field show a general pattern of
cracks during the dry season of the year. Cracks measuring 70 mm wide and over 1 m
deep have been observed and may extend up to 3m or more in case of high deposits .
As a result of wetting and drying process, vertical movement takes place in the soil
mass. All these movements lead to failure of pavement, in the form of settlement,
heavy depression, cracking and unevenness. Black cotton soil has a high percentage
of clay minerals and iron oxide, some calcium carbonate, and a low organic content.
They are predominantly rich in montmorillonitic clays of high base exchange capacity
which generally ranges from 50 to 70 equiv/100g. These soils have presented serious
problems to vehicular traffic during the rainy season as the natural subgrade soil
becomes wet and sticky, and so soft that its bearing capacity becomes almost nil.
Even when stone boulders are laid as pavement over the natural subgrade soil, during
rains the stone has a tendency to sink into the soft subgrade. Because of the extensive
occurrence of this soil, it is not economically feasible to replace it by a better
subgrade material.
13
Figure 2.1: Distribution of black cotton soil in India
2.4 STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES

Broadly, soil stabilization takes the following forms.
1. Mechanical stabilization
2. Chemical stabilization
2.4.1 Mechanical stabilization

Mechanical soil stabilization refers to either compaction or the introduction of fibrous
and other non-biodegradable reinforcement to the soil. This practice does not require
chemical change of the soil, although it is common to use both mechanical and
14
chemical means to achieve specified stabilization. There are several methods used to
achieve mechanical stabilization:
Compaction: Compaction typically employs a heavy weight to increase soil density
by applying pressure from above. Machines are used for this purpose; large soil
compactors with vibrating steel drums efficiently apply pressure to the soil, increasing
its density to meet engineering requirements. Operators of the machine must be
careful not to over compact the soil, for too much pressure can result in crushed
aggregates that lose their engineering properties.
Soil Reinforcement: Soil problems are sometimes remedied by utilizing engineered
or non-engineered mechanical solutions. Geo-textiles and engineered plastic mesh are
designed to trap soil and help control erosion, moisture conditions and soil
permeability. Larger aggregates, such as gravel, stones, and boulders, are often
employed where additional mass and rigidity can prevent unwanted soil migration or
improve load-bearing properties.
Addition of graded aggregate materials: A common method of improving the
engineering characteristics of a soil is to add certain aggregates that lend desirable
attributes to the soil, such as increased strength or decreased plasticity. This method
provides material economy, improves support capabilities of the sub grade, and
furnishes a working platform for the remaining structure.
2.4.2 Chemical Stabilization

One method of improving the engineering properties of soil is by adding chemicals or
other materials to improve the existing soil. Generally, the role of the stabilizing
(binding) agent in the treatment process is either reinforcing of the bounds between
the particles or filling of the pore spaces. It includes mixing or injecting additives
such as lime, cement, sodium silicate, calcium chloride, bituminous materials and
resinous materials with or in the soil to increase stability of the soil. This technique is
generally cost effective: for example, the cost of transportation, and processing of a
15
stabilizing agent or additive such as soil cement or lime to treat an in-place soil
1material will probably be more economical than importing aggregate for the same
thickness base course. The selection of the type and the determination of the
percentage of the additive to be used are dependent upon the soil classification and the
degree of improvement in soil quality desired. In general, smaller amounts of
additives are required when it is simply desired to modify soil properties such as
gradation, workability, and plasticity. When it is desired to improve the strength and
durability significantly, larger quantities of additive are used. After the additive has
been mixed with soil, spreading and compaction are achieved by conventional means.
Soil modification refers to the chemical stabilization process that results in
improvements of some properties of the soil for improved constructability, but does
not provide the designer with a significant increase in soil strength and durability.
Additives can be mechanical, meaning that upon addition to the parent soil their own
load-bearing properties bolster the engineering characteristics of the parent soil.
Additives can also be chemical, meaning that the additive reacts with or changes the
chemical properties of the soil, thereby upgrading its engineering properties. Placing
the wrong kind or wrong amount of additive or, improperly incorporating the additive
into the soil can have devastating results on the success of the project. So, in order to
properly implement this technique, an engineer must have:
1. A clear idea of desired result.
2. An understanding of the type(s) of soil and their characteristics on site.
3. An understanding of the use of the additive(s), how they react with the soil
type and other additives, and how they interact with the surrounding
environment.
4. An understanding of and means of incorporating (mixing) the additive.
5. An understanding of how the resulting engineered soil will perform.
16
2.5 TYPES OF STABILIZERS

A variety of stabilizers are available in the market. Not all stabilizers work for all soil
types, and a single stabilizer will perform quite differently with different soil types.
Generally, stabilizer may be used to act as a binder, alter the effect of moisture,
increase the soil density or neutralize the harmful effects of a substance in the soil.
These may be divided into two groups:
1. Traditional stabilizers (hydrated lime, Portland cement, and fly ash).
2. Nontraditional stabilizers (sulfonated oils, potassium compounds, ammonium
chloride, enzymes, polymers, and so on).
Following are the most commonly used traditional stabilizers and their applications:
2.5.1
Portland Cement
Portland cement is a mechanical additive that can be used for soil modification (to
improve soil quality) or soil stabilization (to convert the soil to a solid cement
mass).the amount of cement used will dictate whether modification or stabilization
has occurred. Nearly all types of soil can benefit from the strength gained by cement
stabilization. However, the best results have occurred when used with well-graded
fines that possess enough fines to produce a floating matrix.
2.5.2
Quick Lime/Hydrated Lime
Lime is a chemical additive that has been utilized as a stabilizing agent in soil for
centuries. Experience has shown that lime will react well with medium, moderately
fine, and fine-graded clay soil. In clay soil, the main benefit from lime stabilization is
the reduction of the soil plasticity: by reducing the soil water content, it becomes
more rigid. It also increases the strength and workability of the soil, and reduces the
soil ability to swell. It is very important to achieve proper gradation while applying
lime to clay soil. By breaking up the clay into small sized particles, you allow the lime
to introduce homogenously and properly react with the clay.
17
2.5.3 Fly ash

Coal burning electric utilities annually produce million tons of fly ash as a waste
byproduct and the environmentally acceptable disposal of this material has become an
increasing concern. Efforts have always been made by the researchers to make
pertinent use of fly ash in road constructions in the localities which exists in the
vicinity of thermal power stations. One of the most promising approaches in this area
is use of fly ash as a replacement to the conventional weak earth material will solve
two problems with one effort i.e. elimination of solid waste problem on one hand and
provision of a needed construction material on other. Also, this will help in achieving
sustainable development of natural resources. (Koteswara et al. 2012)
Fly ash, a chemical additive consisting mainly of silicon and aluminum compounds, is
a by-product of the combustion of coal. Fly ash can be mixed with lime and water to
stabilize granular materials with few fines, producing a hard, and cement like mass.
Its role in the stabilization process is to act as a pozzolan and/or as a filler product to
reduce air void. Fly-ash reduces the potential of a plastic soil to undergo volumetric
expansion by a physical cementing mechanism, which cannot be evaluated by the
plasticity index. Fly ash controls shrink- swell by cementing the soil grading together
much like a Portland cement bonds aggregates together to make concrete. By bonding
the soil grains together, soil particle movements are restricted. Fly ash is a pozzolan.
It has been successfully used with granular and fine grained materials to improve soil
characteristics, providing adequate support for pavements and improving working
conditions where undesirable soil are encountered. Fly ash and other ash such as
bottom ash and boiler ash have been widely used in application with source. The
factors that most readily influence the quality and reactivity of fly ashes are the source
of the coal, the degree of pulverization of coal, the efficiency of the burning operation
and the collection and storage method of the ash (Pankaj et al. 2012).
18
2.6 REVIEWS ON RESEARCH FINDINGS ON STABILIZATION OF SOIL

