Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
A Textbook of Translation
Theoretical and Practical Implications
Said M. Shiyab
Said M. Shiyab
A Textbook of Translation
Theoretical and Practical Implications
Antwerp Apeldoorn
Garant
2006
192 p. 24 cm
D/2006/5779/62
ISBN 90-441-1996-6
ISBN 978-90-441-1996-1
NUR 630
Cover Design: Koloriet/Danni Elskens
Lay-out: Jurgen Leemans
Said M. Shiyab & Garant Publishers
All parts of this book are protected by copyright. Every use beyond the narrow limitations
of the copyright law is inadmissible, without the prior written permission from the copyright owners.
This is also valid for photocopying, translations and microfilm copies
as well as storage and utilization in electronic systems.
Garant
Somersstraat 13-15, B-2018 Antwerp
Koninginnelaan 96, NL-7315 EB Apeldoorn
www.garant-uitgevers.be
uitgeverij@garant.be
www.garant-uitgevers.nl
info@garant-uitgevers.nl
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
13
Acknowledgement
17
Dedication
19
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Perspectives on Translation
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
21
Definition of Translation
Translation: Past and Present
What is a Translator?
Methods of Translation
1.4.1
Word for Word Translation
1.4.2
Literal Translation
1.4.3 Free Translation
Translation: Art or Science?
Why Do We Need Translation?
Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (1)
Text-Comprehension and Translation
Importance of Translation and Interpretation
21
22
26
27
28
28
28
29
30
31
31
32
CHAPTER 2
Fallacies of Translation
35
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Misconceptions about Translation
2.3
Students and Teachers Perceptions
2.4 Other Perceptions
35
35
37
38
A Texbook of Translation
2.5
2.6
2.7
39
40
40
CHAPTER 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
43
Introduction
Linguistic and Translation Terms
Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (3)
43
43
50
CHAPTER 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
55
Introduction
Translation Theory
Unit of Translation
Effect of Translation Theory
How to Assess Translation
Effective and Successful Translation
Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (4)
55
56
57
58
60
61
62
CHAPTER 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
63
Introduction
Text-Types and Text-Functions
Discourse, Text-Types and Translation
Text-Type Categorization
Translation and Factors of Success
5.5.1
Pragmatics
5.5.2
Semiotics
5.5.3
Communicative Context
Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (5)
63
66
67
68
75
75
75
76
77
CHAPTER 6
6.1
6.2
79
Introduction
Translation and Meaning
79
79
Table of Contents
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
82
85
88
89
90
90
CHAPTER 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
93
Introduction
What is Punctuation?
Importance of Punctuation
Punctuation in Arabic
7.4.1
The semicolon (;)
7.4.2
Colon (:)
Test your Knowledge of Chapter (7)
Analysis and Translation of Texts
93
93
94
97
98
99
102
102
CHAPTER 8
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
105
Introduction
Characteristics of Texts
8.2.1
Expressive
8.2.2
Denotative
8.2.3 Formal vs. Functional Characteristics
Nature of Literary Translation
Writer-Translator Relationship
Linguistic Context and Literary Translation
Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (8)
Analysis and Translation of Texts
105
106
106
106
107
107
108
109
112
112
CHAPTER 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
115
Introduction
Translation and Language Teaching
Strategies in Foreign Language Learning
Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (9)
115
115
117
120
A Texbook of Translation
CHAPTER 10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
121
Introduction
Intercultural and Interpersonal Communication
Culture and Communication
Grices Maxims
Assessment
Pragmatic Variables and Interpreting
Test your Knowledge of Chapter (10)
121
121
123
124
126
127
129
CHAPTER 11
131
131
131
135
137
137
140
CHAPTER 12
155
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Legal Language vs. Legal Translation
12.3 Characteristics of Legal Texts
12.4 Problems in Translating Legal Texts
12.5 Strategies for Translating Legal Texts
12.6 Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (12)
12.7 Finding Target Language Equivalents
12.7 Analysis and Translation of Texts
155
155
157
158
158
160
160
179
Bibliography
183
Foreword
Peter Newmark, in his well-known book A Textbook of Translation (New York: Prentice
Hall International, 1988), states unequivocally that a translator has to have a flair and a
feel for his own language. He goes on: There is nothing mystical about this sixth sense,
but it is compounded of intelligence, sensitivity and intuition, as well as of knowledge
(1988: 4). Professor Said M. Shiyab not only has this sixth sense for his native language,
Arabic, but he has also developed it for todays number one international language, English. Shiyab is a specialist in linguistics and translation theory and application with vast
teaching and research experience in the Middle East and the USA. With an outstanding
flair and feel for both Arabic and English, he is the ideal author for this superb pedagogical work. Students as well as their instructors can look forward to many delightful hours
of intellectual stimulation exploring the thought-provoking ideas in the textbook which
follows. Translators and interpreters perform a very valuable service in every country in
the world today. In fact, the 2005 acclaimed movie The Interpreter, starring Nicole Kidman and Sean Penn, the first venture filmed at the United Nations headquarters in New
York City, demonstrates the glamor, the splendor, and the crucial importance of translation work in todays increasingly interconnected global marketplace.
Translators have been around, however, long before the United Nations, practicing both
an art and a science (here the author and I are in agreement that translation is both an art
and a science). Witness the multilingual scribes of the ancient Near East who produced
monuments such as the Rosetta Stone (a trilingual inscription long housed in the British
Museum in London) and numerous other texts of various sorts.
The student will find this textbook to be both lucid and enjoyable. The author has prepared a unique book for the next generation of translators, and if students carefully study
its pages, they will come away with a fine appreciation of this academic, scholarly, and
A Texbook of Translation
practical field where many of todays linguists are earning their living by oral and/or written translation-interpretation endeavors. Professor Shiyab notes in his preface to the tome
that he has been involved in this exciting area of intellectual inquiry since 1980. Chomsky
was challenging for him, or as he writes, provoked me at the beginning, yet somehow
lacked the fascination he would soon develop for systemic linguistics and discourse analysis. Indeed the author has succeeded in amalgamating the two aforementioned fields
of systemic linguistics and discourse analysis with the theoretical and applied aspects of
translation studies. His 23 years of teaching experience, vast reading in the field and allied areas, and personal research efforts resulting in numerous publications all combine
to engage the student to channel him or her into a stimulating journey into a wonderful
specialization within the area of general and applied linguistics. The book, conveniently
organized into a dozen chapters, is a thorough and comprehensive survey of a vibrant and
exciting discipline with a rich bibliographical tradition (see the exhaustive bibliography
at the end of the volume).
Chapter 1, Introduction: Perspectives on Translation, looks at the history of the discipline from the point of view of leading 20th-century linguists, such as Roman Jakobson
and John Rupert Firth. I certainly agree with Shiyab when he asserts: ... translating any
text from one language into another yields a particular kind of ambiguity which cannot
be clarified unless the intentions of the text-producer within his/her own social, cultural,
denotative, connotative, and rhetorical contexts have been accounted for (p. 22).
Chapter 2, Fallacies of Translation, stresses that one course in translation cannot and
will not make the student a good translator (p. 32). Shiyab paints a very vivid picture
that translation is an intricate process and he is certainly speaking for the profession itself
when he affirms that translation entail[s] artistic strategies and scientific methods and
processes (p. 34). There is much food for thought to engage even the least curious of students into a real dialogue involving provocative essay and multiple-choice questions that
force the students to come to grips with the most pertinent and significant issues.
Chapter 3, Some Relevant Terms in Translation, presents the necessary tools of the
trade the relevant terminology of important concepts, among which are: back translation, borrowing and loanwords (Arabic kumbyuutar < English computer), calques (loan
translations) such as haatif telephone, idiomaticity, and so on. Every scientific field has
its jargon, so to speak, and translation studies are no exception.
Chapter 4, Translation Theory and Practice, convincingly argues that translation work
combines both theory and practice. A translator can thus be compared in many ways to
a surgeon. Just as the M.D. studies human anatomy and the causes of diseases for many
years, only then learning how to use a scalpel and cut into organs and tissues to assist in
10
Foreword
the eventual healing of the patient, so too the translator studies semantics and stylistics,
e.g., before becoming a professional practitioner. Moreover, experience counts for a lot
in both spheres. If having cataract surgery, a surgeon with 10,000 successful operations is
preferable to the novice surgeon just beginning a surgical career! So true for a translator
as well! In other words, one gains experience on the job itself.
Chapter 5, Text and Context in Translation, is a tribute to teaching total communicative competence over mere linguistic competence. Shiyab is right to argue that translation is to be based on the interpretation of the contextual variables such as pragmatics,
semiotics and the communicative contexts (p. 59). In this regard, it should be emphasized that language is the symbolic system par excellence, which justifies considering
linguistics as a part of semiotics in general.
Chapter 6, Translation: State of the Art, makes the all-important point that translation
involve[s] conveying what is implied and not what is said (p. 76). Using a Shakespearean example (Hamlet), Shiyab contrasts the implications of four published translations of
the English word scholar: (1) faqiih, (2) faSHii 9aalim; (3) rajul muthaqqaf wa faSiiH; and
(4) rajul muta9allim (p. 81). These real-life examples will stimulate productive student
discussion yielding a real understanding of many tangential cultural issues.
Chapter 7, Punctuation and Translation, examines the uses of the colon and semicolon, specifically, and other punctuation marks, such as the comma, in both English and
Arabic. The author is correct to emphasize that the entire system of Arabic punctuation
does not have well-established, universal rules in use throughout the Arab world today.
Therefore, he rightly maintains, much work needs to be done in order to identify what
is considered to be the sentence in Arabic if one wants to establish a coherent system of
punctuation (p. 97).
Chapter 8, Translation and Literature, is geared to be of service to the more advanced
student who already has a solid command of translating newspaper and magazine articles. Translating literary works, such as Shakespeare or Naguib Mahfouz (the Nobel Prize
winner for literature in 1988), but especially poetry, drama, and religious works (e.g. the
Bible, the Koran, etc.), is the most difficult and sophisticated material for a translator. A
prose vs. a verse translation of an Arabic poem shows the beauty of the latter over the
former (p. 107).
Chapter 9, Translations and Language Teaching, presents some good arguments that
translation can provide a solid foundation for teaching foreign language structures as, e.g.
collocational nominals in the two languages. For instance, the expression fish and chips
11
A Texbook of Translation
collocates in English but not in Arabic, whereas xubz wa milH bread and salt collocates
in Arabic but not in English.
Chapter 10, Translation and Pragmatics of Discourse, looks at the crucial matter of
pragmatic variables in an intercultural and interpersonal context (p. 117). Here Shiyab
introduces the importance of H. P. Grices pragmatic Maxims, which were made famous
in a series of William James Lectures at Harvard University in 1967.
Finally, Chapters 11 and 12, Translation and Scientific Texts and Translation and
Legal Translation, give marvelous examples in the arenas of translating scientific and
legal texts two of the most difficult foci. Many recent texts provide valuable training
to achieve practice to attain competence and fluency; e.g., xabiith malignant; cancerous
and mujrim or mudhnib criminal (depending on the context). Indeed the differences between Islamic Law (sharii9ah) and western (e.g. American) law are excellent pieces of evidence one may use to demonstrate the interrelationships between language and culture.
