The Ambivalence of the Marxist Concept of Ideology

Author(s): Gustav A. Wetter

Source: Studies in Soviet Thought, Vol. 9, No. 3 (1969), pp. 177-183
Published by: Springer
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GUSTAV

THE AMBIVALENCE

A. WETTER

OF THE MARXIST

CONCEPT

OF IDEOLOGY*

as "the system of social (political,

ideas
which are determined by and
religious, artistic, etc.)
philosophic,
in turn reflect the current material base of society".1 A certain ambivalence
is given already at this point. If, as is the case in class society, social being

Marxism-Leninism

defines

'ideology'

is ill, social consciousness

will reflect reality in a distorted way. On the
social con
other hand, a healthy social being will produce a healthy
can
true
and
false
sciousness.
conscious
designate
'Ideology', therefore,
ness. On the contemporary
scene it is bourgeois
consciousness
which is
false and socialist

consciousness

to this ambivalence

which

is true.

of the Marxist

concept of ideology there

is another which will be our main concern here. Certain forms of social
- are false conscious
- like
consciousness
art, etc.
morality, philosophy,
ness only in class society. The removal of class divisions under socialism
In addition

the lifting of their illusory character. Other forms of social con

religion, above all have truth value neither in class society
nor under socialism. Here the demarcation
line between true and false
no
some
is
consciousness
longer horizontal but rather vertical. Therefore,

means

sciousness

rank as 'essentially' false while others are false only under certain
is there this ambivalence?
circumstances,
namely in class society. Why
Was it the case for Marx? If not, is it nonetheless a consistent development
of his thought?
One can find an answer to this question only through a short analysis
of Marx' original line of thought. The relation between thought and being
forms

of the different forms of dialectic

is to be seen against the background
three stages in the
in the early works of Marx. We can here distinguish
of
Marx:
The
works before
the
the
of
young
thought
development
(1)
1844; (2) The Economic-Philosophic
Manuscripts
to
of
1845
1848.
works
The
Family,
(3)

of

1844 and The Holy

In the first period Marx has completed

the basic break with Hegel but
has not yet come fully into his own historical-materialist
It is
position.
no longer the idea but history itself which will establish the truth of this

Studies inSoviet Thought 9 (1969) 177-183; ? D. Reidel, Dordrecht-Holland

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178

GUSTAV

A. WETTER

But theory still has a positive role: the proletariat finds its spiritual
in it; and it becomes a material force as soon as it lays hold of
weapon2
this 'realization' of philosophy
the masses.3 However,
already implies its

world.

Aufhebung and negation.4 How this is concretely to be understood

in agreement with Feuerbach,
obscure. For Marx,
only religion
as illusory consciousness.
The year 1844 - with the Economic-Philosophic
Manuscripts
as inter-related
in originating
the philosophical
Holy Family
- is an essential transitional
stage along the road toward
point
materialist
of
The
background
conception
history.
philosophical
a double

remains
qualifies
and The
starting
the final
contains

the one hand, the dialectic of man's

self-creation
in the course of
in work. On the other, the dialectic of man's alienation
the first form of the
history and his return from this alienation. While
the dialectic
dialectic is a process which can in principle go on adinfinitum,
dialectic.

of alienation

On

leads to a final

state.

the relation
It is against this background
that one must understand
as formulated by Marx
in this period.
between being and consciousness,
The basic situation is described as follows: "Thought and being ... are
of course different, but also together in unity."5 This is explained by a
one
between man and animal. The animal is immediately
comparison
man
his
with his vital activity; for
the latter is the object of
consciousness;
he is it and knows it.6 Being is, however,
clearly primary in this unity.
in the first developmental
While
recognizes
phase of his thought Marx
a positive role for philosophy,
henceforth he repeats again and again that
the contradictions
in reality are to be overcome not through solution in
thought but only through practice.7
This unity of thought and being is disturbed by alienation. Conscious
ness no longer directly overlies being; it becomes
illusory. This illusory
in religion (defined in The Holy Family finds expression
consciousness
- as a
as in Engels' Anti-D?hring
'phantastic reflection') above all, in
but also in philosophy
in general,
in law, state, family,
metaphysics,
morality,

science,

art,

'etc.'.