USING TRADITIONAL ADMIXTURES
The weak subgrade of cohesive soils, having low shear strength and low stiffness,
require improvement in their properties before using them as construction material.
(Tastan et al. 2011) .Chemical stabilization for these soils is a popular method,
widely used to improve their shear strength as well as stiffness. In general, it consists
of blending lime with cohesive soils or mixing Portland cement with non-cohesive
soils. This technique is widely used in road rehabilitation or in reprocessing of road
base materials for increasing life of the structure. Chemical stabilization, used to
decrease the potential for local shear failure of subgrade, eliminates surface pumping
or rutting and extends the life of pavement structure. It also results in the increase of
stiffness and thus, the designer can have advantage of strength and stiffness.
Many studies have been carried out regarding stabilization of soil using various
traditional stabilizers like lime, cement, fly ash etc. Following are the few reviews of
literature on stabilization of soil using traditional stabilizers. The microstructure of
cement-treated marine clay has been investigated using XRD, SEM, and Laser
diffractometric measurement. Results indicate that the magnitude of changes in the
properties and behavior of cement-treated marine clay is due to the interaction of four
underlying microstructural mechanisms. These mechanisms are the production of
hydrated lime by the hydration reaction which causes flocculation of the illite clay
particles, preferential attack of the calcium ions on kaolinite rather than on illite in the
pozzolanic reaction, surface deposition and shallow infilling by cementitious products
on clay clusters, as well as the presence of water trapped within the clay clusters
(Chew et al. 2004).
A lot of studies have been carried out regarding stabilization of soil treated with fly
ash. Soils are either treated only with fly ash or are used in combination with any
other stabilizer. Some of the studies reviewed in this paper are as follows. The
effectiveness of using various percentages of high calcium fly ash and cement in
stabilising fine-grained clayey soil has been studied by conducting uniaxial
19
compression, in indirect (splitting) tension and flexure and 90-day soaked CBR test.
Further analysis of Pavement structures for construction traffic and for operating
traffic incorporating subgrades improved by in situ stabilisation with fly ash and
cement were made which showed very good results compared to conventional flexible
pavements without improved subgrades (Kolias et al. 2005). Similarly BC soil
stabilized by adding different percentages of fly ash (i.e., 5, 8, 10, 12, and 15%) and
Rice Husk Ash (RHA) (i.e., 3, 6, 9 11, 13, and 15%) were subjected to various
laboratory studies. Results indicate that, addition of fly ash and RHA reduces the PI
and specific gravity of the soil. The moisture and density curves indicate that addition
of RHA results in an increase in OMC and decrease in MDD, while these values
decrease with addition of fly ash. UCS and CBR values were increased indicating the
improvement in the strength properties of the stabilized soil (Laxmikant et al. 2011).
(Pankaj et al. 2012) evaluated BC soil properties by adding different quantities of
Lime and fly ash (% by weight). The result showed that the use of Lime and fly ash
increases the CBR values. It was concluded that thickness of pavement can be
decreased by 66% as the CBR value was increased considerably after stabilization and
in combination; the admixtures are beneficial for lower plasticity and higher silt
content soil. In terms of material cost, the use of less costly fly ash can reduce the
required amount of lime
The geo-engineering properties such as Atterberg limits, grain size distribution, linear
shrinkage, swelling pressure, compaction characteristics, UCS and CBR of highly
plastic commercial clay were stabilized using different proportion of fly ash i.e. at 0,
20, 40, 60, 80, and 90 % and the results were evaluated. It was observed that PI of
clay-fly ash mixes decreased with increase in fly ash content i.e. addition of fly ash
made expansive soil less plastic and increased its workability by colloidal reaction
and changing its grain size. The FSI value and SP decreased with increase in fly ash
content. OMC reduced with increase in fly ash content but the MDD increased upto
an fly ash content of 20%, thereafter, the same decreases with further increase in fly
ash content. UCS of clay-fly ash mixes were found to be maximum at 20% fly ash
content and thereafter it reduced with further increase in fly ash content. This shows
20
that there exists an optimum fly ash content that gives better compressive strength. It
was also observed that the CBR values of clay-fly ash mixes, tested under un-soaked
conditions, showed peaks at 20% and 80% fly ash content (Bidula 2012). Similarly
(Tastan et al. 2011) studied the effectiveness of fly ash in the stabilization of organic
soil and the factors that are likely to affect the degree of stabilization. It was found
that the unconfined compressive strength of organic soil can be increased using fly
ash. Resilient moduli of the soil showed significant improvement. It was observed that
strength and stiffness are attributed primarily to cementing caused by pozzolanic
reactions, and the reduction in water content is due to the addition of fly ash. The
pozzolonic effect appears to diminish as the water content decreases. Soil organic
content is a detrimental characteristic for stabilization. Increase in organic content of
soil indicates that strength of the soilfly ash mixture decreases exponentially.
Many by-products other than fly ash have been used in the stabilization of various
soils and its effectiveness has been reported and discussed. Clayey soil stabilized
using various dosages of cement kiln dust, volcanic ash and their combinations have
been evaluated through Atterberg limits, standard proctor compaction, UCS, splitting
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and CBR tests. The durability properties of 14
stabilized soil mixtures were also investigated by studying the influence of water
immersion on strength, water absorbtivity and drying shrinkage. Developed stabilized
soil mixtures showed satisfactory strength and durability (Hossain and Mol 2011).
Mill scale, a waste product found in metal industry which mainly contains iron oxide
was treated with BC soil in varying proportions and its mechanical properties were
evaluated. It was found that mixing mill scale in varying proportions increases the
permeability of the soil, strength characteristics and decreases the plasticity. The CBR
value of BC soil mixed with 15% mill scale was increased by three times that of plain
BC soil. The permeability value of BC soil increased manifolds by increasing the
percentage of mill scale and the plasticity of the BC soil was decreased from 35.71%
to 30.60% by adding 12% of mill scale (Murthy et al. 2012).
(Rao et al. 2012) conducted a laboratory studies to stabilize BC soil using Cement
kiln dust (CKD) as an admixture with and without adding polymer fibers. This study
21
revealed that the fiber reinforcement improves the soil properties in terms of
improved stress-strain patterns and progressive failure in place of quick post peak
failure of plain samples. It was observed that the UCS of Clay soil increased by 7
times with admixture stabilization and 9 times for admixture with fiber modification
with respect to plain samples. The shear strength parameters of clay soil significantly
increased upon admixture stabilization and admixture with fiber treatment. The CBR
value was increased significantly even for soaked CBR tests. By addition of CKD the
LL and PI of the mixture was decreased by 23 % and 57% respectively, where as
plastic limit was increased by 41%.
2.7 REVIEWS ON RESEARCH FINDINGS ON STABILIZATION OF SOIL
USING NON TRADITIONAL ADMIXTURES
Nontraditional stabilization additives have become increasingly available for
commercial and military applications. These products were divided into 7 categories:
salts, acids, enzymes, lignosulfonates, petroleum emulsions, polymers, and tree resins.
Many of these stabilizers are advertised as requiring lower material quantities,
reduced cure times, higher material strengths, and superior durability compared to
traditional stabilization additives. Unfortunately, little research has been completed to
distinguish between products that deliver enhanced performance and those that do not.
The nature of soil stabilization dictates that products may be soil-specific and/or
environment-sensitive. In other words, some products may work well in specific soil
types in a given environment, but perform poorly when applied to dissimilar materials
in a different environment. The rapid evolution of existing products and introduction
of new stabilizers further complicate the process of defining the performance
characteristics of the various nontraditional soil stabilization additives.
A review of the literature indicates that there has been a large quantity of research
completed regarding the application of traditional stabilization additives such as lime,
cement, and fly ash. However, little independent research has been documented
pertaining to the use of nontraditional stabilization additives. A large quantity of
advertisements, pamphlets, and videos has been distributed testifying to the benefits
of a particular stabilization additive. Unfortunately, most of the information disclosed
22
in these media is subjective and nontraditional engineering properties are poorly

documented. Following are the few reviews of literature on stabilization of soil using
nontraditional stabilizers.
(Gopal and Singh 1983) studied the effectiveness of urea-formaldehyde (UF) and its
copolymers when treated with dune sand. It was found that the maximum unconfined
compressive strength of 165 kg/sq.cm (density= 1.68 gm/cc) of the standard
specimen, made by a novel technique using this resin (9%), catalyst (0.3%) and sand
(90.7%), was higher than the strengths ranging from 11.3 to 105 kg/sq. cm reported
by earlier workers using UF and other modified phenol formaldehyde resins. (Majebi
et al. 1991) tested a poorly graded clay-silt by treating it with several organic
additives of which the two-part epoxy system bisphenol A/epichlorohydrin resin plus
a polyamide hardener showed the best dry CBR results. (Estabragh et al. 2011)
investigated the soil-cement mixture by adding different percentage of acrylic resin to
improve the engineering properties of the soil for construction. The results showed
that by increasing the cement content in the soil-cement mixture, MDD increases and
OMC decreases in compaction tests. Compressive strength tests on soil-cement
showed that the increase in strength depends on the cement content and the curing
time. The results also indicated that the strength of soil-cement is increased
considerably by adding acrylic resin as an additive material. It was observed that for
given cement content, the increase in shear strength is a function of curing time and
amount of resin. (Thyagaraj 2012) made an attempt to study the precipitation of lime
in the soil by successive mixing of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions with the expansive soil
in two different sequences. Experimental results indicated that in-situ precipitation of
lime in the soil by sequential mixing of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions with expansive
soil developed strong lime modification and soil-lime pozzolanic reactions. The lime
modification reactions together with the poorly developed cementation products
controlled the swelling potential, reduced the plasticity index and increased the
unconfined compressive strength of the expansive clay cured for 24 hours. Both limemodification reactions and well developed crystalline cementation products (formed
by lime-soil pozzolanic reactions) contributed to the marked increase in the
23
unconfined compressive strength of the expansive soil that were cured for periods of
7-21 days.
Some of the soil stabilization studies were based on improvement in strength
properties only and few papers have investigated on both strength and the swelling
properties of soil. Following are some of reviews based on improvement in swelling
properties of soil.
(Cai et al. 2006) worked on reducing the brittleness of soil stabilized by lime only by
mixing the soil with a newly proposed mixture of polypropylene fibre. Nine groups of
treated soil specimens were prepared and tested at three different percentages of fibre
content (i.e. 0.05%, 0.15%, 0.25% by weight of the parent soil) and three different
percentages of lime (i.e. 2%, 5%, 8% by weight of the parent soil). It was observed
that increase in lime content resulted in an initial increase followed by a slight
decrease in unconfined compressive strength, cohesion and angle of internal friction
of the clayey soil and it led to a reduction of swelling and shrinkage potential.
Increase in fibre content caused an increase in strength and shrinkage potential but
brought on the reduction of swelling potential and increase in curing duration
improved the unconfined compressive strength and shear strength parameters of the
stabilized soil significantly. (Bose et al. 2009) studied the performance expansive soil
when treated with different percentages of gypsum (2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% by
mass) (bentonite) by means of swell potential and strength. Atterberg limits, FSI and
UCS tests were performed on treated and untreated samples, after a curing period of 7
days. Appropriate curing time for optimum improvement was determined by
obtaining the swell percent variation with cure time up to 2 months using the
considered maximum gypsum content (10% by mass) for the mixture. It was found
that the most important change quickly occurred in the first week, and curing period
of 7 days was accepted as a cure time for optimum improvement in this study. There
was a valuable decrease in liquid limit and plasticity index of the treated soil which
indicated that gypsum can be used as a stabilizing agent for expansive clay soil,
effectively. (Manchikanti et al. 2011) conducted field studies on expansive soil
subgrades by treating it with KCl, CaCl2 and FeCl3 because of their ready
24
dissolvability in water and supply of adequate cations for ready cation exchange.
Moreover, they can be applied to the ground in the form of electrolyte solution.
Results of heave recorded from the untreated and treated test tracks were compared. It
was observed that FeCl3 treated test track showed the best performance. Results
showed that there was reduction in maximum heave by 22%, 30%, 43%, respectively
for KCl-treated, CaCl2-treated, FeCl3- treated with respect to the untreated test track
and the time taken to attain the maximum heave for FeCl3-treated test track is nearly
one-half, of the time taken by the untreated test track to attain its maximum heave,
better than the other treatments. From the test results, it was concluded that FeCl 3 is
the best treatment to reduce the heave.
2.8 DURABILITY STUDIES
Variations in climatic conditions have been recognized by pavement engineers as a
major factor affecting pavement performance. These variations resulting from freeze
thaw (F-T) and wetdry (W-D) actions, or a combination of these actions, have been
presented in a number of previous studies. Importance of climatic conditions has also
been emphasized by AASHTO (2005) and by (Little et al. 2005), among others. The
influence of such actions on a pavement structure indicates possible changes in the
engineering properties of associated pavement materials. To this end, several studies
have been undertaken to evaluate the performance of pavement materials under these
actions. Specifically, during the last few decades increased emphasis has been placed
by transportation agencies and researchers to better understand the behavior of
stabilized aggregate bases and subgrade soil under freezethaw and W-D cycles. This
research area, however, is still not fully explored and additional studies are needed
(Little et al. 2005). (Homoud et al. 1995) investigated the effect of cyclic wetting
and drying on the expansive characteristics of clays. For this purpose six expansive
soils were obtained from various locations in Irbid (a city in northern Jordan). After
each cycle the swell potential and swell pressure were measured. The experimental
data indicated that upon repeated wetting and drying the soil showed sign of fatigue
after every cycle resulting in decreased swelling ability. Furthermore it was noted that
the first cycle causes the most reduction in swelling potential. As the number of
25
cycles increases additional reduction was observed until an equilibrium state is