Professor Shiyabs translation textbook is an up-to-date and well-organized presentation
of all the important linguistic, pragmatic, and cultural ramifications necessary for success
as a working translator and/or interpreter. But keep in mind that as with all textbooks,
student progress is often measurable by the amount of concentrated, focused study of the
contents, which can be satisfying and enjoyable.
Alan S. Kaye
California State University, Fullerton (USA)
May 2006
12
Preface
I started my journey with translation in 1980 after which I started to look at language in
a somewhat unique way. How do languages express various messages and what effect do
such messages have on the audience? Every time I heard a politician talking, I got tuned
to his/her tone, winks, gestures in an attempt to understand the many different implications behind such acts. It was those moments that enabled me to look further into how
languages work. Indeed, languages always fascinated me since they represent human beings, their culture and traditions. Language is an important means of communication
where communication at times and under certain circumstances does not take place in
a verbal form. It was then that I realized that studying languages across cultures can be a
rewarding experience.
Languages, in the real sense of the word, manifest real people. Behind each piece of language, there is a vehicle of thought. Only those, I thought at that moment, who scrutinize
or look deeply into language codes and symbols can understand the real meanings behind the uses of language. I have to admit that Chomskys syntactic structures provoked
me at the beginning, but not to the extent where I see language in everyday work. Then I
moved into systemic linguistics and discourse analysis, and there I started to see where I
belong. What a fascination!
The fascination of translation studies prompted me to look further into languages across
cultures. I found that translation is not only a matter of decoding and re-encoding messages. In fact, it is the transmission of one culture into another. It is an approximation
between two different people.
In this book, I define many different theoretical and practical aspects of translation. My
attempt is to enable translation students and translation teachers understand the real
13
A Texbook of Translation
core of what translation is all about, minding the reader that a lot has been written about
translation, and unfortunately such writings created more confusion about this important profession. With this modest work, I hope readers would discover what is translation, what are the different types of translation, what is translation theory and what is
its effect, translation in its linguistic and cultural contexts, and above all translation and
its literary forms. This book not only explains and discusses all these aspects, but also
presents real and live examples from everyday writings.
Furthermore, I always thought that once I finish my teaching career, I will start writing
books on translation. However, after 23 years of teaching linguistics and translation, I
started to see many forgotten areas that are not accounted for. Therefore, this book explains many of these areas.
In this book, I have included 12 chapters. Chapter one defines translation, provides readers with a background on the past and present history of translation. It also provides
them with methods of translation, and explains whether translation is a science or an
art. In chapter two, I tried to clarify some fallacies about translation whether they are
student-teacher fallacies or communal fallacies. In order to familiarize the reader with
translation, chapter three defines the most important concepts in translation. Some of
these concepts may have to do with linguistics as well. In chapter four, I attempt to answer
the dilemma whether translation is a theory or practice, followed by chapter five where I
discuss the importance of context in translation.
Translation as the state of the art is the main focus of chapter six*. This chapter discusses
different concepts that are interrelated to translation. These are translation and meaning, translation and culture, perception and translators, and translation. This chapter also
compares between translating and writing. Chapter seven explains the importance of
using punctuation marks in translation. Although this chapter makes reference to the
Arabic punctuation marks, most of the issues discussed in this chapter can be applied to
other languages as well. Chapter eight discusses one of the important areas in translation
and that is the translation of literature. The characteristics of literary texts, their nature,
writer-translator relationship, and linguistic context and literary translation are all defined in this chapter.
As for chapter nine*, it demonstrates how translation can help learners to enhance their
second language. It introduces strategies for learning a foreign language, and the problems associated with it. Chapter ten examines the pragmatic variables in translation, and
shows how such variables can give rise to intercultural and interpersonal communication. Grices maxims and how they are relevant to successful communication are also
discussed. In chapter eleven, the process of translating scientific texts is introduced. Since
14
Preface
not many textbooks have included material on scientific translation, this chapter provides
the missing link. Therefore, English as a global language and its relation to science was
discussed. Also, a distinction was made between the language of science and the language
of literature. This is followed by a list of scientific terms where students were asked to find
their equivalents in the target language.
Last but not least, chapter twelve examines the link between language and law. It highlights the characteristics of legal texts, and how the construction of language can affect
the interpretation of law. The chapter also defines the characteristics of legal texts and the
problems associated with their translation. One of the important sections in this chapter
is the discussion of the problems of translating legal texts. This is, of course, followed by
a list of legal terms that are commonly used in legal texts.
All in all, the twelve chapters are all important in teaching any translation course, simply
because they deal with both theoretical and practical aspects of translation. These chapters can also be used to teach any course introducing students to the field of translation.
One other distinguished aspect of this textbook is that at the end of each chapter, there
is a set of questions, testing the students knowledge of the chapter. In addition, some
relevant texts are provided for students to translate into the target language. This is something that is hardly ever found in textbooks on translation.
* Some of topics discussed in chapters six and nine were taken from two co-authored articles with
Khanji, Lateef and Shiyab (2001).
15
Acknowledgement
In addition to those who helped this textbook along its way, I would like to thank my colleagues Professor Alan Kaye, University of California Fullerton, Professor Ben Bannani,
and Dr. Michel Lynch, UAE University for their valuable input and observations. I also
would like to thank the Scientific Research Office at the United Arab Emirates University
and the Office of Rare Diseases in Bethesda, Maryland (USA) for providing me with information used in this book.
Grateful acknowledgment is also made to my family, particularly my wife, Tammy, who
constantly supported me throughout my work. Without their insight and encouragement, this textbook would never have seen the light.
17
Dedication
This book is dedicated to all those who have contributed to its production,
especially those who happen to read it, review it and write about it.
19
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Perspectives on Translation
1.1 Definition of Translation
In this introduction, I will attempt to provide various perspectives on the term translation. What do we mean exactly by translation and how is it understood by linguists as
well as translation professionals? First, let there be no doubt that translation is not a new
act performed between two languages. It is as old as the history of our universe. The question that always arises is what is translation? To answer this question, numerous and
various definitions come to the surface.
Looking at translation from a semiotic perspective, Toury (1980: 12) believes that translation, in particular translation of literature, is a matter of transferring entities, underlying
codes, and sets of relationships and signs from one language to another. Translation is
the process of communication in which the translator is interposed between a transmitter and a receiver who use different languages to carry out code of conversation between
them (Tanke 1975). This latter definition may seem applicable to almost all types of translation, simply because no attempt was made to identify the framework into which literary
translation is used. In a different article, Tanke (1976: 22) provides a more complete definition of translation. He suggests that translation be viewed as the transfer of a text from a
source language into a text in the target language, the objective being a perfect (my italics)
equivalent of meaning between the two texts. However, this definition lacks clarification
as to what constitutes perfect equivalent of meaning.
Others define translation as that which preserves the meaning of the original in another
language (Ross 1981: 9). Translation is always an interpretation (Bennani 1981: 135); it
is the final product of problem solving and sign production of a receptor (Diaz-Diocretz
1985: 8). Translation is the reproduction in the receptor language of the closest natural
21
A Texbook of Translation
equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and second in terms
of style (Nida & Taber 1969: 210). Newmark (1988: 5) defines translation as rendering the
meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text.
From a linguistic point of view, De Beaugrande (1978: 13) suggests several hypotheses to
work with when it comes to the theory of poetic translating. De Beaugrande believes that
translating should not be studied as a comparison and contrast of two texts, but as a process
of interaction between author, translator, and reader of the translation. The act of translating is guided by several sets of strategies responsive to the directives within the text.
Whatever definitions we come across, almost all of them can be subsumed under two
definitions. The first definition is the replacement of one written text from one language
to another in which the main goal of the translator is meaning. The second is the transference of a message communicated from one text into a message communicated in another,
with a high degree of attaining equivalence of context of the message, components of the
original text, and the semiotic elements of the text (i.e. social, connotative, addresser-addressee relationship, etc.).
As for literary translation, it lies within these two definitions of translation. Sometimes
it may even go beyond these two extremes, as the characteristics and the norms of literary translation are of different nature. Literary translation is mainly concerned with text
functions manifested in the texts characteristics (Shiyab 1994: 234-235).
22
Introduction
the original text into that of the target. Here, meaning necessitates reference to linguistic
characteristics such as lexical, grammatical, phonological, etc; it also necessitates references to non-linguistic characteristics such as thought, situation, knowledge, intentions,
and use. Semiotic-based definitions, on the other hand, are those definitions which take
translation as the study of signs, symbols, codes, etc. Within this semiotic approach, the
cultural, social, rhetorical, and communicative patterns of human behaviors are studied.
Also all aspects of human communication are analyzed as systems of signals; they are
the means which semioticians use for the interpretation and analysis of texts. The interrelation of these definitions is illustrated in the following table. The letter (M) stands for
meaning based definitions, (S) stands for semiotic based definitions, and (S or M) stands
for either one.
Steiner
(1975: 414)
Rabin
(1958: 123)
Catford
(1965: 20)
Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another (TL). (M)
Savory
(1957: 11)
Jakobson
(1959: 233)
A Texbook of Translation
Frawley
(1984: 159)
Firth
(1968: 76)
The basis for any total translation must be found in the linguistic
analysis at the grammatical, lexical, collocational, and situational
levels. (M)
De Beaugrande
(1978: 13)
Translation should not be studied as a comparing and contrasting of two texts, but as a process of interaction between author,
translator, and the reader of the translation. (S or M)
Tytler
(1979: 9)
Newmark
(1988: 5)
Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (M)
Ross
(1981: 9)
The most natural view is that translation preserves the meaning of the original in another language or form. Translation
is not a restatement, where differences are minimized, but
highlights certain equivalence in the context of important dissimilarities. (M)
Diaz-Diocaretz
(1985: 9)
Translation will be understood as the final product of problemsolving and sign production of a receptor-text (RT) functionally
equivalent to a source text (ST), by a human being in a given
language for a given group of text receivers. (S)
24
Introduction
yond the scope of this book. However, the existence of these various definitions suggests
that translation is far from having a generally accepted theoretical framework. What is
also clear is that different translation theorists have concentrated on different types and
strategies of translation. For example, there are strategies or theories that are mainly concerned with translation in a literal sense (Vachon-Spilka 1968). These theories demand
word-for-word translation. Other theories, on the other hand, are mainly concerned with
the reproduction of equivalent lexical items of the original text (Nida 1964; Nida & Taber
1969). Different attempts have been made to look at translation from a pragmatic and
semiotic view in which the essence of translation is treated as an interaction between
text-producer and the message along with social and cultural contexts in which a particular piece of language is used (Jakobson 1959; De Beaugrande 1978; Mason 1982; Wilss
1982: 135; and Hatim 1987). What is meant by pragmatics here is the study of purpose
for which the texts are used; it is the intentionality behind all the choices made (Newmark
1988). This includes the text-producers intentions and the intended function of the text.
As for semiotics, it is the interaction of various elements in the text as signs; it includes the
social, cultural and psychological reality of a particular community. In this component,
the social, cultural, and anthropological characteristics of a text are brought together to
assess its meaning. The interaction of these signs with one another creates the semiotic
meaning of a text.