This means

that the overcoming

is "the return
of human self-alienation
of man out of religion, family, state, etc., into his human,
i.e., social,
mode of being".8 The works of this period do not have much to say as
to which form consciousness will have after the overcoming
of alienation,
if philosophy,

science, art, morality,

religion,

etc., are to be seen as struc

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THE MARXIST
tures of alienated
the conception
consciousness

consciousness.

179

CONCEPT OF IDEOLOGY
All

the relevant

assertions

are based

on

of the immediate unity of consciousness

and being. Generic
is designated by Marx as the repetition, confirmation
and
'is' and 'knows itself
of real social being.9 Communism

being-for-itself
as the interpreted

of history.10 This consciousness

mystery
a
new
form in
type of science, where natural
corresponding
the science of man coincide.11

attains

its

science and

this conception
of the relation between consciousness
and
Alongside
one
other
assertions
which
sound
like
the
finds
earlier
being
conception
of the independent role of theory in the development
of reality. Even in
a greater role is attributed to consciousness
than that of reflec
tion of being. In his Paris manuscripts
Marx
says of political economy
that, on the one hand, it is to be considered a product of industry as it

alienation

"on the other hand, expedites the energy and development

of this industry"
and "has turned it into a force of consciousness".12
In the famous passage
on proletariat and wealth of The Holy Family, where Marx says that the
is driven to revolution by becoming conscious of its inhuman
proletariat
as knowledge about its being
condition13, the conception of consciousness
is doubly sprung. The consciousness
of the proletarian
reflects not only
his being; it compares this factually given being to a being which is not
the consciousness
of the proletarian
yet given but ought to be. Moreover,
who is still living in alienation ceases to be false and becomes
'true' con
sciousness, even though his being still lies in the domain of alienation.
The writings of the third period contain a basically similar view on the
relation between being and consciousness.
But what is more important
for the further development
of the concept of ideology in later Marxist
is
the
fact
that
the
has essentially
philosophy
philosophical
background
new
a
to
A
factor
decisive
in
Marx'
role
historical
changed.
begins
play
In this context the contradiction which
dialectic, the forces of production.
drives history on also takes on a new form : this is the periodically
recurring
contradiction
nated

between

in The German

relations

(which are usually desig

between men) and forces
of the historical dialectic involves

of production
as 'intercourse'

Ideology
of production. A further transformation
it was the proletarian
revolution. While

as leading to the
revolution
was
which
Aufhebung
absolutely central toMarx'
earlier thought, Marx now talks about revolutionary
upheavals which
recur
in history. The dialectical triadicity, which earlier ap
periodically
of human

self-alienation

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180

GUSTAV

A. WETTER

and return from alienation as a uniquely

movement
in
occurring rhythmic
history, is now located within the distinct
recurrent phenome
historical periods and thereby becomes a periodically
non. In every historical period there arises a contradiction
between forces
in the form of alienation

peared

which is resolved
of production,
have been a form of the dialectic which

and relations
would

ad infinitum had Marx not introduced

above notions - of the 'historical mission'
which

consists

in putting

in revolution.

The

result

could and should extend

the idea - which issues from the

of the working class, a mission

an end once and for all to class divisions and

conflicts. The resulting problem of a dialectical

society is not our business here.

development

within

Com

munist

to the question of the relation between being and consciousness.

as knowledge
of consciousness
of its being
the conception
can be
is pertinent. We find an unhoped-for
"Consciousness
precision:
Now