reached. Scanning electron micrographs clearly showed a continuous rearrangement
of particles during cyclic wetting and drying. This led to lower structural element
orientation due to the integration of structure along the bedding resulting in
correspondingly lower water absorption thus reducing swelling ability. Cyclic wetting
and drying results in particle aggregation as demonstrated by the reduction in clay
content and plasticity (LL and PI) between the initial and final cycles. This inevitably
caused a reduction in swelling characteristics.
2.9 SUMMARY
From the above literature reviews it can be observed that the soil stabilized using both
traditional and nontraditional stabilizers have given good results. Traditional
stabilizers are usually required in large quantity and are uneconomical compared to
nontraditional stabilizers. It has been observed that most of the papers have
concentrated on improvement in strength parameters and very less study has been
made on improvements in swelling properties of soil which is one of the important
properties of expansive soils and very fewer studies have been made on durability of
stabilized soil. Admixtures like locally available industrial wastes, by products etc
have given good results. It is also observed that in many papers FA used in
combination with other stabilizers have given better results compared to the use of
only one stabilizer. Limited efforts are made to use of nontraditional liquid stabilizers
to stabilize the soil. Taking all this in note the following study is based on stabilizing
BC soil which is one of the problematic expansive soils found abundantly in North
Karnataka region by a liquid stabilizer called Terrabind and later Terrabind is used in
combination with FA. Improvement in strength, changes in swelling properties and
durability of the treated soil is studied and discussed.
26
CHAPTER 3
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
3.1 GENERAL
Chemical analysis has been performed on untreated and treated soil sample to
determine its composition. The tests are conducted as per IS 2720 (Part-26).This
chapter briefly describes the procedure of various laboratory chemical tests conducted
on soil samples.
3.1.1
SOIL SPECIMEN
The soil sample received from the field is prepared in accordance with IS: 2720 (part 1) 1983.All aggregation of particles is broken down so that the soil sieved on 425
IS sieve retains only discrete particles.
3.2
pH OF SOIL BY ELECTROMETRIC METHOD
Procedure
1. 30 gms of soil sample prepared as per IS: 2720 (part-1) is taken in a 100 ml
beaker.
2. 75 ml of distilled water is added to it and stirred for few seconds.
3. Then the beaker is covered with a cover glass and allowed to stand for one
hour with occasional stirring. The solution is stirred again immediately before
testing
4. The pH meter is calibrated by means of the standard buffer solution following
the procedure recommended by the manufacturer.
5. The electrode is first washed with distilled water dried with help of an
ordinary filter paper and then immersed in the soil specimen.
6. Three readings of the pH of the soil suspension are taken with brief stirring in
between each reading.
27
7. The pH readings of the soil suspension are taken when a constant value is
reached and the electrode is removed from the suspension immediately and
washed with distilled water.
8. Calibration of the pH meter is checked with one of the standard buffer
solutions.
9. pH meter directly provided the pH values.
3.3 CONDUCTIVITY OF SOIL BY ELECTROMETRIC METHOD

Buffer solutions: following buffer solutions are used for the test.
1.
Buffer solution pH 4.0 (at 250c) -5.106 gms of potassium hydrogen

phthalate dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 500ml with distilled
water.
2.
Buffer solution pH 9.2 (at 250c) - 9.54 gms of sodium tetraborate (borax)
dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 500 ml.
Procedure
1.
30 gms of soil prepared as per IS: 2720 (part-1) is taken in a 100 ml

beaker.
2.
75 ml of distilled water is added to it and the suspension is stirred for a few

seconds.
3.
The beaker is then be covered with a cover glass and allowed to stand for
one hour with occasional stirring .the suspension is stirred again
immediately before testing.
4.
The pH meter is calibrated by means of the standard buffer solution

following the procedure recommended by the manufacturer.
5.
The electrode is washed with distilled water dried with help of an orginary
filter paper and then immersed in the soil specimen.
6.
Two or three readings of the pH of the soil suspension are made with brief
stirring in between each reading.
28
7.
The pH readings of the soil suspension are taken when a constant value is
reached. Then the electrode is removed from the suspension immediately
and washed with distilled water.
8.
In calibration of the pH meter is again checked with one of the standard

buffer solutions.
9.
pH meter directly provides the conductivity values.
3.4 SILICA CONTENT IN SOIL BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD
Reagents: The following Reagents are used for the test.

i. Concentrated Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Procedure
1. About one gram of the dried soil sample accurately weighed is taken in a 500
ml beaker.
2. About 10 ml of distilled water and 10 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is added to the beaker and is mixed and grounded with a glass rod to
dissolve.
3. The whole mass is allowed to evaporate to dryness by keeping it on a hotplate
till whole of the hydrochloric acid disappeared.
4. The residue is baked in oven for 01 hour and then allowed to cool.
5. Further 10 ml of distilled water and 10 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is added to it and is mixed with the help of glass rod till it dissolves.
6. The solution is then heated to boiling and after one minute it is removed from
flame and 20 ml of hot distilled water is added.
7. The solution is later filtered through Whatman filter paper no. 42 and the
whole of silica along with filter paper is placed in a preweighed crucible.
8. The crucible was placed in a Bunsun Burner for 25 minutes and ignited at a
temperature of 80 to 1000c.
9. The crucible is then removed from Bunsun Burner, it is then cooled and
weighed.
29
10. The weight of the silica is calculated by subtracting the empty weight of the
crucible.
11. The passing of Whatman filter paper 42 i.e., filtrate is used for the calculation
of R2O3 (Al2O3+Fe2O3) by making the volume up to 100 ml in a 100 ml
Nesslers tube
Calculations
% silica oxide (SiO2) = (w3/w) x 100
Where, W3 = Weight of SiO2 (in mgs)
W = Weight of soil sample taken (in mgs) (1 gm. = 1000 mgs)
3.5 IRON OXIDE (Fe2O3) IN SOIL BY COLORIMETRIC METHOD

Reagents: The following Reagents shall are used for the test.
i.
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl).
ii.
Potassium thiocyanate.
iii.
Concentrated Hydrochloric acid.
Solutions
i.
5% Potassium thiocyanate
5 gms of Potassium thiocyanate is added into a 100 ml beaker and distilled
water is added to make 100 ml of solution
ii.
4N Hydrochloric acid (4N HCl)