Although these context specifications illuminate the intentions of the text-producer and
shed some light on the semiotic contexts in which the text is used, there is still some kind
of uncertainty as to what constitutes these particular contexts. That is, it is very hard to
always make accurate and complete predictions about the intentions of the text-producer.
Even Halliday (1985: 345) seems skeptical of the possibility of studying the HOW and the
WHY choices made by the text-producer. Also, it could be argued that there are some
choices that are easily decoded by the writer and can therefore be more easily interpreted
than others. All that we do is in fact speculate/ make predictions on his communicative
intent through the structure of the text. These contexts do in fact facilitate translation
but do not make it adequate in all respects, because understanding the pragmatic and
semiotic meaning of a text is not an easy task, since this involves more than changing the
words of the original into that of the target.
While the translator tends to ignore the function and style in a word-for-word translation, in a sense translation (i.e. one in which the translator relies on how the text feels
by using his own senses), there is an imitation of the source text in terms of its function,
style, semiotic and pragmatic values. By the same token, there is a tendency to stress on
the aesthetic criteria of the target text.
25
A Texbook of Translation
The above discussion is only brief. However, most writers on translation emphasize the
importance of language within its own cultural context, as the meaning of words or lexical items is rooted in their text-producers intentionality and within his own culture. Lado
(1957) argues that learning the structure of a language involves learning its culture. One
cannot really understand a foreign language without taking into account the culture of
which it is a part. This is why translating any text from one language into another yields
a particular kind of ambiguity which cannot be clarified unless the intentions of the textproducer within his/her own social, cultural, denotative, connotative, and rhetorical contexts have been accounted for.
26
Introduction
all from Islam to Christianity and from Europe to China and Japan. In a nutshell, Delisle
and Woodsworth (1996: 68) argue that:
Translators have invented alphabets, helped build languages and written dictionaries. They have contributed to the emergence of national literatures, the
dissemination of knowledge and the spread of religions. Importers of foreign cultural values and key players at some of the great moments of history,
translators and interpreters have played a determining role in the development of their societies and have been fundamental to the unfolding of intellectual history itself.
Along the same line, Robinson (2003: 162) makes a distinction between a novice and a
translator. He states that the key term is experience. According to Robinson, a translator
has experience, whereas a novice does not. Also, a translator talks, acts, and writes like
a translator, a novice does not. A translator has certain professional assumptions about
how language works and how translation is done, but a novice does not have any of these
qualities. All these characteristics can clearly make the difference between a professional
translator and a mediocre one.
There are many instances in which translation played an important role in introducing
one civilization to another. For example, translation helped introduce the Buddhist literature from different Indian languages into Chinese. Another example is the introduction of
Greek philosophical works into Arabic, and in so doing it introduces them to the Islamic
world. It is this constant exposition of ideas and values that made translation a key element
in the development of cultures and societies. Robinson (2003: 35) eloquently elaborates on
the fundamental assumptions underlying his approach to translation by saying:
1. Translation is more about people not words.
2. Translation is more about the jobs people do and the way they see the world.
3. Translation is more about the creative imagination than about rule-governed
text-analysis.
4. The translator is more like an actor or a musician (a performer) than a tape
recorder.
5. The translator, even of highly technical texts, is more like a poet or a novelist
than a machine translating system.
1.4
Methods of Translation
Many different methods of translating a text have been proposed. In his book entitled A
Textbook of Translation, Newmark (1988) highlights the different methods of translating
27
A Texbook of Translation
texts: word-for-word-translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, communicative translation, idiomatic translation, free translation, and translation as
adaptation. While Newmarks classification of translation methods is undoubtedly helpful,
his categorization of the types of translation methods is a bit confusing. In other words,
which of his methods have no bearing on meaning? In fact all of them, otherwise the translation becomes incomplete or unacceptable. What is the difference between semantic translation and free translation, if the ultimate goal of the translator is to capture meanings at different levels? Also, in reality, how is faithful translation different from semantic translation?
Because of such overlapping, I believe Newmarks classification of translation methods is
a bit over exaggerated. Based on this, one can say that when we attempt to translate a text
from one language to another, we understand that the translation is made from the source
text (ST) into a target text (TT). The criterion for doing such translation is that the meaning for these two texts corresponds. Translation professionals generally agree that there are
many types of translation, but one can sum up these types into three:
1.4.1 Word for Word Translation
This kind of translation involves translating a word in the source language to a word in the
target language. Although this seems very much like literal translation, in fact it is not. The
problem with this kind of translation is that the outcome may not be meaningful; it could
be awkward and discomfited, simply because meaning was not the center of translation.
1.4.2 Literal Translation
This kind of translation focuses on the linguistic structure of the source text. It actually ignores the semiotic, pragmatic and contextual connotations of text-structure, while taking
into account the linguistic conventions of the target language. While literal translation is
not commonly used in translating texts, it is fundamental for the study of language structures. It is not recommended for the casual reader where adequacy and clarity of meaning are involved. For example, in translating religious texts, adherence to the word order
of the text and idiomatic expressions may make the translation difficult to understand.
Therefore, interpreting or explaining the word may give rise to clarity of meaning.
1.4.3 Free Translation
This kind of translation is sometimes called idiomatic translation. Other times, it is called
elegant translation. What is involved in free translation is texts are translated into the
other language based on their meaning not structure. Interpretation and paraphrasing
are two ways of understanding and translating the text into the target language. This kind
28
Introduction
of translation is the best simply because the translation outcome is meaningful, clear and
effective as in the source text.
Taking the above three types of translation into account, it should be pointed out that the
type of texts, skill of the translator, text context and cultural dimensions are all factors
that can help determine successful and effective translation.
29
A Texbook of Translation
Now, can you think of the equivalent words in your native language and compare them
with those of the target ones? Have you discovered that they entail different lexical items?
For example, the word vehicle in English could entail car, bicycle, bus, automobile, etc.
Can one explain the different lexical items such words entail in another language? Any
discussion of the equivalent meanings of such words may entail moving from the domain
of science into the domain of art. Furthermore, do other languages use the same words
for different concepts? What about the word dating as in Jane is dating John. Does the
word dating contain an equivalent word in the other language? Sometimes, one may find
the dictionary information confusing, simply because it does not provide the translator
with good solutions. Even in similar languages, one may find that certain words may look
or sound the same, but in actuality, they express different meanings. Therefore, whether
the term is cultural, religious, linguistic, or literary, the artistic talent of the translator and
his skills are a lifesaver here.
Peter Newmark, in his Textbook of Translation (1995), points out that translation should
be looked at as a combination of art (applied) and a skill, a taste, and an exercise of choices and decisions. At the same time, others believe that translation is a scientific process of
dealing with codes (Eco 2003). However, taking these two views into account, one may
look at translation as a systematic way of looking at a particular thing. In medical science, for example, translation is used scientifically and systematically. In social sciences,
particularly literature, it is used artistically. Also, all branches of scientific investigations
of translation whether linguistic, stratificational, computational, or even machine translation describe translation as a science.
30
Introduction
used in the ESL or EFL classroom. Translation can foster a students natural ability to learn
a foreign language. It can also enhance a students confidence and security level through the
usage of bilingual immersion, co-teaching, and bilingual text usage. Above all, consciousness raising helps the students ability to recognize similarities and differences between his
mother tongue and the foreign language as far as culture, language structure, use of specific
and general vocabulary, and the order of presentation of information are concerned.
31
A Texbook of Translation
32
Introduction
The majority of the speakers dealt with the theory of translation, suggesting various approaches to the translation norm, methods of research, understanding the nature of the literary translation, etc.
Prof. Efim Etkind not only a brilliant researcher but a fighter for human rights as well shared his views concerning the notion of metatranslation. According to the researcher, the latter is an umbrella term for all texts
presented as translations but actually created as something different (e.g. free
rendering, transfusion, etc.). Thus, the word translation does not cover all
the diverse types of contacts between language and literature.
One of Prof. Etkinds studies is titled Poeziyai Perevod (Poetry and
Translation), but he considers that the German version Dichtung and
Nachdichtung reflects the essence of this notion, better introducing the element of secondary creativity, and the involvement of a co-creator. Prof. Etkind analyzed different levels and types of metatranslation, providing examples from German, Italian and English literatures as interpreted by Russian
classical writers.
Methods of teaching interpreting and translating were discussed by Ion
Chobanu, Nelli Kalustova, Zenoviy Partyko, Eduard Skorokhodko and many
other researchers. In his report on Information Technologies in Translators
Training, Prof. Viacheslav Karaban stressed the necessity of updating the
process of translators training, helping them to develop computer skills, and
teaching them how to use software and the internet.
The participants of the conference had ample opportunity to listen to the
outstanding Ukrainian lexicographer Mykhailo Balla, who spoke about his
experience in compiling a great English-Ukrainian dictionary. The new twovolume edition comprising of about 120,000 words was published in Kyiv in
1996. It is an important contribution to Ukrainian lexicography.
The first (rather small) English-Ukrainian dictionaries were published in
Canada in the 1920s and 1930s. The first rather substantial English-Ukrainian dictionary (comprising of 40,000 words) appeared in 1946. Its compiler,
Mykhailo Podvezko, continued his lexicographic research in cooperation
with Mr. Balla. In 1974 they produced a bigger English-Ukrainian dictionary
(about 65,000 words).
According to Mr. Balla, he started working on the newest edition of the
dictionary almost immediately after 1974. The 1996 edition can be characterized as more convenient for users: proper names and geographical
names are not given in the appendices but along with common words in
alphabetical order, each derived word is supplied with a translation and
listed as a separate item.
33
A Texbook of Translation
The Kyiv conference contributed to the establishment of contacts among researchers in translation studies, helping them exchange opinions and share
their experience. Conference participants passed a resolution on the need to
organize a federation of translators and interpreters in Ukraine.
The experience of such federations in other countries shows that such a
body would be able to perform a number of significant functions: to arrange
forums for discussions on controversial subjects and research; to protect the
rights and privileges of translators and interpreters; to represent them at international conferences and seminars; to gain recognition for the important
role translators play in modern Ukraine; to create more appreciation for the
field of translation; and to improve the quality of translations.
The resolution was passed unanimously. Thus, one can expect that the
All-Ukrainian Federation of Translators and Interpreters will soon become a
reality, and that through the organization Ukraines professionals will join the
International Federation of Translators, uniting national societies of translators into a single international body.
34
CHAPTER 2
Fallacies of Translation
2.1 Introduction
This section is not intended to discourage students from majoring or studying translation, but to clarify misconceptions about translation. Unfortunately, translation was perceived as an easy task which requires only basic knowledge of the two languages involved.
This erroneous assumption about translation has misled and is still misleading students
about the profession of translation. Translation is like any other discipline; it requires
hard work, good knowledge of other disciplines, awareness and good understanding of
the cultures and traditions of the two languages, and above all an artistic talent in analyzing and synthesizing a message. As Gentzler and Tymoczko (2002) state, translation is
not only a process of faithful reproduction; it involves deliberate acts of selection, construction, and omission. So, in this section, and based on my teaching experience, I genuinely want the translation students to be aware of translation and what it requires before
they embark on this very important discipline.