Here

again

nothing other than conscious being."14 Being once again has primacy:
which determines
life but life which determines
"It is not consciousness
is the passage in The German Ideology which is almost
of 1859.
formulation
no longer plays a role in these
'alienation'
the
of
concept
Although
a 'false' consciousness
we
still
find
of
which is
the
writings,
conception
consciousness"15
identical with

conditioned
philosophy,
the condition

the classic

Such are all 'pure' theories: theology,

by social conditions.
- once
again the list ends with an 'etc.'. Marx sees
morality

for the coming to be of false consciousness

of possibility
of work, especially in the division into physical and mental
This possibility
always becomes reality if there arises a contra

in the division
work.16

the existing social relations and the forces of production

at hand.17 Concerning
Marx opposes
the form of 'true' consciousness,
to ideology history as the 'only science' which includes nature and man.

diction

between

against Proudhon he calls it a "conscious product of historical

in a certain sense, therefore, it is the very historical process
motion"18;
which is reflected in the science of history.
In his work

Even in this period one can detect an influence of the earlier conception
of theory as a positive historical
force. Once in The German Ideology
can occasionally
Marx asserts that consciousness
outstrip empirical rela
tions.19 In the Theses on Feuerbach Marx reproaches previous philosophy
having simply explained reality while the real task is to change it.
In The Misery
Communists
of Philosophy and The Communist Manifesto,

with

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THE MARXIST

181

CONCEPT OF IDEOLOGY

as the theoreticians of the proletariat are said to have a 'true' conscious

ness even in the time before the revolution.
"They are able correctly to
see what goes on in front of them and to make themselves executors of the
the advantage
they have "over the rest of the proletariat
course and general results of the prole
into the conditions,
that within alienated
This all assumes, however,
tarian movement".21
a
can
true
be
this
there
that
consciousness,
being
enjoys a certain independ
ence vis-?-vis being; i.e., it has a certain anticipatory
character which

movement"20;
of an insight

it able to recognize the direction in current developments

and the
not
in
is
which
yet given
reality.
goal
Since the works of this third period contain all the fundamental notions
of the Marxian materialist
of what counts as the classical formulation

makes

of history, we can break off our analysis

conception

Later Marxist

philosophy
it does not

at this point.

the Marxian
in two
goes beyond
position
limit the ability to have a true consciousness,
to the theoreticians
of human self-alienation,

respects. First,
even before the overcoming
of earlier social for
of the proletariat. The forms of social consciousness
a relative - if not absolute mations have, under certain circumstances,
Recent Marxist-Leninist

validity.

forms

doctrine

of earlier

social

admits

that there were

formations

certain

in the

elements

of
superstructural
generally human validity, i.e., forms of true consciousness.
Is this a deviation from Marx? It seems to me that it is rather a consistent
line of thought. For, in The German
of the Marxian
further development
a
notes
Marx
contradiction
between social consciousness
that
Ideology
arises when there occurs a
and social being, i.e., a 'false' consciousness,
between social relations and the forces of production.
It
of the latter contradiction
follows,
then, that the overcoming
the illusory character of social consciousness.
One thus has the

contradiction
logically
removes

after revolu
possibility of justifying the appearance of true consciousness,
tion has eliminated the contradiction
between social relations and forces
and before a new contradiction
of production
a
new
of
social formation).
ginning
The
Marx
false
forms

has arisen

(i.e., at the be

second

has gone beyond

point, where later Marxist
philosophy
the character of the demarcation
line between true and
it run horizontally,
consciousness.
Does
through all the different
involves

of social

consciousness

(morality,

philosophy,

religion,

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etc.)? or

182

GUSTAV

A. WETTER

- at least under certain con

vertically between them so that some forms
are true and others essentially false? Marx
ditions and at certain times
it vertically, thus consistently considering not only reli
himself conceived
law, etc., as forms of false conscious
gion but also philosophy, morality,
ness.

this demarcation
line was also drawn
philosophy
same
as
in
the
Marx.
Here
place
vertically,
by
only religion is
an
as
form
of
social
false
while philos
consciousness,
essentially
regarded
are
and the other superstructural
domains
false only in
ophy, morality
In later Marxist
but not

class
Can

society as the expression

this adjustment of Marx

of the consciousness

of the ruling class.