For 1N of 1000 ml solution -- required 83 ml of concentrated HCl +
distilled water is added to make it 1000 ml of solution.
For 4N of 100 ml solution -- required 33.20 ml of concentrated HCl +
distilled water is added to make it 100 ml of solution.
Procedure
1. 50 ml of distilled water is added to Nesslers tube of 100 ml capacity.
2. 5 ml of 5% potassium thiocyanate and 4 ml of 4N HCl are added and the
solution is made to 100 ml with distilled water.
30
3. About 0.05 ml of filtrate is added to the nesslers tube of 100 ml solution to

get light red colour.
4. The Spectrometer is caliberated and set to method no. 900.
5. After calibration 10 ml sample is taken in a Cuvette and placed in
spectrometer. Readings are recorded as Fe in mg/lt for 5 mg of soil and Fe2O3
is calculated for 100 mg of soil.
Calculations:
1000 mg of soil taken / 100 ml
100 ml / 1000 mg
1 ml / 10 mg
-------------- 0.05 ml / 100 ml
-------------- 0.50 mg of soil / 100 ml

--------------
5 mg of soil / 1000 ml (1Lt)
5 mg of soil ------------------------ -- mg / Lt Fe
100 mg of soil ---------------------- -- x 100 / 5 = X mg as Fe
For Fe2O3 multiplied by constant 1.4297
X x 1.4297 = Y % Fe2O3
3.6 R2O3 (Al2O3 + Fe2O3) IN SOIL BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD

i.
ii.
Rosolic acid solution (few drops) or Methyle red indicator (2 drops)
iii.
Dilute ammonia --- add 50 ml Ammonia and make it to 100 ml with

distilled water.
Procedure
1. Half of the filtrate (50 ml from collected 100 ml in Nesslers tube) is taken for
estimation of R2O3 (Al2O3 + Fe2O3) Aluminium and Iron oxide.
2. To the first 50 ml filtrate about 4 gms of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and two
drops of methyle red is added and heated to boiling and is removed from the
flame after one minute.
31
3. Dilute ammonia is added to the solution until the precipitation starts and the
solution is filtered through Whatman no 42 filter paper.
4. The precipitates along with the filter paper is then placed in a weighed
crucible and the crucible is ignited in the Bunsun Burner or (Muffle furnace)
or any other suitable arrangements.
5.
The final weight of the crucible is noted.
6. The total weight of (Al2O3 + Fe2O3) is obtained by subtracting from the final
weight, the weight of the empty crucible.
Calculations
% R2O3 = (w3/w) x100
Where, W3 = Weight of R2O3 obtained (in mg)
W = Weight of soil sample taken (in mg) (0.50 gm = 500 mg)
3.7
CHLORIDE
CONTENT
IN
SOIL
BY
ARGENTOMETRIC
METHOD
i.
Silver nitrate (Ag No3)
ii.
Potassium Chromate (5%)
Solutions
i.
Standard Silver Nitrate solution (0.0141N)

2.395 gms of Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) is dissolved in distilled water and
diluted to 1000 ml.
ii.
Potassium Chromate (5%)

5 gms (K2Cr O4) Potassium Chromate is dissolved in distilled water
.silver nitrateis added to the solution until a definite red precipitate is
formed and is allowed to stand for 12 hours. Then the solution is filtered
and diluted to 100 ml with distilled water.
32
Procedure
1. 1:4 soil suspension is prepared i.e., 25 gms of soil is taken in 100 ml of aerated
distilled water and is shaked for about one hour.
2. The suspension is heated in a hot plate up to boiling and is removed from the
flame and allowed to cool down.
3. The suspension is then filtered through Whatman No. 50 filter paper using
Buchner funnel and vaccum pump.
4. Later 25 ml of soil solution is taken and 10 drops of Potassium Chromate (5%)
indicator is added till light yellow colour develops.
5. The sample is titrated using Standard Silver Nitrate Titrant (0.0141N) solution.
6. The volume of standard silver nitrate solution (0.0141N) in ml is recorded
when the colour changes from yellow to brick red colour.
3.8 CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM OXIDE IN SOIL BY TITRIMETRIC

METHOD
i.
ii.
Glacial acetic acid.
iii.
Concentrated Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH).
iv.
Magnesium salt of E.D.T.A.
v.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
vi.
Murexide
vii.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetate dehydrate (tetra acetic acid disodium salt

E.D.T.A)
Solutions
i.
Ammonium Acetate solution

[57 ml of glacial acetic acid is diluted to 800 ml with distilled water &
then neutralized to pH 7.0 with concentrated Ammonium Hydroxide
(NH4OH) and the final volume is made to 1000 ml (1 ltr.).]
33
[28.5 ml of glacial acetic acid is diluted to 400 ml with DW & then

neutralized to pH 7.0 with conc. NH4OH and the final volume is made to
500 ml]
ii.
Buffer solution
For 250 ml Buffer solution
[16.90 gms ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is dissolved in 143 ml of conc.
Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), 1.25 gm magnesium salt of EDTA is
added and diluted to 250 ml with distilled water.]
For 100 ml Buffer solution
[6.76 gms ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is dissolved in 57.20 ml of conc.
Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), and 0.50 gm magnesium salt of EDTA
is added and diluted to 100 ml distilled water]
iii.
Standard EDTA titrant ( 0.01M)

For 1000 ml titrant,3.723 gms analytical reagent-grade disodium EDTA
dehydrate is weighed, also called (ethylenedimitrilo) tetraacetic acid
disodium salt (EDTA) and dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 1000
ml.
For 500 ml titrant, 1.8615 gm analytical reagent-grade disodium EDTA
dehydrate is weighed , also called (ethylenedimitrilo) tetraacetic acid
disodium salt (EDTA) and dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 500
ml.
iv.
Erichrome Black T indicator

Sodium salt of 1- (1-hydroxy -2 napthylazo) -5-nitro-2-naphthol-4
sulfonic acid: no 203 in the colorindex. 0.50 gm dye is dissolved in 100g
of triethanolamine or ethylene glycol monomethyl ether. 2 drops per 50 ml
solution is added for titration.
v.
Sodium hydroxide solution (1N)

4 gms of sodium hydroxide pallets is dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water
vi.
Murexide
34
Procedure for the estimation magnesium oxide

1. About 50 gms of the dried sample accurately weighed is taken in a 500 ml
beaker and about 100 ml of Ammonium acetate solution is added.
2. The suspension is stirred and kept overnight and later the water sample is
collected from the solution.
3.
Concentration of magnesium oxide is determined following the EDTA

method.
4. 100 ml of sample from solution is taken in a conical flask and 1 ml of Buffer

solution and 3 drops of Erichrome Black T indicator is added to get light
yellow colour.
5.
The sample is titrated using EDTA titrant.
6. Volume of EDTA solution is recorded when colour changes from light yellow
to light pink or green or blue.
7. Measure the concentration Magnesium oxide.
Procedure for Estimation of Calcium oxide

1. About 50 gms of the dried sample accurately weighed is taken in a 500 ml
beaker and 100 ml of Ammonium acetate solution is added directly to it.
2. The suspension is stirred and kept overnight and later the water sample is
collected from the solution.
3. The concentration of calcium oxide is determined following the EDTA
method.
4. 100 ml of sample is taken from the solution in a conical flask and 2 ml of
Sodium hydroxide solution and 1 pinch Murexide is added and sample
changes to light yellow colour.
5. The sample is titrated using EDTA titrant.
6. Volume of EDTA solution is recorded when colour changes from light yellow
to light pink or green or blue.
7. Measure the concentration of Calcium oxide.
35
3.9 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS RESULTS ON UNTREATED AND

TREATED BC SOIL
Table 3.1 shows the chemical composition of untreated and treated BC soil. It can
be observed that there is an increase in SiO2, CaO content and pH value and
decrease in Fe2O3, MgO, chloride and sulphate content in treated soil when
compared with untreated soil. Since a clear trend is not observed, the changes in
composition of soil before and after treating with Terrabind and FA cannot be
explained clearly.
Table 3.1: Chemical composition of untreated and treated BC soil
Oxides (%)
SiO2
R2O3
Fe2O3
Al2O3
Chloride
Sulphate
CaO
MgO
pH
Conductivity
(millisiemens/cm)
TDS(PPm)
LOI
BC
BC+Terrabind BC+Terrabind+FA
57.12
58.29
58.89
14.13
12.45
10.22
6.08
2.71
2.18
8.05
9.75
8.04
0.085
0.11
0.17
0.091
0.025
0.052
0.0045
0.012
0.016
0.013
0.017
0.015
8.22
8.5
8.43
1.17
188
14.67
1.16
186
-
36
1.22
187
-
CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 GENERAL
This chapter deals with details of experimental investigation carried out on Black
cotton soil. Experiments are conducted to determine the geotechnical and engineering
properties of the soil. All the tests are performed as per the relevant codes. Changes in
their properties are studied by blending the soil sample with Terrabind chemical and
FA.
4.2 MATERIALS USED