35
A Texbook of Translation
courses are very fundamental simply because they are instrumental tools for language
learning. Others make it clear that translation and interpretation courses are becoming
more popular. I myself belong to the latter group. However, with the proper understanding, translation and interpretation courses are seen as valid literary pursuits for learning the literary language. They are also seen as important means for learning a foreign
language.
Whether such courses are part of a university curriculum or offered as a four year degree
major, universities as well as teachers must understand there is a mismatch between students expectations and what students can actually accomplish during these two or four
year courses. Students as well as teachers have too many assumptions as to how these
courses are taught and how much students can get out of this lecturing process. In many
cases, these assumptions turn out to be false.
Let there be no doubt that academic institutions are not professional translation and interpretation schools. No matter how experienced the teacher is and how well planned the
syllabus is, there will always be a limit as to how much the teacher can give, and by the
same token how much students can learn, particularly under the limitations (i.e. time)
imposed by a course spanning a period of only one or two semesters. It is extremely important for students to be aware of certain facts about translation and interpretation before they choose a major or enroll in a translation or interpretation course. As pointed out
earlier, this is not to discourage students from embarking on translation or interpretation
courses, or learning but rather provide them with the knowledge and understanding of
the expectations of engaging in such courses.
Newmark (1991) has outlined the responsibilities of instructors involved in teaching
translation and interpretation courses. He believes that students should know important
facts about translation and interpretation courses. These are:
1. Like any other discipline, translation has difficulties and students should be
aware of such difficulties before they engage in any translation and interpretation courses.
2. Students should be aware of their responsibility towards translation difficulties,
not blaming other courses or teachers.
3. Students should have already been involved in some form of translation activities before they embark on a translation major.
4. Like physicians, translation teachers cannot cover all that is relevant to literature
in one term. They can only cover some important works of literary figures such
as Shakespeare. One course in translation cannot and will not make the student
a good translator; it can only introduce him or her to the nature of the transla-
36
Fallacies of Translation
tion process and provide him or her with the methods and strategies on how to
look at or approach a text.
In order to help students understand the nature, responsibilities and requirements of
taking translation and interpretation courses, and according to Rubrechts ten concepts, I
believe students and teachers perceptions of each other are fundamentally significant.
37
A Texbook of Translation
Third, learning a foreign language and translating a text are two completely different
things. Learning a foreign language is a prerequisite for translating a text; translation may
partially help students learn a foreign language, but it will not be enough to make them
good translators. There is very little overlap between learning a language and conducting
translation and students should be aware of this fact. Students should also know that they
should be willing to continue learning, as language changes over the years, and translators have to continuously update their knowledge.
Fourth, the main objective of translating a text is to convey its similar meaning to another language. Translators or students of translation must worry about communicating meaning very accurately to the reader. Teachers should also teach students ways to
communicate a message from one language to another. Communicating a message depends on context, and teachers must make students aware of the importance of context
in translation. Without understanding the context, communicating a message will be impossible or even if it can be communicated, it will be erroneous. Here one can refer to
Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) where they state that translation is a matter of equivalence.
Translation should maintain the stylistic impact of the source language text in the target
language text. According to them, equivalence is the ultimate method for the translation of proverbs, idioms, clichs, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of
animal sounds (ibid: 342). From a different perspective, Vinay and Darbelnet believe that
there are three areas of translation: educational, professional and linguistic. Educational
translation ensures reading and understanding a text to assess its accuracy. Professional
translation ensures text quality and precision. As for linguistic translation, it is mainly
concerned with how texts are rendered into the other language and what linguistic means
are used to convey text meaning. All these areas of translation should be mastered before
students take translation courses.
38
Fallacies of Translation
Another misconception about translation fed to students by teachers who lack good knowledge of translation studies is the belief that translation is an easy discipline. Anyone teaching or majoring in translation knows very well that translation is a rigorous discipline. It is
a problem-solving technique, entailing artistic strategies and scientific methods and processes. It is time consuming and requires a lot of hard work. Students must realize that doing
well in translation helps them do well in other subjects. Therefore, disciplining and organizing their life and above all independency and self-discipline from the beginning of their
study are key components to their success. As Ward (1992: 580) states:
A translator must be a self-starter, an independent worker, with a good dose of
perseverance and determination to see a project through without any guidance
or supervision, and often without any help even with specialized terminology.
The translator should also have solid integrity to do the very best job possible,
to be absolutely accurate, to avoid any shortcuts or doing any fudging.
As previously stated, translation should be taken seriously and sensibly, if and only if the
translator wants to avoid poor results. Also, education and training in translation are vital
and translators must juggle not only languages, but also understand cultures, and the religious and political environment in which texts are produced. This is not an easy task, if
translators or those embark on translation have thought about the ethics of translation.
39
A Texbook of Translation
40
Fallacies of Translation
5. Within the field of language learning and language acquisition, studies have
shown that translation is a useful means for:
a. learning a foreign language
b. learning only ones language
c. enhancing both foreign and native languages
d. only ( c)
6. Since translation deals with my native language, then it is:
a. an easy subject
b. a subject that does not need a lot of reading and writing
c. a subject that only needs practice
d. a subject that needs excellent knowledge of the two languages involved
and good knowledge of other subjects with lots of translation practice.
7. Translation from one language to another can be acquired from:
a. just one simple course
b. two courses
c. the more you practice, the better you become in translation
d. just good knowledge of English
8. Ethics of translators have to do with:
a. whether they are polite or not
b. whether they lie or not
c. whether they are loyal to the text or not
d. both (b) & ( c)
9. In order to translate effectively, the translator has to follow:
a. his own feelings
b. rules and principles
c. what his friends tell him/her
d. only (c )
10. In translation, there are:
a. correct translations and incorrect translations
b. poor translations and good translations
c. well written texts and badly written texts
d. both (a) & (b)
41
CHAPTER 3
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
43
A Texbook of Translation
While it is easy to provide an equivalent for the phrase he died, it is very difficult to
provide an equivalent word for jello, simply because the word does not ring a bell in
the mind of the reader. Even though the Arabic equivalent word for jello is hulam, it
still makes no sense whatsoever to the common reader. In most cases, if not all, people
use the word jello rather than hulam. The same thing applies to words such as fax,
computer, mobile, etc. These words have equivalent words in Arabic, but they are
not used at all. What about the equivalent words or expressions in other languages? Do
they have the same equivalents? In French, for example, the word jello means gelatine.
Such a word, however, is not used in the French culture and instead, they use the same
English word jello. The same can be applied to words such as mobile or cellular (in
French), among other words.
Audience
This term involves those who read or hear a text. Translation practitioners must take into
account the kind of audience. In order for the audience to clearly and effectively understand the meaning of the translated text, translators must use a language that conforms to
the expectations of their audience.
Back Translation
This kind of translation involves the process of translating a document that has already
been translated into a target language back to the original language. The translation is
usually done literally. The objective behind this kind of translation is to enable a translator or a translation consultant who speaks other languages to understand what a translated text means in the target language. Literality is fundamental here so as to enable the
translation consultant to identify the rules and structure of the target text.
Borrowing
This term involves the idea of taking a word from another language. The word that is
taken is called a loan word.
Calques
This term refers to a word that is created through loan translation. It involves translating the meaning parts of one language to the meaning parts of another. The process of
translating such meaning parts creates what is called neologism (using new words in
the language).
44
Choppy
This is a term that refers to the quality of the translation. If the translation is clear,
accurate and effective, it is called clear translation; but if it is not, it is called choppy
translation. Therefore, choppy translation means a translation in which the parts of the
text are disjointed.
Clarity
This is a term that refers to the quality of the translation. If the translation is clear, accurate and effective, it is called clear translation. Clear translation has the quality of being
easy to understand and free from any ambiguous or unnatural structures.
Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the quality of the text and involves connectedness throughout the
whole text. Cohesion also aims at preserving smooth connection and internal unity
among the sentences used in the text.
Collocation
Collocation involves placing or associating two words with one another. These words are
always used together and more likely in similar contexts. Collocation also involves the
relationship between two words that frequently go together. These two words always coexist with one another.
Consecutive Interpreting
This is a strategy where the interpreter starts interpreting a spoken message after the
speaker finishes the sentence. Consecutive interpretation is often used at smaller conferences, diplomatic talks, courtroom sessions, etc. It is usually carried out by one interpreter who accompanies the delegate or follows the speaker. Consecutive interpreting is
less stressful, simply because there is no time pressure and the interpreter is often close
to the speaker.
Context
This is a term that refers to the environment in which sentences are used. Context also refers to the parts of a written or spoken discourse that precede or follow a specific word.
45
A Texbook of Translation
Effectiveness
This term refers to the message communicated by the writer or translator. It refers to the
highest level of achievement of a communicative function or objective.
Equivalent
When two words have a similar meaning or function, they are called equivalent words.
Equivalence involves two words or sentences having the same semantic value.
Faithfulness
Faithfulness is a term that refers to the closeness and accuracy of the translated text to
the original. It also refers to how much meaning is preserved in the source language compared to the target text.
Free Translation
Free translation involves translating the text freely based on its meaning, not structure.
Free translation aims at preserving the original meaning of the text and utilizes normal
features of the target text. Interpretation and paraphrasing are two ways of understanding
and translating the text into the target language. This kind of translation is the best simply
because the translation outcome is meaningful, clear and effective as in the source text.
Idiom
The word idiom is an expression which is exclusive to a particular language. Idioms
cannot be understood by just analyzing their individual words; they have to be examined
with reference to their figurative meanings. For example, when one says It is time to hit
the sack, this expression does not involve hitting at all. Its figurative meaning involves
going to bed. So what we have done is actually translate its figurative meaning.
Idiomatic Translation
Unlike literal translation, this type of translation is used where the meaning of the original text is translated into the forms of the target language. These forms should maintain
the implicit and explicit meanings of the source language forms. Idiomatic translation is
synonymous with other methods of translation such as free translation, dynamic translation and thought-for-thought translation.
46
Inadequate Meaning
When we translate a text from one language to another we may end up conveying an inadequate meaning, simply because the meaning conveyed is wrong or partially expressed.
Sometimes, inadequate meaning involves translating a text in which the translation outcome does not make sense (i.e. incoherent and incohesive).
Intention
This term involves the intention of the speaker. It also involves the effect the speaker
wants to impinge on his reader. It should be pointed out here that in the study of literature, critics avoid assuming an absolute knowledge of the writers intention. All readings
of intention from a text are at best provisional.
Interpretation
This term involves the process of determining the meaning of something. It refers to both
written and spoken forms of language. Interpretation can also refer to reading the text to
figure out its implicit and explicit meanings.
Legal Translation
Legal translation is the translation of legal texts and binding documents. These texts or
documents are culture-dependent subjects, which means they are embedded with the target language culture. Legal translation is not simple, because any misinterpretation or mistranslation of a legal text can lead to jail or lawsuits. Also, the language of legal texts is very
precise and requires good understanding. Therefore, translators have to be familiar with
the legal systems of both languages. They should also have good knowledge of the target
language culture and good knowledge of the relevant disciplines and subject matters.