also be seen as a logical consequence
of
It seems to me that it can. For if his new view

his own

line of thought?
dialectic in the third period, with
- as we have
offers the possibility
revolutions,

of the historical

its periodically
recurring
seen - of justifying
the
even in earlier social formations,
occurrence of true consciousness
there
is no reason why this should be limited to one form of consciousness.
not according
to
the forms of consciousness
Marx himself distinguished
to the specific character of
the criterion of true and false but according
within the only form of consciousness
he
each.22 Even he distinguishes
as
true
nature
and
the
science
of
what
still
man)
recognized
belongs
(i.e.,
to alienation
impossible
social

national
(e.g., bourgeois
to see why the same would

and what is true. It is

economy)
not be true of the other forms of

consciousness.

In any case, the later Marxist

of the various
its rehabilitation

philosophy was not consistent enough in

forms of social consciousness
when it did

not include religion in this rehabilitation

and when it did not distinguish
in it what is true and what is ideological,
i.e., deformed by class interests.
as
a
one
If one recognizes religion
specific form of social consciousness,
has to attribute to it a specific relation to reality: it cannot then be con
sidered an 'essentially'
of social consciousness

The different forms

false form of consciousness.
are to be distinguished
not according to true and
to the specific character of their relation to reality.

false but according

is more,
it is a contradictio

What

false reflection of reality in human

is precisely no reflection at all.

in adjecto to speak of an essentially

consciousness.
A totally false reflection

has the possibility - without

then, that modern Marxism
- of
itself or its theoretical foundations
itself into a
betraying
putting
seems
me
to
to
This
to
of
im
relation
be
tremendous
religion.
positive
It is apparent,

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THE MARXIST

CONCEPT OF IDEOLOGY

portance for the dialogue between Christians

one of the main challenges.

and Marxists,

183
which

remains

REFERENCES
*

read at the XIVth

of a paper
International
of Philosophy,
Translation
Congress
1968.
Vienna,
September
1
W?rterbuch
and Manfred
2nd revised ed.,
(ed. by Georg Klaus
Buhr),
Philosophisches
1965, p. 251.
Leipzig
2 Karl Marx
: 'Kritik der Hegeischen
in Fr?he Schriften,
Rechtsphilosophie.
Einleitung',
I (ed. by Hans-Joachim
Lieber
and Peter Furth),
Vol.
1962,
Stuttgart,
Cotta-Verlag,
p. 504.
3
Ibid., p. 497.
4
Ibid., p. 495.
5 Karl Marx:
in Fr?he Schriften,
p. 821.
Manuskripte',
'?konomisch-philosophische
6
Ibid., p. 567.
7
in Fr?he Schriften,
'Die deutsche
p. 821.
See, for example,
Ideologie',
8
pp. 594ff.
Manuskripte',
'?konomisch-philosophische
9
Ibid., p. 597.
i?
Ibid., p. 594.
11 Cf.
ibid., p. 604.
12
Ibid., p. 585.
13 The
pp. 703-705.
Family,
Holy
14 Karl
'Die deutsche
in: Karl Marx,
Friedrich
Friedrich
Marx,
Ideologie',
Engels:
vol. III, Dietz
Werke,
1958, p. 26.
Verlag,
Berlin,
Engels:
15
Ibid., p. 26f.
16
Ibid., x>. 31.
17
Ibid., p. 31f.
18 Karl Marx:
in Karl Marx,
Das Elend der Philosophie,
Friedrich
vol.
Engels:
Werke,
1959, p. 143.
IV, Dietz
Berlin,
Verlag,
19 Die deutsche
p. 73.
Ideologie,
20 Cf. Das Elend der
p. 143.
Philosophie,
21 Karl
Das Manifest
Friedrich
Marx,
Engels:
vol. IV, Dietz
Verlag,
Berlin,
1959, p. 474f.
22 Cf.
Manuskripte,
?konomisch-philosophische

der Kommunistischen

Partei,

p. 598.

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in Werke,