4.2.1 Soil
Black cotton soil which is abundantly available in Gadag district (North Karnataka) is
used for the investigation. The soil sample is obtained from a depth of 2 meter below
the ground surface. The collected sample is first air dried and then oven dried before
using it for the tests.
Figure 4.1: Black cotton soil
37
4.2.2 Terrabind
In the present study, a chemical called Terrabind manufactured by Terra nova
technologies is used to stabilize the soil. It is available in the liquid concentration and
is to be mixed with water in specified proportion before mixing with the soil as per
the company specification.
Terrabind is a revolutionary advanced lignosulphonate liquid ionic organic compound
for the purpose of soil stabilization. Terra Nova Technologies is the first company to
manufacture this technology in India. Terrabind alters the properties of road base
materials (soil/ aggregate) at a molecular level thus rendering greater compaction,
load bearing and cohesiveness.
4.2.3 Application of Terrabind to BC Soil
As per the company specification 1ml of Terrabind is sufficient for every 3 kg of soil.
The same concentration is applied in this work. Terrabind is initially diluted in OMC
of soil (obtained after conducted heavy compaction test on untreated soil) and then the
Terrabind water solution is mixed with the soil homogenously and the treated soil is
allowed to mature for 20 minutes prior to test. The treated soil is kept in incubators to
maintain the OMC of soil throughout the test.
4.2.4 Class C Fly ash
Terrabind and Fly ash is highly recommended for use in combination with Terrabind
combination for higher strength sub grade. Terrabind has a catalyst effect when
combined in clay soil with fly ash. 5%-10% fly ash (Class C) by weight of soil is an
ideal range.
The FA used in the project is provided by Thermal power station, Raichur, Karnataka,
India. A weighed sample of fly ash is separated through a nest of sieves for
determination of particle size distribution. FA properties are determined before using
it for treating the soil. Sieve analysis results showed that the fly ash size ranges below
45.Other engineering properties like moisture content, specific gravity are also
determined. 6% by weight of soil of FA was used in the present study.following table
shows the physical properties of FA used for the study.
38
Table 4.1: Physical properties of FA

Properties
Specific gravity
Water content(%)
Loss on
Ignition(%)
Size
Test values
1.975
0.16
0.43
< 45
4.2.5 Terrabind dosage: 1ml for every 3kg soil.

For Soil and Terrabind:
1. Soil taken: 30Kg
2. MDD of soil: 17.7 g/cc
3. OMC of soil: 16.31%
4. Natural moisture content: 6%
5. Water to be added= [(16.31-6) +2%]*30/100= 3.69 litres of water.
6. Amount of Terrabind: 1ml for 3Kg,
Therefore for 30 Kg soil, amount of Terrabind =30/3=10ml.
Soil, Terrabind and FA:

1. Soil taken: 20Kg
2. MDD of soil: 17.7 g/cc
3. OMC of soil: 16.31%
4. Natural moisture content: 7.5%
5. Water to be added= [(16.31-7.5) +2%]*20/100= 2.29 litres of water.
6. Amount of Terrabind: 1ml for 3Kg,
Therefore for 20 Kg soil, amount of Terrabind =20/3=6.66ml.
7. FA content= 6% by weight of soil, i.e. 6% of 20kg= 1.2kg.
39
4.3 TESTS CONDUCTED ON SOIL

Soil samples collected from site are tested for their geotechnical properties and
strength characteristics. The various tests conducted are given below.
1. Specific gravity test
2. Grain size analysis test
3. Atterbergs limits tests
4. Compaction tests
5. Unconfined compressive strength test
6. California Bearing Ratio test
7. Triaxial compression test
8. Free swell index
9. Swell pressure
10. Durability test
11. Fatigue test
4.3.1 Specific Gravity test
Specific gravity test is performed on untreated soil using Standard test equipment and
procedure available as per IS: 2720 (part 3)-1980, Determination of specific gravity
of fine grained soils. Three trials are conducted and the average value is reported.
The test results are depicted in Table 5.1.
4.3.2 Grain size analysis test
Sieve analysis and sedimentation analysis tests are conducted on untreated soil to
determine the grain size distribution. The sedimentation analysis is done by
hydrometer method using sodium hexa metaphosphate as the dispersing agent. The
test is conducted as per IS 2720 (part4) 1985. The results are tabulated in Table 5.1.
4.3.3 Consistency limits test
Liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) of the soil are determined as per the
procedure available in IS: 2720 (part 5)-1985. The tests are conducted on treated and
untreated soil. Treated soils are tested at different curing periods. Standard
40
Casagrandes apparatus is used to find out LL. The consistency limits of untreated soil
samples are tabulated in Table: 5.1.
Figure 4.2: Casagrande apparatus for determination of liquid limit.
Figure 4.3: Samples prepared for the determination of plastic limit.

4.3.4 Compaction tests
Compaction test is conducted to determine the maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content of treated and untreated soil using Standard test equipment and
procedure available in IS: 2720 (part 7)-1980,Determination of water content Dry
density Relation using Light compaction for light compaction and IS: 2720 (part 8)-
41
1983, Determination of water content - Dry Density Relation using Heavy

Compaction for heavy compaction. Results of tests on untreated soil smaple are
tabulated in Table 5.1.
4.3.5 Unconfined Compression Strength test
Unconfined compression test are performed using Standard test equipment and
procedure available as per IS: 2720 (part 10)-1973, Determination of Unconfined
Compression Strength.
For untreated soil samples, UCS tests are conducted for both light and heavy
compaction densities, whereas treated soil specimens are tested only for heavy
compaction density values. The tests are conducted on treated soil specimens for 1, 7
and 28 days curing. Three identical soil specimens are tested for each curing period
and the average of three are reported. Results of tests on untreated soil smaple are
tabulated in Table 5.1.
Figure 4.4: UCS Samples
4.3.6 California Bearing Ratio Test

CBR test is conducted using Standard test equipment and procedure available in IS:
2720 (part 16)-1979, Laboratory Determination of CBR. Untreated soil is tested for
soaked and unsoaked condition for both light and heavy compaction densities.
42
Whereas, treated soil is tested only for heavy compaction density for soaked and
unsoaked condition. Results of tests on untreated soil smaple are tabulated in Table
5.1.
Figure 4.5: Determination of CBR

4.3.7 Triaxial compression test
Tri axial compression test is performed to determine the shear strength parameters (C
and ) of soil at consolidated undrained condition for treated and untreated soil
specimens. The tests are conducted using standard equipments and procedure
available as per IS: 2720 (Part 11)-1971, Determination of shear parameters by
triaxial test.
43
Figure 4.6: Triaxial compression testing setup

The free swell index test is conducted to determine the amount of swelling in treated
and untreated soil. The procedure followed is as per IS: 2720 (part-10)-1977. The
procedure involves in taking two oven dried soil samples (passing through 425 IS
sieve), 10g each which are placed separately in two 100ml graduated soil sample.
Water is filled in one cylinder and kerosene (non-polar liquid) in the other cylinder up
to 100ml mark. The final volume of soil is read after 24hours to calculate free swell
index.
The free swell index of the soil shall be calculated as follows:
Free swell index, percent = ((Vd-Vk)/Vk)*100
Where, Vd= the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing
distilled water, and Vk= the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder
containing kerosene.
44
Figure 4.7: Free swell index setup

Swell pressure of treated and untreated soil is determined using swell pressure
apparatus.the test is conducted as per IS: 2720(part 11)-1977. The swell test apparatus
is designed to determine the swelling pressure developed by expansive soil specimens
moulded to desired densities at known moisture contents when soaked in water. The
load applied to restrain the change in volume caused by the expansive nature of the
soil, on coming into contact with water, is transferred to a load measuring proving
ring through a perforated swell plate and a load transfer bar. The maximum load
indicated on the proving ring in kilograms divided by the area of the specimen gives
the swelling pressure in kg/cm2. Both treated and untreated soil is tested to determine
its swell pressure. Treated soils are tested after 7 and 28 days of curing.
4.3.10 Durability
Durability can be defined as the ability of a material to retain its stability and integrity
over years of exposure to the destructive forces of weathering. Durability of stabilized
45
soil is essential in defining the final mixture because it serves as an indicator of its
resistance to the destructive forces of environment.
Wet and dry cycle: The durability test for wet and dry cycle is performed in
accordance with ASTM D559 (ASTM 1994). Briefly, this test consisted of exposing
the soilcement specimens to 12 cycles and each cycle consisted of wetting the
specimen by submerging it in water at room temperature (25 +1.5C) for 5 h after
moist curing at 21 + 1.7C and 100% humidity, and drying for 42 h at a temperature
of 71C. The specimens are brushed parallel, weighed and measured after each cycle
to obtain soil cement losses, moisture changes and volume changes (swelling and
shrinkage). After the 12 cycles, specimens are dried to a constant weight at a
temperature of 110C and weighed to determine the oven-dry weight of the
specimens. The data are used to calculate the volume and moisture changes of the soil
specimens.
Freeze and thaw cycle: Durability test procedure for freeze and thaw is followed
according to S. A. Shihata and Z. A. Baghdadi (2001). Triplicate sets of samples of
compacted chemical treated soil are prepared and tested for its durability using, in
which, after the 7 days of curing, the specimens are placed in water-saturated felt pads
and stood on carriers in a freezer at a temperature not higher than -10C for 22 h. On
removal, the specimens are kept in a moisture room for 22 h. After that the specimens
are weighed. This procedure is repeated until the specimens have gone through 12
cycles of freezing and thawing. Then the specimens are dried at 110C for 48 hours
and their final weight is taken. This test gives the percent mass loss of samples after
12 wet-dry or freeze-thaw cycles.
46
Figure 4.8: Samples prepared for freeze-thaw & wet-dry cycle test
Figure 4.9: Samples prepared for freeze-thaw and wet-dry cycle test
4.3.11 Fatigue test
Fatigue life is the number of load cycles corresponding to the failure of the specimen
under repeated loading or number of loading. To investigate fatigue behavior of
terrabind stabilized soils, specimens are exposed to the repeated loading in the
laboratory. For this purpose the laboratory experiments are conducted in a fatigue
testing apparatus and the specimens are subjected to number of repeated loads. The
47
number of loading cycles varied depending upon curing period, amount of load etc.
This section describes the methodology adopted for this purpose.
a) Specimen Preparation and curing
The type of specimen tested for fatigue capacity of the Terrabind stabilized specimen
is similar to the one tested for their unconfined compression test. A cylindrical
specimen of length to diameter ratio of 2 is used and the treated soil samples are
tested for 7 and 28 days curing.
The Fatigue test equipment that is capable of applying the repeated loads at a
frequency 0 to 12 Hz is used in the present investigation. The equipment is procured
from SPANTROICS, Bangalore.
The main components of the test set-up are:
I. Loading system including loading frame and load sensing device
ii. Control system including function generator
iii. Data Acquisition system
Figure 4.10: Schematic Diagram of Accelerated Fatigue Load Test Set-up
48
c) Testing Procedure
All the fatigue loading tests are conducted on cylindrical specimens using a fatigue
testing equipment. For this propose the following testing procedure is adopted
The Cylindrical specimen is mounted on the loading frame and the Deflection
sensing transducers (LVDT) are set to read the deformation of the specimen.
The load cell is brought in contact with the specimen surface.
In the control unit through the dedicated software, the selected loading stress
level, frequency of loading and the type of wave form are fed in to the loading
device
The loading system and the data acquisition system is switched on