Literal Translation
Literal translation focuses on the linguistic structure of the source text. It aims at preserving the forms of the source language. While literal translation actually ignores the semiotic, pragmatic and contextual connotations of text-structure it also takes into account the
linguistic conventions of the target language. While literal translation is not commonly
used in translating texts, it is fundamental for the study of language structures. It is not
recommended for the casual reader where adequacy and clarity of meaning are involved.
For example, in translating religious texts, adherence to the word order of the text and
idiomatic expressions may make the translation difficult to understand. Therefore, interpreting the word and paraphrasing it may give rise to clarity of meaning.
47
A Texbook of Translation
Loan word
A loan word is a word that is borrowed from another language. That is, a translator may
create a word that does not exist in the target language, provided it conforms with the
meanings of the source word. Consider the following examples:
jello
computer
fax
t.v.
mobile
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
Machine Translation
This is another means of translating a text where the text is translated automatically by a
machine. The computer or any other machine made for this purpose does the translating.
Of course, machine translations are faster and cheaper, but they are less accurate than
human translators. Although machine translation is not as frequently used as human
translators, it is still helpful when the main idea of a particular text needs to be expressed
and done in a limited period of time.
Meaning
When one wants to express a message, he expresses its meaning. That is, whatever is
expressed by somebody, it involves the expression of meaning. Meaning is not only expressed in lexical items, but it is in how such lexical items relate to one another.
Natural
When translation is natural, it means that the text is translated in a way where native speakers of that language feel that the patterns of constructing and translating the text, whether
lexical or grammatical, match and conform with the patterns of the native language. Also,
the text is natural when its sentences are clear and display the same normal discourse.
Pragmatics
It is the relationship between language user and language use. Pragmatics is also understood
as language in context. It can also refer to the implicit meanings expressed by the speaker.
48
Simultaneous Interpreting
This is a strategy where the interpreter starts interpreting a spoken message before the
speaker finishes the sentence. At conferences, simultaneous interpretation is often used to
interpret seminars, conferences, and meetings. It is usually carried out by panelists using
specific equipment. Simultaneous interpreting is a stressful act, simply because of time
pressure, unfamiliarity of subject matter, voice and accent of speaker, and environment.
Target Text
The language into which translating or interpreting is carried out.
Telephone Interpreting
It is a kind of interpreting where the act is done over the telephone.
Translation
Translation can be defined as the process of conveying the meaning of sentences from
one language to another.
Translation Theory
Translation theory involves an examination of the rules and principles of translation. It
refers to how language functions and under what circumstances. Understanding how
language works is a key element to all translators.
Translating vs. Interpreting
Translating a text has to do with the written form whereas interpreting has to do with the
spoken form. In both cases, we translate freely from the original.
Unit of Translation
Unit of translation can be defined as the smallest entity in a text that carries a discrete
meaning. It varies all the time, ranging from individual words through phrases and sentences right up to an entire paragraph.
49
A Texbook of Translation
Word-for-Word Translation
Word-for-word translation involves translating a word in the source language by a
word into the target language. Although this seems very much like literal translation,
in fact, it is not. The problem with this kind of translation is that the outcome may not
by meaningful; it could be awkward and discomfited, simply because meaning was not
the center of translation.
World Knowledge
World knowledge refers to whatever extra-linguistic knowledge is transported into the
process of translation and brought into the mind of the translator. Sometimes, world
knowledge is referred to as shared assumptions, or common ideas that people share with
one another.
50
Melanin is the substance that normally determines the color of the skin, hair,
and eyes. It is the pigment produced in the cells called melanocytes. If melanocytes cannot form melanin, or if their number decreases, skin color will become
lighter or completely white as in vitiligo.
Text 1
Leukoderma is a general term that means white skin. Severe trauma, like a
burn, can destroy pigment cells resulting in leukoderma. Vitiligo is just one of
the forms of leukoderma.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Text 1
In this agreement, save where the context otherwise requires, the following expressions should have the following meanings:
1.
2.
3.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
51
A Texbook of Translation
Text 3
The success of economic corporation is judged by the extent of their profit making abilities and by the power of developing their capabilities so as to enable
them to go in sound harmony with the market conditions
Text 4
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Text 5
52
53
CHAPTER 4
55
A Texbook of Translation
involve other modern language exercises at a professional level. For more information
on this issue, see Mason (1982: 18-33).
The objective of translation training, as Mason indicates, is to elicit, from students, activities which do not merely demonstrate the lack of source text comprehension, but which
also indicate the appropriateness of the translation as a publishable work. The most important thing, however, is to demonstrate whether linguistics or, in more specific terms,
translation theory, helps students in their translation training.
56
different activity from contrastive linguistics. The purpose of the contrastive linguistics
approach is to focus on the differences between one language and another especially in a
language teaching context. It does not focus on establishing a set of rules, principles, and
appropriate methods of handling a particular text. Furthermore, the contrastive linguistics approach is different from translation activity in the sense that it is a text-oriented
activity. That is, the contrastive linguistic approach focuses on language, whereas translation activity focuses on text (Newmark 1988).
Along these lines, Widdowson (1980) views translation as an important pedagogical device, especially where a foreign language is being learned. He believes that translation is
an affective means of learning a language. Taking this into account, one may consider the
practicality of the contrastive linguistics approach in improving students performance in
language learning. In other words, the contrastive linguistics approach is a technique for
teaching languages and not for teaching translation activities.
Despite what has been stated against the contrastive approach, Mason (1982) believes
that this approach is not to be entirely avoided. At the language level, generalizations
supporting translation principles and rules can be made. Any consideration of these rules
is indeed helpful for making necessary changes in certain contexts. They are also helpful
in demonstrating the necessary loss of information contained in structures whose constituent parts are not in a one-to-one correspondence. This can simply be manifested in
the different grammatical categories of the two languages. For example, in an Arabic text
where anta you and antum you (singular & amplified) are used, especially when taking place in a conversation between two people, there is an inevitable loss of information
when translated into English. Both Arabic pronouns are translated as you in English.
In the same way, when you in English is used, there is a gain of information when
translated into Arabic, as it can be translated as anta (masc.), anti (fem.), antum (singular
amplified), antum (plural), antuma (masc. dual) antunna (fem. dual). Other issues like
gender (absent or present), etc. in various languages may give rise to the same problem.
Having said so, languages, as Jakobson (1959) states, are not different in what they can
convey; they are different in what they must convey. Therefore, the contrastive linguistics
approach emphasizes these non-equivalences as such, and the theory of translation attempts to demonstrate how these issues are compensated for in certain situations. For
more information on this issue, see Mason (1982).
57
A Texbook of Translation
phrases would definitely yield unacceptable results. Some suggest an approach in which
one can analyze words into their main components. This method is known as the componential analysis method (Newmark 1988). Unfortunately, however, this method, as
pointed out by Mason (1982), has some drawbacks, some of which are represented in
its unsuitability to the training of translators. Second, this approach focuses on semantic
distinctive features isolated from context. Also, this method is of limited applicability,
simply because a word taken in isolation from its context is not a translation unit. In this
connection, it has been suggested that the relevant language unit for translation is not the
individual word, but rather the text (De Beaugrande 1978).
Sender
Message
Receiver
Interaction
Figure (1) Sender-Receiver and Message Interaction
There is a constant interaction taking place between the sender, message, and receiver.
The aim for which the text is written, and the readership for whom the text is addressed
establishes the characters of any text. Here the translator should be able to know whether or not the text is religious, political, literary, journalistic, legal, or technical. Once
the text is characterized, the translator is not only identifying the text subject matter,
58
but also delimiting the social context in which the text is produced. Therefore, situating a text in a particular context, and familiarizing himself with the text in a particular
context, and familiarizing himself with the text and its English equivalents is indeed the
translators first priority.
After establishing the domain of the text, features such as tone, function, and feeling are
to be taken into account. Awareness of these, as Mason (1982) points out, will have a great
bearing on the translators rendition of the text. Emphasis should also be placed on the
formal features that are significant to the make-up of the text. Such features are important
in terms of the text-linguistic and text-function categorization, i.e. whether the text is
persuasive, narrative, descriptive, etc.
Within text-function, awareness of the referential meaning of lexes is also significant in
determining the nature or domain of the text. Emotive and associative meanings, in Yules
sense (1985), will partly account for text-function. Words put together are all means of indicating the field, function, and tone of the text. For example, the use of contracted forms
are pointers to informal English. The use of infinitives is also indicative of instructional
texts. These issues are pointers to the texture and structure of the text through which a
number of speech acts can be recognized. Understanding the conditions represented for
an utterance may give insight into how language is used.
In terms of the linguistic categories of text, a scientific text may exhibit a series of acts
or definitions, classifications, generalizations, and/or qualifications, forming larger communicative units such as explanations, descriptions, and reports (Widdowson 1980). The
translator may analyze a text in a way in which its formal features are demonstrated.
However, an experienced translator may not need to do that; he may intuitively draw
these conclusions. Therefore, a translation exercise should make the translator more
aware of the multi-faceted nature of translation. It should also enable him to instinctively
single out the texts linguistic features. For more details, see Mason (1982).
Based on the above, any analysis of text may yield information relevant to text-structure.
Once this is achieved, the text-message becomes very clear. It is this message that has to
be rendered effectively and communicatively, simply because, according to Mason, it may
lead us to a particular translation method. However, the question remains as to whether
we should look at this message in terms of its literal vs. free sense, or formal or dynamic
equivalence, or whether emphasis should be placed on form or function. For example,
an Arabic translator may translate Ahmad kicked the bucket as tuwuffiya ahmad. Here
the translator renders this expression functionally, making the meaning of the message
or its function his point of departure. If the translator adheres to form rather than function, his translation would be unacceptable or irrelevant.
59
A Texbook of Translation
Sometimes the translator may resort to adherence to the form of the text. This is applicable to literary translation. In these texts, the main concern of the translator is to highlight
the effectiveness of the same semantic and syntactic structures of the source text. Important features should be accounted for such as tone, rhyme, order, etc. because these are all
essential elements to the make-up of texts.
Within literary translation, the textual and contextual pressures are not only semantic.
The visual or physical presence of the text and its international qualities are also significant. The non-correspondence between either prosodic or semantic structures does not
necessarily imply the impossibility of translating a given unit (Diaz-Diocaretz 1985). On
the contrary, it can be an opportunity to actualize the potential structures manifested
in the original text, and recorded in the translation of the text that will be semantically
dependent and rhythmically independent.
Furthermore, repeated lexical items, nominal vs. verbal sentences, etc. may not remain
acceptable items or sentences when translated into English. This results from the fact that
Arabic and English are linguistically and culturally remote languages. In order to produce
some publishable work, the translator has to assess the text textually and structurally, and
then find the best strategy and style that would yield adequate translation.
60
a reader or particular readers? In any kind of translation, the translators main aim is to
produce a text that is equivalent in response to the ST. From a pedagogical point of view,
the student translator may find comparing the original text and target text significantly
useful. This activity does not involve finding the translators mistakes, but rather analyzing the problem and finding the solution. Similar exercises are also helpful in terms of
enabling students to differentiate between important and unimportant information.
Some translations can be completed within hours. Others may take longer. Translation
depends on the length of the text and the type of text. If the texts language/topic is complicated (i.e. scientific) it would take a long time.
2.
To translate is to decode the meaning of the source language text and re-encode it in
the target language text. Encoding requires that the translator recognizes the texts main
features. This is followed by interpreting, analyzing, and understanding the segments of
the text (translation units). The process of decoding a text from one language to another
requires good knowledge of the source language grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms,
and those that are equivalent or similar in the target language. In addition, the cultures of
both languages must be perfectly understood.
3.
In order to guarantee effective translation, the translator has to ensure that both the source
language and the target language texts convey the same message, taking into account the
many different constraints placed on the translator. In almost all circumstances, a good
and successful translation can be assessed according to two key factors:
A. Was the translator faithful while translating the text? In other words, to what extent the
translation accurately conveys and expresses the meaning of the source text, without
adding to it or deleting from it, and without intensifying or weakening any part of the
texts meaning.
61
A Texbook of Translation
B. Was the language of the translated text natural? That is, to what extent the translated
text sounds natural to a native speaker of the target language to have originally been
written in that language, and conforms to the languages grammatical, syntactic and
idiomatic conventions.
62
CHAPTER 5
63
A Texbook of Translation
Smoking
prohibited
in this area
persuading, etc.). Texts are written for various readers. Along these lines, Snell-Hornby
(1995: 49) suggests that text, or what she sometimes calls the concrete utterance, is a
real-life situation. It is a real reflection of the system of language. Texts are not neutral
vessels only filled with information. They are actually a piece of writing that carries with
it a section of the world view of the language users (Neubert 1988: 15). One may think
of the following exchange as strange, peculiar or irrelevant, but in fact it represents an
everyday exchange between parents and their kids.
Father:
Sara:
Father:
Now, one may look at these sentences as unrelated. However, within the context of family concerns, we can understand that the father was sarcastic. The word wonderful cannot be understood here as the fathers admiration of his daughters performance in the
Math exam, but as a negative response showing the fathers feeling about his daughters
low performance.
Another example to show how context plays an important role in understanding a text
is to look at a sentence as a whole, taking into account what comes before or what comes
after. Examine the word rose in the examples below:
People rose.
This is a nice rose.
Only rose!
As shown above, the word rose has been used in the three examples, indicating different
meanings. First, the translator may have in mind the meaning of rose as the past tense
64
of to rise or he/she may have in mind the meaning of rose as the adjective in this is a
beautiful rose, to mean a flower.
The translator here has to understand that a word is part of its multiword expression, and
to render this word accurately and appropriately, he has to think of it as part of a whole,
otherwise, his translation will be ambiguous, incomplete or unintelligible. Therefore, only
context can determine whether the word rose means to rise or a sort of flower. Let us
consider other examples where context has an important role to play in translation:
Adam broke the record this year.
Here, the word record cannot be understood unless it was treated as part of the expression break the record. If these two words are isolated from the context in which they
are used (i.e. collocational or idiomatic contexts), then break means to shatter or smash
and the word record means a disc. Of course there are other meanings for the word
record, but to take it out of its collocational context may alienate or ambiguate its actual meaning with the phrase. So, to break the record, as an idiomatic or collocational
expression, has nothing to do with smashing a disc. Its contextual or what is sometimes called collective meaning indicates that break the record has one unit of meaning,
which indicates the act of doing better than anyone else.
Taking all this into account, translation activities should deal with texts and not only
words or phrases unless these words or phrases are preconditioned to meet certain communicative functions. That is, they are used in a specific way and denote one particular
meaning. This, in turn, and in addition to real life language and the language system, activates the framework for the development of translation theory. These layers of meaning
(i.e. denotative, preconditioned and implied) can be applied to translation simply because
the translator is supposed to go beyond words or sentences, unless these words or sentences have a status of being texts (De Beaugrande & Dressler 1981: 19-21).
Furthermore, texts are of great significance as the clearing-house for thoughts and ideas
(Neubert 1988: 15); they should be regarded as the way in which society is structured;
they should also be considered as a house where information gets sorted out, classified
and distributed. Texts bring together all kinds of transactions among words, sentences
and exhibit the way in which they are organized. This is, in fact, how communication is
carried out and how it provides accurate and deep understanding of a community within
a particular society, particularly when it comes to the use of different symbols, the representation of its history, its aspects of life, and the way it divides its communicative labor.
Also, the way texts are produced and received is regarded as an activity that has a bearing
on the bonds that bring the society together.
65
A Texbook of Translation
Robinson (2003: 75) believes that the setting in which things exists is fundamental to the
association of meaning. He states that without context, words have no interlocking network of meaningful things. The physical and cultural contexts in which a learner learns
can also help figure out the exact meaning of a specific word.
66
theoretical issues involved such as the definition of text, its delimitation, coherence, cohesion, textuality, inter-textuality, etc.
Taking all this into account, it should be emphasized that while attention should be placed
on contextual factors embodied within the texts, special emphasis should also be placed
on the type of text. The fact that translation deals with different types of texts has led
Neubert (1988: 123) to classify texts into types. The criteria taken for such classification
is translatability. To this effect, Neubert suggests that text-types are never fixed once and
for all; he classifies texts as follows:
1. Easy texts.
2. Intricate texts.
3. Literary or dramatic texts.
Neubert (1988: 123-125) argues that every text-type represents a degree of translatability. That is, texts can be classified into easily translatable texts (i.e. technical and
descriptive texts), intricately translatable texts, and literary or dramatic texts. Texts that
are easily translatable should display clear structure and texture while intricately translatable texts display textual as well as non-textual complexity that the translator may
not find easy to convey into the target language. Therefore, each of these texts requires
a different transferring method, a method that is incongruent with its surface structure
as well as its deep structure. All these have an impact on the translation adequacy and
translatability of texts.
67
A Texbook of Translation
it is the construction of the social reality, the linguistic and rhetorical patterns of thought
that suit the target language and the community in which language is used.
The history of translation, past and present, has many examples indicative of triumph and
failure in terms of the way translation should be carried out. These examples reflect, in a
way, the gap between the original and the target text. It is the talented translator who is
unequivocally aware of the importance of bringing, as much as possible, the source and
the target texts together. This involves the speakers intentionality, text function with reference to its semiotic components (i.e. social and cultural), and the context of situation.
All these pragmatic, semiotic, and contextual elements may bridge the gap between the
source text and the target text.
68
In distinguishing between text and non-text, Werlich takes the variables completion
and coherence as the main determining factors. He believes that the categorization of
texts, which is unequivocally significant for the translator, is mainly concerned with their
underlying structures and how these connect or relate to specific contextual factors. In
identifying a particular text, Werlich (1983: 21) believes that texts distinctively correlate
with contextual factors in a communication situation. That is, texts focus attention on
specific circumstances from the total set of factors. As a result, texts can be grouped together and classified on the basis of their dominant contextual focus. Such groupings are
hypothesized in terms of the following five dominant contextual foci:
1. When the focus is on factual phenomena such as persons, objects, and relations in
the spatial context, texts are called Descriptive.
2. When the focus is on factual and conceptual phenomena in the temporal context,
texts are called Narrative.
3. When the focus is on de-composition (analysis) into constituent elements or composition (analysis) from constituent elements of concepts, texts are called Expository.
4. When the focus is on relations between concepts, texts are called Argumentative.
5. When the focus is on the formation of future behavior, texts are called Instructive.
Unlike De Beaugrande, Werlich maintains that contextual factors are not sufficient to
determine text-types. Werlich believes that contextual factors and innate biological properties should be correlated for such a classification. Werlich (1983: 21) states:
Texts do not only correlate distinctively with specific contextual factors but
also appear to correlate with innate biological properties of the communicants mind.
Werlich explains this in the following terms:
A text grammar can be based on the hypothesis that texts, conceived of as
assignable to text types, primarily derive their structural distinctions from
innate cognitive properties. Accordingly, the five basic text types correlate
with forms and range of human cognition. They reflect the basic cognitive
processes of contextual categorization. These are:
(1) Differentiation and interrelation of perceptions in space in the text type
of description;
(2) Differentiation and interrelation of perceptions in time in the text type
of narration;
69
A Texbook of Translation
70
Taking this wide perspective into account and the kinds of parameters each approach has, one can illustrate these three models diagrammatically as shown on
the following pages.
One other difference that needs to be analyzed between Werlichs approach and Hatims
is the notion of context specification. As shown in Diagrams (2) and (3), Hatims model
is different from that of Werlich in that he takes context as an alternative to the commonly adopted notion of register. According to Hatim, the analysis of register, in practice, is very important but is not sufficient or explanatorily adequate. This analysis, he
argues, produces the so-called languages such as the language of science, while ignoring the rich range of textual activities which characterize the communicative potential of doing a science. In commenting on Werlichs model, Hatim (1984: 146) states:
The analysis of context in terms of language use (field, etc.) and user (idiolect,
regional register analysis, leaves important aspects of textuality unaccounted
for. This inadequacy sum total of its constituent parts.
Functional approach
Discourse and
Situation
Subsuming Functional
Speakers Intention
Give Rise To
Text-Types
Descriptive
describe objects or
situations
Narrative
arrange actions
and events
Argumentative
promote acceptance of
beliefs and ideas
71
A Texbook of Translation
Contextual Factors
Innate Biological
Properties
Give Rise To
Text-Types
Descriptive
(focuses on factual phenomena
& relations in
space)
Narrative
(focuses on factual phenomena
& relations in
time)
Expository
Argumentative
(chooses con(purpose relastituent elements
tions between
manifested in a
concepts of
term or a mental
phenomena)
construct manifested in a text)
Instructional
(tells X
what to do)
Pragma-SemioCommunicative Approach
Context
Specifications
Pragmatics
Semiotics
Communicative
Purpose
Give Rise To
Text-Types
Expository
Des.
Nar.
Conc.
(focuses on
objects and
relations In
space)
(focuses on
events and
relations in
time)
(focuses on
concepts)
Argumentative
Instructive
(following future
behavior)
72
It is evident that there is a clear resemblance between Hatims text-typology and that of
De Beaugrande and Dressler. Hatim is partially concerned with the fact that text-linguistics involves the setting up of a text-typology in which language is classified in terms of
text-communicative purposes. It has also been argued by Zydatiss (1982) that the whole
notion of text types is not a linguistic one, but that linguistic analysis must be supplemented and correlated with the analysis of function of language in the process of communication. For Hatim as well as for De Beaugrande and Dressler, language users (writers, producers as well as receivers of language) approach texts by reacting and interacting
with different kinds of contexts. This is done through a process of construction which
identifies a number of contextual variables; these are called context-specifications and
involve pragmatics, semiotics, and communicative purpose (as discussed above).
Basing himself on context-specifications, Hatim (1983) goes further than De Beaugrande
and Werlich to work out his own text-typology. In modifying Werlichs model, for example, Hatim reduces Werlichs five text-types to three (see Diagram 3). Hatim considers
Descriptive and Narrative sub-text types as Expository Texts. This is due to the fact that
both of these texts exhibit or provide similar information. Hatim also introduces another
sub-text-type within the expository text, and that is the conceptual text (focuses on
concepts). All these texts are subsumed under the category Expository Texts.