simultaneously and the process of fatigue load application on the test
specimen is initiated
The repeated loading, at the designated excitation level (i.e. at the selected
stress level and frequency) is continued till the failure of the test specimen.
The failure pattern of the test specimen is noted down manually.
49
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 GENERAL
One of the important properties of soil that need to be improved through the addition
of admixtures is its strength. Increase in the soil solid volume occupation either by
heavy compaction and /or by other mechanical methods always increases the soil
strength. But important exception occurs when compaction gives rise to excess pore
pressure. For such soil improvement in the strength is achieved by chemical
stabilization by converting the soil into a rigid or granular mass, the particles of which
are sufficiently strong bound to resist the external pressure.
In this chapter the results obtained from various tests conducted on untreated soil and
treated with Terrabind Stabilizer and combination of terrabind and class CFA has
been reported, compared, and discussed.
5.2 TESTS ON BASIC PROPERTIES OF BLACK COTTON SOIL

The results of tests on basic soil properties of BC soil are tabulated in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Results of basic soil properties of untreated BC soil.
SL No.
Property
Values
1
Specific gravity
2.5
Grain size distribution (%)
Gravel
5.0
2
Sand
26.0
Silt
54.0
Clay
15.0
Consistency limits (%)

Liquid Limit
64
Plastic Limit
31
Plasticity Index
33
50
IS Soil Classification
Engineering Properties
I.S standard Compaction

a) MDD, dmax (kN/m3)
b) OMC (%)
I.S modified Compaction
a) MDD, dmax (kN/m3)
b) O.M.C
CBR Value (%)
I.S Standard Compaction
a) OMC condition
b) Soaked condition
I.S Modified Compaction
a) OMC condition
b) Soaked condition
UCS (kN/m2)
I.S Standard Compaction
I.S Modified Compaction
5.3
CH
16.20
20.45
17.7
16.31%
25.04%
0.89%
28.17%
0.45%
152.19
268.27
RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED ON BC SOIL TREATED
WITH TERRABIND CHEMICAL AND TERRABIND, FA.

5.3.1 Plasticity Characteristics
Table 5.2 shows the variation in consistency limits of blended soil for different curing
period. From the table it is been observed that there is a gradual and slight decrease in
liquid limit and plasticity index with curing days for both the combinations (BC,
Terrabind and BC, Terrabind and FA). There is a slight increase in plastic limit with
increase in curing time for both the combination. It is also observed that soil stabilized
using Terrabind and fly ash has showed better results compared to soil stabilized only
with terrabind. In case of soil treated with Terrabind, LL has reduced by 11%, plastic
limit has increased by 9% and plasticity index has reduced by 30% for 28 days curing
period and in case of soil stabilized with Terrabind and FA liquid limit has reduced by
22%, PL has increased by 6% and PI has reduced by 49% for 28 days curing period.
51
From the results obtained it is clear that the chemical improves the consistency limits
of soil and the chemical is more effective when FA is added. Figure 5.1, 5.2, 5.3
shows the graphical representation of variation of liquid limit, plastic limit and
plasticity index respectively for different curing periods.
Table 5.2: Variation of consistency limits of untreated and treated soil for
different curing period.
Property BC soil
LL
PL
PI
64
31
33
BC+ Terrabind
BC+ Terrabind+ FA
1 Day 7 Days 28 Days 1 Day 7 Days 28 Days
60
58
57
55
51
50
33
34
34
29
28
33
27
24
23
26
23
17
62
60
58
Liquid limit(%)
56
TERRABIND
54
52
TERRABIND +
FLYASH
50
48
46
44
1
7
Curing period in days
28
Figure5.1: variation of liquid limit of treated soil for different curing period.
52
40
35
30
Plastic limit(%)
25
TERRABIND
20
15
TERRABIND+
FLY ASH
10
5
0
1
28
Figure 5.2: variation of Plastic limit of treated soil for different curing period.
30
Plasticity index
25
20
TERRABIND
15
TERRABIND+ FLY
ASH
10
5
0
1
7
28
Figure 5.3: variation of Plasticity index of treated soil for different curing period.
5.3.2 Compaction test results

Following table shows the IS modified compaction results of treated and untreated
soil. It can be observed that there is very slight increase in dry density of treated soil.
Soil stabilized with Terrabind and fly ash has showed better results compared to soil
stabilized with Terrabind. It can also be observed that dry density increased with
increase in curing time and OMC reduced with increase in curing days. MDD of soil
stabilized with Terrabind for 28 days curing is 18.5 KN/m3 and 18.8 KN/m3 for soil
53
stabilized with Terrabind and fly ash. These results were further used for the
preparation soil samples for other tests which include CBR, UCS, Swell pressure,
Fatigue, Freeze and Thaw. Increase in dry density might be due to the Activation of
aluminosilicates within soil particles which results in alteration of the ionic exchange
responsible for water attraction in soil molecules. Variation of dry density of treated
soil with respect to different curing periods is graphically represented in Fig. 5.4.
Table 5.3: MDD and OMC of untreated and treated soil for different curing
period.
BC
soil
1
Day
7
Days
28
Days
BC+ Terrabind+
FA
1
7
28
Day Days Days
17.7
17.7
17.9
18.5
17.7
16.31
16.31 16.29 16.25 16.31 16.21 16.11
BC+ Terrabind
Property
b) O.M.C
(%)
Dry density (KN/ m3)
I.S modified
Compaction
a) MDD
(KN/m3)
18.0
18.8
1.9
1.85
TERRA BIND
1.8
TERRA BIND
+ FLYASH
1.75
1.7
0
7
28
Figure 5.4: variation of maximum dry density of treated soil for different curing
period.
5.3.3 Unconfined compression test results
Based on Heavy compaction test results (MDD and OMC), UCS tests for untreated
and treated soil samples were carried out and the test results are presented in the Table
54
5.4. From the results it is observed that the strength of soil treated with terrabind has
increased by 80% and soil treated with Terrabind and fly ash has increased by 73%.
Results showed increase in strength with increase in curing time for both the
combinations. The strength of soil stabilized with Terrabind (1203 KN/m2) was more
compared to soil stabilized with Terrabind and fly ash (971.25 KN/m2). This
enormous increase in strength is due to Terrabind chemical reaction with the clay
lattice of the soil which alters the ionic charge in clay and creates a chemical bond
between the clay particles. Variation of unconfined compressive strength of treated
soil with respect to different curing periods is graphically represented in Fig. 5.5.
Table 5.4: Unconfined compressive strength results of untreated and treated soil
for different curing period.
BC+ Terrabind
Property BC soil
UCS
1 Day
268
7 Days 28 Days
414.68 792.23
BC+ Terrabind+ FA
1 Day
7 Days 28 Days
1203.98 743.54 890.37
971.25
UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Strength( KN/m2 )
1400
1200
1000
TERRA BIND
800
600
TERRA BIND +
FLYASH
400
200
0
0
28
Curing days
Figure 5.5: Variation of unconfined compressive strength of treated soil for