Within these context-specifications, unlike Werlich, Hatim demonstrates that the user
of language responds to a set of signals related to text or discourse. He argues that these
signals constitute the most favorable conditions for the successful realization of texts.
Hatim (1984: 147) says:
It is this pragma-semio-communicative decision on the part of discourse users, and the acceptance of such a decision by discourse receivers, which constitute the optimum conditions for the successful realization of the text.
To sum up, text-types are characterized or defined similarly by the three models presented above. However, they are different in terms of focus. In their functional approach, De Beaugrande and Dressler suggest that discourse actions or situation and the
speakers intention (function of the text) appear to be the determining factors between
text-types. In contrast, Werlich, using a psycho-analytical approach, believes that not
only contextual factors but also innate biological properties in the communicants mind
should be correlated in order to identify text-types. De Beaugrande and Dressler look
at text-types as a linguistic product stemming from the function of process occurring
in the speakers/hearers mind. Above all, De Beaugrande and Dressler view text-types
from a theoretical perspective; they are not interested in structural analysis which is
orientated towards applied linguistics.
73
A Texbook of Translation
74
75
A Texbook of Translation
Context
Message
Addressor
Addressee
Context
Code
Diagram (4) Constituents of Speech Event)
Jakobson (1971: 703) points out that there are six constituent factors that make up any
speech event; these are represented in Diagram (4). For Jakobson, any kind of communication is composed of a message that requires a contact between the addressor and the
addressee; such a contact may take an oral, visual, electronic form or whatever. This form
is manifested in a code, speech, number, writing, sound formation, etc. Also, the message
should refer to a context understood by both interlocutors; it should also make sense
through a context.
It should be emphasized that Jakobsons main focus here is that the message cannot fully
provide the totality of the meaning of the transaction, as the meaning of such Jakobson
believes that semiotics as the science of sign, evolves around understanding the structures of all signs, their utilization, and the specifics of the various sign system, all of which
have a significant role to play in the interpretation of a message.
5.5.3 Communicative Context
It is the context which emphasizes the writers awareness of the formal patterning of his
language as opposed to the formal patterning of the target language; this context helps
the translator to be ascertained of the naturalness of the translation and of the totality of
meaning of both texts.
In this particular category, emphasis here is placed on the significant and functional appropriateness of language uses. This is in addition to the variables affecting all aspects of
communication. Above all, the relationship between the communicative function and
the natural forms and patterns of language may give insights into translation theory.
76
77
CHAPTER 6
79
A Texbook of Translation
ing in semantic or lexical terms has been thoroughly studied (Ogden and Richards 1923;
Ullmann 1962; Lyons 1968, 1977, 1981), but it has been apparent, at least since Ogden and
Richards, that semantic meaning cannot account for all aspects of meaning relevant to the
translator. For this reason, meaning in this study will be treated as the totality of the information conveyed not simply that type of information which is treatable under a formal
semantic theory (e.g. of a truth-conditional nature). This is so because meaning is not an
abstract entity but an interaction between the translator and the text. Meaning and/or function of the text is the interpretation of a given message. This usage of meaning coincides
with that of Halliday (1970, 1973), Leech and Short (1981), De Beaugrande (1978), and
Mason (1982). Those views share the assumption that meaning is understood as action and
interaction; it is a process and, at the same time, a product. The translator looks at meaning
as the intention of the text-producer in the social and cultural environment in which the
text is used. Here, Ogden and Richards (1923:187) state that meaning is:
That to which the interpreter of a symbol
a) refers.
b) believes himself to be referring.
c) believes the user to be referring.
When it comes to meaning, translation is believed to involve conveying what is implied
and not what is said (Meyer 1974). This, according to Meyer, is the meaning behind
meaning. However, in translating the implied meaning, i.e. the sub-text, the translator
must word a sentence in such a way that the sub-text is equally clear in the target text.
One cannot translate the following English sentence into Arabic, relying on the explicit
wording of it as follows:
English: When John died, his wife could not send his boy to Harvard.
(cindama tuwuffiya John lam tastatic zawjatahu irsala ibnihi ila harvard)
In the above sentence, the adverbial expression cindama (when) is translated as a time
expression. However, a more appropriate and meaningful translation to this expression
would be translating its prepositional meaning. Therefore, the best rendition to this term
is bacda (after).
It should be borne in mind here that when could be used in the first translation to refer
to: at the time of Johns death, as soon as, during the time at which something happens,
while, etc. However, the preposition after is used to refer to: subsequent in time to the
event, at a later time, because of, afterward, etc.
80
Furthermore, the word Harvard in the above sentence could also raise the same problem, particularly if one ignores its function (the most prestigious school in the United
States). Therefore, relying on the explicit meaning of the word is not enough. Text-producers bring their own assumptions, presuppositions, and general world-view to bear
on their processing of text at all levels. Individual lexical choices are also important. In
such cases, the translator should go beyond the explicit meaning towards perceiving the
potential meaning of particular choices within the cultural and linguistic community of
the source text (Mason 1992: 23). The translator should carefully measure the thought
behind meaning as the thought that is carried on by the word is its essential meaning. It
is this kind of meaning that should not be tampered with.
Based on the above example, it is axiomatic that translation is not a direct transference
of a word in the original to a word in the target text. It is a careful analysis written with
a good choice of words. Here, the translator is in a situation where he chooses from
among several more or less equally acceptable target language versions. This, according
to Gutknecht and Rolle (1996: 2) depends on the following factors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Now the translator has to consider many things when translating a text. Among the situational factors stated above, translation should be performed in such a way that the essence, spirit, and sense of sentences are carefully maintained.
It follows, therefore, that within the core of the translation process, there lies a choice,
or a free will of the translator that, in one way or another, plays a significant role in the
process of translation. The choice of the translator has to be made if things have to be
accomplished, only because what the translator is confronted with is a text whose forms
and functions have been creatively and expressively used by the writer.
Regardless of the decision made, whether it is based on careful scrutiny, reconstruction
or on the outcome of the translators trained instinct, the final decision that must be made
has to come down to selecting the choice that the translator thinks is the closest equivalent to that of the target text. At the same time, the translator tries very hard to maintain
the norms and functions of the source text; he also tries very hard not to add new shades
81
A Texbook of Translation
of differing points or any of the values, norms, forms and functions that are not included
within the text. Therefore, the translator works here as a coordinator who is free to choose
whatever but at the same time responsible for whatever he chooses.
82
Language X
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________
Two types of paragraphing according to Seale (1979: 5)
Along the same lines, Brooks and Warren (1952, 1970), commenting on the paragraph as
a convenience to the reader, argue that the paragraph is a division of composition which
signals to the reader that the division which is set off constitutes a unit of thought;it also
makes the divisions of the writers thoughts visible. Brooks and Warrengofurtherin saying that this division, for the reader, is a convenience.
On the psychological reality of the paragraph, Koen, Becker, and Young (1969) compare
the paragraph with the sentence; they argue that if the importance of grasping the underlying structure of the sentence contributes to its understanding, then the perception
of the paragraph performs a similar function.Also, Kieras (1978) suggests that the role
of the paragraph is to minimize memory load:the text-reader does not have to burden
his memory bythedifferent kinds of information presented in thetext. Kieras goes on to
say that the function ofthe paragraph is tomakeit easy for the reader to digest the contents of the text. Therefore, common sense dictates that the lack of unified and coherent
sentences or paragraphs in any language or if sentences or paragraphs were constructed
inconsistently in relation to the language targeted by the translator, there is a possibility
that the translated text will not meet the requirement of acceptability and naturalness
demanded by the other language reader.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that language is a reflection of culture (Jakobson 1985).
These two concepts are intrinsically correlated and interconnected. Jakobson (1985: 103)
argues that language is a cultural phenomenon, and culture according to him is:
The totality of behavior patterns that are passed between generations by learning, socially determined behavior learned by imitation and instruction.
83
A Texbook of Translation
Jakobson goes on to say that learning a language involves learning social conventions
simply because language has cognitive and expressive aspects that are cultivated. Similarly, Kaplan (1966, 1983) and Jakobson (1971) stress the fact that language affects our
conceptualization of reality; they argue that the linguistic categories that form the way we
think are different from one language to another. Jakobson (1985: 107) says:
Language is situated between nature and culture and it serves as a foundation of culture. We may go even further and state that language is THE [his
emphasis] necessary and substantial foundation of human culture.
In discussing the impact of culture upon language, Jakobson (1985), Sapir (1921, 1951,
1956), Hymes (1964), and Whorf (1956) suggest that each language exists within a particular culture and has its own particular lexicon which shapes the perception of its speakers. Languages reflect cultural differences, and these differences are manifested in the
categorization of gender, number, color, etc.
Within the process of translation, the awareness of the cultural as well as the socially
equivalent frameworks in which a particular text is used is extremely significant, although
perfect cultural equivalents are indeed unattainable. What is attainable is the approximation of cultural and social context of the two languages, which makes the translated text
functionally similar and relatively natural with respect to its original. Regarding this,
Malinowski (1923: 309) states:
Since the whole world of things to be expressed changes with the level of
culture, with geographical, social and economic conditions, the consequence
is that the meaning of a word must always be gathered, not from a passive
contemplation of this word, but from an analysis of its function, with reference to a given culture.
Nida shares this notion with Malinowski that any translation that excludes consideration
of cultural elements is doomed to be inadequate. Nida (1964: 90) says:
The person who is engaged in translation from one language into another
ought to be constantly aware of the contrast in the entire range of culture
represented by the two languages.
These views indicate that the link between language and culture cannot be ignored, and
that a communitys culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order
to create in a manner acceptable to its members. This is what makes translation a difficult
task as the translator has to be aware that the text he is translating is not only formed by a
84
linguistic capability but it also relates to things, people, cultural and social values, behaviors, and emotions. All these operate within the situational context of the text.
85
A Texbook of Translation
When the translator is confronted with a word that has to be conveyed into the target language, his choice makes all the difference in the world. The lexis he chooses may have almost the same meaning to that of the other language, paying his utmost attention to avoid
contamination or not to allow translation nuances to interfere and distort the meaning
of the original. For the sake of clarity, the translator digs for textual and situational resemblance. The search for resemblance and synonymity is what made some linguists and
translation practitioners believe that translation is a form of synonymy. Graham (1991:
10) clearly and flatly comments on Quines idea of synonymy, stating that the natural
alternative is to abandon the notion of two messages synonymous in all respect with one
another and replace it with the requirement that similarity of meaning be attained in
some particular respects, never all.
From a philosophical point of view, Quine (1992: 57-62), while discussing the indeterminacy of translation, proposes that synonymy roughly consists in approximate likeness
in effect on the hearer. Quines use of the word synonymy is not restricted. He points
out that the word synonymy carried the full generality of same in meaning, whatever
that is. Quine distinguishes between two types of synonymy: broad type and narrow type.
Broad synonymy can be formulated in intuitive terms. That is, two sentences command
assent concomitantly and dissent concomitantly. This kind of concomitance is due strictly
to word usage rather than how things happen in the world. As for the narrow type, Quine
believes that it is synonymy of parts and not synonymy of wholes. Quine states:
Synonymy of parts is defined by appeal to analogy of roles in synonymous
wholes; then synonymy in the narrow sense is defined for the wholes by appeal to synonymy of homologous parts.