different curing period.
55
5.3.4 CBR test results

The results of the CBR tests are tabulated in Table 5.5. It can be observed from the
table that the CBR of treated soil at unsoaked condition has increased enormously for
both the combinations. The unsoaked CBR of soil has increased by 31% and 48% for
soil treated with Terrabind and Terrabind+ fly ash respectively. From the results
obtained it is clear that the chemical improves the unsoaked CBR of soil to a great
extent and is more effective when fly ash is added. Soil stabilized with Terrabind and
fly ash has showed better results because addition of cementitous materials like fly
ash, further strengthens soil because Terabind catalyses the activation of
aluminosilicates in soil along with the calcium hydroxide present in cementitous
binders . But in case of soaked condition there is not much increase in CBR.the
maximum CBR at soaked condition for 28 days curing period is 2.3% and 2.55%
respectively for soil stabilized using Terrabind and Terrabind+ fly ash.Variation of
CBR values with respect to different curing periods are graphically represented in Fig.
5.6 and 5.7 for unsoaked and soaked tests respectively.
Table 5.5: CBR test results of untreated and treated soil for different curing
period.
BC+ Terrabind
Property
CBR
Value
(%)
BC soil 1 Day
BC+ Terrabind+ FA
7 Days
28 Days
1 Day
7Days
28 Days
Unsoaked
condition
28.17
33.09
40.25
40.69
47.4
48.74
53.66
Soaked
condition
1.04
0.67
1.34
2.3
1.12
1.57
2.55
56
CBR ( UNSOAKED )
STRENGTH ( KN/ m2)
60
50
40
TERRA BIND
30
TERRA BIND +
FLYASH
20
10
0
0
7
28
CURING DAYS
Figure 5.6: Variation of Unsoaked CBR of treated soil for different curing
period.
CBR( SOAKED)
1.8
1.6
Strength(KN/m2)
1.4
1.2
TERRA BIND
1
0.8
TERRA BIND +
FLYASH
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
7
Curing days
28
Figure 5.7: Variation of Soaked CBR of treated soil for different curing period.
5.3.5 Triaxial test:
Results of Triaxial compression test have been presented in the table 5.6. Table shows
the variation in cohesion and angle of friction of untreated and treated soil.it can be
observed that cohesion has increased gradually with increase in curing days and angle
of failure has also increased with increase in curing days.maximum cohesion was
found to 320 KN/m2 and 350 KN/m2 for soil stabilized with Terrabind and
57
Terrabind+FA respectively and angle of failure was found to be 54 and 36 for soil
stabilized with Terrabind and Terrabind+FA respectively.
Table 5.5: Triaxial compression test results of untreated and treated soil for
different curing period
BC+ Terrabind
BC+ Terrabind+ FA
BC
soil 1 Day 7 Days 28 Days 1 Day 7 Days 28 Days
Property
Cohesion ( c ) KN/m2
Angle of failure()
in degrees
90
38
45
160
45
320
54
120
35
230
35
350
36
35
5.3.6 Free swell index:

Results of Free swell index test have been presented in the table 5.7. It is observed
from the results that the swelling property of black cotton soil has reduced greatly
after stabilizing the soil with Terrabind and with the addition of flyash the swelling
has reduced to zero with time. When free swell index test was conducted after 28
days, the swelling was reduced by 83% and 100% for soil stabilized with Terrabind
and Terrabind+ fly ash respectively. This shows that the chemical is very effective in
reducing the swelling properties of BC soil.
Table 5.7: Free swell index test results of untreated and treated soil for different
curing period.
Property BC soil
BC+ Terrabind
BC+ Terrabind+ FA
1 Day 7 Days 28 Days 1 Day 7 Days 28 Days

FSI (%)
50
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33

Results of swell pressure test have been presented in the table 5.8. Swell pressure of
treated soil is found to be 49.5 KN/m2. Swell pressure of treated soil was determined
after 7 days curing and the swell pressure was found to be 36.72 KN/m2 and 35.12
58
KN/m2 respectively for soil stabilized with Terrabind and Terrabind+ fly ash
respectively. Swell pressure was reduced by 26 % and 29% respectively for soil
stabilized with Terrabind and Terrabind+ fly ash respectively. The reduction in swell
pressure is due to the action of electrolytic emulsions presents in Terrabind that
attacks the clay lattice of soil by altering the ionic charge in clay and breaking down
the capillary action of clay soil particles thus reducing the ability for soil particles to
attract and retain moisture. Table 5.8 shows the results of swell pressure test of
untreated and treated soil.
Table 5.8: Swell pressure test results of untreated and treated BC soil.
Soil Mix
Untreated soil
Soil +Terrabind
Soil +Terrabind+ Flyash
Swell
Pressure
(KN/m2 )
49.495
36.72
35.12
5.3.8 Durability:
Wet and Dry method
When the samples were immersed in water for the first cycle of wetting, the samples
couldnt withstand and samples got collapsed within a fraction of seconds.
Freeze and thaw test
Results of freeze and thaw test on untreated have been presented in table 5.9 and
results of soil treated with Terrabind and Terrabind+FA have been presented in table
5.10, and 5.11 respectively. Tables show the percentage loss in weight after each
cycle. From the table we can observe that in most cases percentage loss in weight is
more for thawing. Percentage loss in weight after the last cycle of freez and thaw
(12th cycle) was found to be 8.81%, 4.75% and 4.1% for untreated soil, soil treated
with Terrabind and Terrabind + FA respectively. Thus we can say the stabilized soil
has increased its durability as the percentage weight loss has reduced by 46% and
59
53% for soil treated with Terrabind and Terrabind + FA respectively. Figure 5.8
shows the graphical representation of freeze and thaw cycles for untreated and treated
BC soil.
Table 5.9: Freeze and thaw test results of untreated and treated BC soil.
BC Soil
No. of
Cycles
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
Freeze
Thaw
BC Soil +
Terrabind +
FA
%
%
weight
weight
weigh
(gm)
loss
t loss
0.06
157.1
0.2
2.06
151.0
4.1
1.81
153.0
2.8
2.12
152.0
3.4
1.81
153.7
2.4
3.44
151.4
3.8
2.69
151.7
3.6
3.62
151.3
3.9
3.00
151.8
3.6
3.81
151.2
3.9
2.94
151.5
3.7
3.69
151.7
3.6
2.12
151.7
3.6
3.94
151.5
3.7
3.50
151.3
3.9
4.12
151.1
4.0
3.12
151.2
3.9
4.75
151.0
4.1
5.56
151.5
3.7
4.93
151.1
4.0
5.12
151.3
3.9
5.12
151.1
4.0
4.62
150.0
4.7
4.75
151.0
4.1
BC Soil +
Terrabind
%
weight
weight
weight
(gm)
(gm)
loss
160.7
0.31
160.0
152.1
5.65
156.8
153.3
4.90
157.2
150.0
6.95
156.7
151.7
5.89
157.2
148.7
7.75
154.6
149.7
7.13
155.8
148.0
8.19
154.3
149.1
7.51
155.3
148.1
8.13
154.0
148.6
7.82
155.4
148.3
8.00
154.2
149.3
7.38
156.7
147.3
8.62
153.8
148.3
8.00
154.5
148.4
7.94
153.5
149.3
7.38
155.1
147.0
8.81
152.5
148.3
8.00
151.2
146.7
9.00
152.2
145.6
9.68
151.9
146.3
9.24
151.9
147.4
8.56
152.7
147.0
8.81
152.5
60
10
9
8
7
6
BC
BC+TERRA
BC+TERRA+FA
3
2
1
0
1
9 10 11 12
Figure 5.8: Graphical representation of freeze-thaw cycles for untreated and

treated BC soil.
5.3.9 Fatigue Test

Results of fatigue test on untreated samples have been presented in table 5.12 and
results of soil treated with Terrabind and Terrabind+ FA have been presented in table
5.13, and 5.14. From the tables we can observe that number of cycles has increased
greatly for treated soil and number of cycles has increased with increase in curing
period. It can also be observed that number of cycles also depend on amount of stress
applied. Number of cycles has reduced with increase in applied stress. When 2/3rd of
UCS strength was applied the no of cycles for untreated, soil treated with Terrabind
and soil treated with Terrabind and FA was found to be 3798, 13365, and 18560
respectively for soil specimens cured for 28 days.
Table 5.10: Fatigue test results of untreated BC soil.
UCS(31.99Kg)
% of UCS
Applied
strength
stress(Kg)
33.33
10.65
50
16
66.66
21.33
61
Fatigue life(No
of cycles)
8422
6612
3798
Table 5.11: Fatigue test results of soil treated with Terrabind.

Curing
period
UCS (Kg)
Total UCS
strength(Kg)
7 days
93.61
28 days
147.81
% of UCS
strength
33.33
50
66.66
33.33
50
66.66
Applied
stress(Kg)
31.17
46.81
62.41
49.22
73.91
98.54
Fatigue
life(No of
cycles)
15589
12567
10415
20449
16780
13365
Table 5.12: Fatigue test results of soil treated with Terrabind and Fly ash.
Curing
period
Total UCS
strength(Kg)
7 days
105.97
28 days
115.6
UCS (Kg)
% of UCS
strength
33.33
50
66.66
33.33
50
66.66
62
Applied
stress(Kg)
35.29
52.99
70.65
38.49
57.8
77.1
Fatigue
life(No of
cycles)
20119
18715
16318
23450
20570
18560
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the experimental study
1.
There is no significant increase in the consistency limits for the chemical treated
BC soil. Untreated soil shows LL=64%, PL =31%, and PI =33%. For soil stabilized
with Terrabind, PI has reduced from 27% for one day curing to 23% for 28 days
curing period. For soil stabilized with Terrabind+FA, PI has reduced from 26 % for
one day curing to 17% for 28 days curing period. Amount of clay content plays a
major role in the variation of consistency limits. Since the tested soil contains only
15% of clay, there is no much improvement in Atterbergs limits. As per IS:1498,
classification of swelling soils, the degree of expansion with respect to LL has
reduced from high to medium for soil stabilized with Terrabind and FA and with
respect to PI degree of expansion has reduced from very high to medium for soil
stabilized with Terrabind as well as for soil stabilized with Terrabind and FA.
2.
Improvement in dry density of treated soil is marginal. MDD increased from
17.7 KN/m3 to 18.5 KN/m3 and 18.8 KN/m3 for soil stabilized with Terrabind and
Terrabind + FA respectively for 28 days curing period. OMC was reduced from
16.31% to 16.25% and 16.11% for soil stabilized with Terrabind and Terrabind + FA
for 28 days curing period respectively. Increase in dry density may be due to the
activation of aluminosilicates within soil particles which results in alteration of the
ionic exchange responsible for water attraction in soil molecules.
3.
The improvement in UCS value is very much encouraging. Terrabind chemical
is found to be effective in increasing the UCS value. The strength of soil stabilized
with Terrabind (1203 KN/m2) is more compared to strength of soil stabilized with
Terrabind + FA (971.25 KN/m2). It was also found that as the curing period increases
the UCS value also increases. This tendency may be due to effective cation exchange
63
process which generally takes longer period. This enormous increase in strength is
due to Terrabind chemical reaction with the clay lattice of the soil which alters the
ionic charge in clay and creates a chemical bond between the clay particles.
4.
CBR value of treated soil at unsoaked condition increases enormously for both
the combinations. The unsoaked CBR
value of soil increases from 28.17% for
untreated soil to 40.69% and 53.66% for soil stabilized with Terrabind and soil
stabilized with Terrabind+FA for 28 days curing respectively. From the results
obtained it is clear that the chemical improves the CBR value of the unsoaked soil to a
great extent and it is more effective when FA is added to it. Soil stabilized with
Terrabind+FA shows better results due to the addition of cementitous materials like
FA which strengthens the soil further. Terrabind catalyses the activation of
aluminosilicates in soil along with the calcium hydroxide presents in cementitous
binders, but in case of soaked condition there is not much increase in CBR. The
maximum CBR at soaked condition for 28 days curing period for soil stabilized using
Terrabind and Terrabind+FA is 2.3% and 2.55% respectively.
5.
From Free Swell Index (FSI) test it was observed that swelling property of BC
soil has reduced greatly after stabilizing the soil with Terrabind and with the addition
of FA the swelling has reduced to zero with longer curing time. When FSI test was
conducted after 28 days, the swelling has reduced by 83% and 100% for soil
stabilized with Terrabind and Terrabind+FA respectively. This shows that the
chemical is very effective in reducing the swelling properties of BC soil and is found
to be more effective when FA is added. As per IS: 1498 classification of swelling
soils, the degree of expansion with respect to FSI has reduced from medium to low.
6.
Swell pressure test results showed that Swell pressure reduced from 49.5 KN/m 2
to 36.72 KN/m2 and 35.12 KN/m2 for soil stabilized with Terrabind and Terrabind+
FA tested after 7 days of curing. Swell pressure was reduced by 26% and 29% for
soil stabilized with Terrabind and Terrabind+ FA respectively. The reduction in swell
64
pressure is due to the action of electrolytic emulsions presents in Terrabind that

attacks the clay lattice of soil by altering the ionic charge in clay and breaking down
the capillary action of clay soil particles thus reducing the ability for soil particles to
attract and retain moisture. This shows that the chemical is very effective in reducing
the swelling properties of BC soil and is found to be more effective when fly ash is
added.
7.
From freeze and thaw test it has been observed that the percentage loss in
weight after the last cycle of freezing and thawing (12th cycle) is 8.81%, 4.75% and
4.1% for untreated soil, soil treated with Terrabind and soil treated with Terrabind +
FA respectively. As per AASHTO, percentage weight loss should be within 14 %.
Thus we can say that the stabilized soil is durable.
8.
The fatigue analysis conducted based on the UCS test results indicate that the
fatigue life has increased greatly after stabilizing the soil. Soil specimen mix prepared
with Terrabind and Terrabind + FA exhibited reasonably good fatigue life.
9.
Chemical test results on untreated and treated BC soil shows an increase in
SiO2, CaO content and pH value and decrease in Fe2O3, MgO, chloride and sulphate
content for treated soil when compared with untreated soil. Since a clear trend is not
observed, the changes in chemical composition of treated and untreated soil cannot be
explained clearly.
6.1 SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDIES
1. The present study can be extended by adding different proportions of FA with
Terrabind.
2. Since a clear trend was not observed in chemical tests of treated and untreated
soil, further investigation can be done to understand the effect of chemicals on
soil composition.
3. Since Terrabind has given good results on treating it with BC soil, field studies
can be conducted
65
REFERENCES
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Ash." EJGE 17.
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and lime admixture on engineering properties of clayey soil. Engineering Geology ,
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Chen, F.H. (1975). Foundations on Expansive Soils. Elsevier publications., 120130.
Chew, H.S., Kamruzzaman, H.M. and Lee, F.H. (2004). Physicochemical and
engineering behavior of cement treated clays. journal of geotechnical and
geoenvironmental engineering.
Estabragh, A., Beytolahpour, I. and Javadi, A. (2011). Effect of Resin on the

Strength of Soil-Cement Mixture. J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 23(7), 969976.
Gopal, R. and Singh, J. (1983).Chemical stabilisation of sand, comparative studies

on urea-formaldehyde resins as dune sand stabiliser and effect of compaction on
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soils. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS 2720 (Part 5)-1985. Determination of Liquid and Plastic limit Bureau of Indian
Standards , New Delhi.
66
IS: 2720 (part 8)-1983, Determination of water content - Dry Density Relation using
Heavy Compaction Bureau of Indian Standards , New Delhi.
IS: 2720 (part 10)-1973, Determination of Unconfined Compression Strength

Bureau of Indian Standards , New Delhi.
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Standards , New Delhi.
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of Indian Standards , New Delhi.
IS: 2720 (part-10)-1977,determination of Free Swell index of soils Bureau of

Indian Standards , New Delhi.
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Indian Standards , New Delhi.
Homoud, A.I., Basma, I.A., Husein, A.I. and Bashabsheh, M.A.(1995). cyclic
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Hossain, K.M. and Mol ,L. (2011). Some engineering properties of stabilized clayey
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Kolias, S., Kasselouri, R.V. and Karahalios, A. (2005). Stabilisation of clayey soils
with high calcium fly ash and cement.Elsevier publications., 27.
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and Technology., 4, 3.
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Husk Ash Stabilized Black Cotton Soil. International Journal of Earth Sciences and
Engineering ., 4, 42-45.
Little, D.N. (2005). Handbook for Stabilization of Pavement Subgrades and Base
Courses with Lime. National Lime Association Kendall Publishing Company.
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Pankaj, R.M., Nangare, P.B., Nagrale, S.D., Nalawade, R.D. and Chavhan, V.S.
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69

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EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON BLACK

COTTON SOIL TREATED WITH TERRABIND

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal

TERRABIND CHEMICAL AND FLY ASH which is being submitted to the

(Register Number, Name & Signature of the Student)

Place: NITK, SURATHKAL

1.2 ROLE OF SUBGRADE

1.3 SOIL STABILIZATION

1.4 USES OF STABILIZATION

1.5 PRINCIPLES OF SOIL STABILIZATION

1.6 STABILIZATION USING TERRABIND CHEMICAL

1.6.1The science behind reacting clay soil with Terrabind

1.6.2 Terrabind and Fly Ash (FA)

1.6.3 Terrabind chemical constituents

1.7 NEED OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION

1.8 OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION

1.9 SCOPE OF WORK

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2 IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SWELLING SOILS

2.3 BLACK COTTON SOIL

2.4 STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES

2.4.1 Mechanical stabilization

2.4.2 Chemical stabilization

2.5 TYPES OF STABILIZERS

2.5.1 Portland Cement

2.5.2 Quick Lime/Hydrated Lime

2.5.3 Fly ash

2.6 REVIEWS ON RESEARCH FINDINGS ON STABILIZATION OF SOIL USING

2.7 REVIEWS ON RESEARCH FINDINGS ON STABILIZATION OF SOIL USING

2.8 DURABILITY STUDIES

3.0 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

3.2 pH OF SOIL BY ELECTROMETRIC METHOD

3.3 CONDUCTIVITY OF SOIL BY ELECTROMETRIC METHOD

3.4 SILICA CONTENT IN SOIL BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD

3.5 IRON OXIDE (Fe2O3) IN SOIL BY COLORIMETRIC METHOD

3.6 R2O3 (Al2O3 + Fe2O3) IN SOIL BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD

3.7 CHLORIDE CONTENT IN SOIL BY ARGENTOMETRIC METHOD 32

3.9 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS RESULTS ON UNTREATED AND TREATED SOIL

4.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

4.2 MATERIALS USED

4.2.3 Application of Terrabind to BC Soil

4.2.4 Class C Fly ash

4.2.5 Terrabind dosage

4.3 TESTS CONDUCTED ON SOIL

4.3.1 Specific Gravity test

4.3.2 Grain size analysis test

4.3.3 Consistency limits test

4.3.4 Compaction tests

4.3.5 Unconfined Compression Test

4.3.6 California Bearing Ratio Test

4.3.7 Triaxial compression test

4.3.8 Free swell index

4.3.9 Swell pressure

5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.2 TESTS ON BASIC PROPERTIES OF BLACK COTTON SOIL

5.3 RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED ON BC SOIL TREATED WITH

5.3.1 Plasticity Characteristics

5.3.2 Compaction test results

5.3.3 Unconfined compression test results

5.3.4 CBR test results

5.3.5 Triaxial test

5.3.6 Free swell index