Part-whole relationships always exist in synonymy. When two sentences have, what is
called by philosophers sameness of confirming experience and of disconfirming experience
(Grice & Strawson 1956), then we have wholly synonymous sentences; however, when two
sentences partially confirm and disconfirm experience, then we have partially synonymous
sentences. Here, one can argue, to this effect, that synonymy involves partial overlapping
or whole overlapping. That is, the meaning of one message may partially or wholly overlap
with the meaning of another and the idea of partial and whole overlapping is something
inevitable in translation. In other words, the meaning of one word is wholly or partially covered by the other. The idea of partial and whole overlapping is represented in Figure (1):
86
X
Y
A
A&B
It is axiomatic to point out that total or complete overlapping, if it exists, does not cause
any problem. However, for partial overlapping, one could look at A as the original word
or even text. Then B is the target word of the target text. The relationship is that of a mirror image, i.e. one word in a text is mirrored to create the target image. Inevitably, this
kind of overlapping cannot always be total, because of at least phonological differences.
The most difficult part, however, is that one part is being partially or wholly covered and
another part does the covering. There is a neutral part that is not covered in partial overlapping, and this is the area where the translator finds himself free to move. Here, portion
X in the original occupies accompanying meaning which is not encumbered in the meaning of the word B. Also, portion Y holds a concomitant meaning that is not included in
the meaning of A. Therefore, the translator, if possible, must target a total overlapping, a
very complicated if not impossible task.
It is to be noted that complete synonymy does not exist, and the translator seeks to preserve the meaning that is similar to the meaning of the original. Ross (1981: 12) states:
The translator seeks to convey the same meaning in a new language as is
found in the original. Not only must he choose among the various respects
in which similarity of meaning is to be preserved; this is less sameness in any
particular respect, and is more an equivalence satisfactory to the constraints,
which govern his work.
The translator here makes his choices with differing degrees of ease or sophistication.
This actually depends on the subject matter he is dealing with. Furthermore, it often
happens that one discovers that, upon looking over the printed copy of a translation,
particularly when it comes off the press, he could, if given the choice and the chance
again, introduce a different alternative. Hence, people/or some translators often dislike
their translation of a particular subject-matter after it was published. It could be those
translators feel that they have not done well in their translation. However, when one
reads his own writing, he reads it with some satisfaction; he may not change a single jot.
87
A Texbook of Translation
This is the difference between translating and writing. Translating, if not done intuitively, is interpretation. On the other hand, writing is an art. It is a creation of the mind.
Therefore, translation is done through the creation of the individuals mind, paying his
utmost attention to the original message and the other was done intuitively based on
the writers intellect and imagination.
Translating
Text-Transference
Creation
Text-Comprehension
In this regard, the translator must be modest; he should not be too creative nor should
he be too literal. Being too creative may result in distorting the beauty and intricacy of
the original text. Being literal may result in ambiguating the text. Therefore, the translator faces a dilemma. The solution to such information immoderation is to be accurate in
such a way that the two texts are closely approximated.
88
89
A Texbook of Translation
believes that translators are expected to be creative, because texts, particularly literary
texts, use language creatively.
Some believe that translation is an interpretation. The concept Gadamer (1975:10) refers
to here is what is called the hermeneutic circle. This concept refers to knowledge as the
lived-experience. Lived-experience is what gives meaning to language and thought. A
compelling factor in support of translation as a personal lived-experience is the continual
renewal of translating traditional texts. If the goal of the translator were to capture the
intentions of the text-producer, one translation of The Iliad would be sufficient proof. Instead, one finds new and different translations for almost every poetic or literary work.
90
Since the University is looking forward to becoming one of the top universities
in the world through providing the appropriate support for its students and employees, and since we are aware of the educational programs your college offers,
we would like to ask you to approve on nominating Dr. John Jane June to give
an English course for the Department staff. The course will be given outside his
official working hours in the college. The Department will give the lecturer a
financial reward.
Text 1
Dear Dr Beast,
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
91
CHAPTER 7
93
A Texbook of Translation
for writers and teachers as well as translators, as their purpose is to clarify the meaning of
a particular construction within the sentence and beyond the sentence level.
In this chapter, I will try to show how punctuation marks fulfill specific semantic and
pragmatic functions, i.e. substantiation, counter-argumentation, explanation, etc. These
functions have a significant bearing on translating an expression or a text from one language to another. The marks this chapter attempts to investigate are limited to a couple of
intra-sentential ones (Leggett et al 1982). They are the semicolon and the colon. Marks
like these are called internal because they show the relationship of each word or group
of words to the rest of the sentence.
The reason for selecting these specific punctuation marks is that they are frequent in English written discourse and tend to be problematic when translating into other languages,
particularly Arabic. To this latter effect, a questionnaire was distributed to 20 M.A. translation students in the English Department at Yarmouk University, Jordan. The sample
was made up of students who had taken at least eighteen credit hours (theoretical and
practical courses), to ensure that they had knowledge of translation practice and theory.
Students were asked to translate sample texts from English into Arabic. Special attention
was paid to their translations of the punctuation marks to see whether the students were
aware of their semantic and pragmatic uses. The results were unexpected and illuminating: hardly any of the students were aware of the way in which these punctuation marks
are or ought to be used. The mistakes and translations will be discussed in later sections.
94
Private. No parking
allowed.
(1)
Private? No.
Parking allowed.
(2)
It is to be noted here that example (1) indicates that no parking is allowed while example
(2) indicates that parking is allowed. What marks the difference between the two meanings is the punctuation marks.
Furthermore, through punctuation marks, one can signal different information units. Halliday (1985) and Baker (1994) point out that through punctuation marks, one can signal
different information structures in written language. Baker states, for example, that using a
comma can signal new information. She demonstrates this by the following examples:
(1)
(2)
DC:
NDC:
He was waving to the girl who was running along the platform (DC).
He was waving to the girl, who was running along the platform (NDC).
Defining Clause
Non-defining Clause
The above two examples are similar in terms of wording. The difference is only realized
through the use of the comma. If one carefully examines the implications created by the use
of the comma, one will observe that the first clause does not add any new information; it
presumes the reader already knows enough about the girl to identify her from this description. At the same time, if one examines the implications created in the second clause, one
can observe that there is a particular information structure signaled by using the comma,
and this structure represents new information. Consequently, a comma, as tiny as it appears, makes a big difference between two units of information worded similarly.
Moreover, in the above examples, two linguistics functions have been established: defining clause (DC) and non-defining clause (NDC). These two functions are commonly
realized through the use of the comma (Quirk et al 1985).
In order to clarify the point further, here is another example:
1. A woman without her man is nothing.
2. A woman, without her man, is nothing.
3. A woman: without her, man is nothing.
In the above three examples, one can see that meaning changes based on the specific use
of punctuation marks. For example, in sentence (1), there is a general statement that a
woman without her man is nothing. Prominence was given to man as the important one.
95
A Texbook of Translation
In sentence (2), the meaning changes in relation to sentence (1), although we are still using the exact words. Here, prominence is still given to man, but with specific reference
to a woman, as opposed to something else. In sentence (3), there is a complete shift of
meaning. Prominence is given to the importance of the woman, as if man does not exist
without the presence of the woman. All these meanings have been represented as a result
of the different uses of the punctuation marks.
From a different angle, discussing the meaning of punctuation requires paying special
attention to the delimitation and boundaries between semantics and pragmatics. Almost
all the studies that have been done on these two major fields of linguistics have associated
the delimitation of the two terms with the delimitation of Chomskys competence and
the performance or Saussures langue and parole (Hawkes 1986). The distinction between
langue and parole, according to Hawkes (1986: 20) is more or less one that pertains to the
difference between the abstract language system simply called in English language and
individual utterances made by the speakers of the language in concrete everyday situations called speech. According to Hawkes, langue is both a social product and a collection
of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals
to exercise that faculty. As for parole, it is the tip of the iceberg. Langue is the larger mass
that supports parole, and it is implied by it, both in speaker and hearer, but which never
itself appears (Hawkes 1986: 21). Thus, semantics is the input to pragmatics. However, in
this book, semantics is used to relate to the language system whereas pragmatics is used
to relate to utterances.
Many definitions have been proposed for the notions of semantics and pragmatics (see
Leech 1974: 319 and 1983; Levinson 1983). In order to show where punctuation lies, I
shall adopt Leechs complementary position in which he defines semantics as what something means. The weather is hot means The weather is hot (a statement), and pragmatics
as what somebody means by something, i.e. The weather is hot means Open the window (a
request). The former example is mainly concerned with meaning as a property of language whereas the latter example is mainly concerned with meaning as what the speaker
intends by his utterance (his intention).
From all of this, one can conclude that punctuation and its functions lie within the field of
pragmatics. The meaning of a particular utterance has to be deduced from the speakers
intention with reference to the context of situation in which the utterance is used. Context here is taken to mean the background knowledge which the speaker assumes to be
known to the hearer at the time of speaking; it does not represent brute facts but rather
institutional facts of text or context (Leech 1983: 341). In accordance with this view and
for the sake of exposition, the semantic and pragmatic functions will be referred to together here as linguistic functions.
96
comma
double comma
semicolon
full stop
colon
dash
double dash
diagonal line
underlining
extended line
curved brackets
square brackets
hollow brackets
curly brackets
dots
question mark
exclamation mark
double quotation marks
equal sign
ditto sign
concluding sign
;
.
:
-/
the
___
( )
[ ]
( )
{ }
!
=
97
A Texbook of Translation
Most of the above Arabic punctuation marks have their equivalents in the English punctuation system; however, there are differences when it comes to the uses of the colon
and semicolon. These are problematic in translation. Therefore, the linguistic functions of
punctuation will be investigated below and the problems associated with their uses will
be highlighted.
7.4.1 The semicolon (;)
This punctuation mark indicates a close linkage between two clauses. Apart
from the well-known functions of this mark, in Arabic as well as in English, it occasionally tends to express a contrastive relation between two clauses. Consider the following
example taken from The Economist (1983: 52):
Text (1) English
The Nicaraguan people say that their families were taken away by members
of the Security Forces; the Sandinists claim that the missing have joined
the contras.
An inexperienced translator may read the English text and consider the relationship between the two clauses or sentences as that of addition; he may also not realize that the true
relationship is significant for relaying the exact meaning of the original.
Looking at the students translation, it was found that 12 students translated this punctuation mark as addition, and 6 of them did not even attempt to translate it. Only 2 students
translated it correctly. The relationship expressed here is that of contrast, where two different points of view are being stated. Therefore, the translator should utilize the Arabic
conjunctive bayanama or amma however.
In a different context, the translator may sometimes fail in the opposite way to identify
the exact or intended meaning of this punctuation mark; he may think that the semicolon
is always used as above, to contrast between two clauses. However, the semicolon may
indeed sometimes be used as an additive conjunctive. Here is an example taken from The
Economist (1983: 105):
Text (2) English
In America in the mid 1970s, the causes of several helicopter crashes were
traced to bogus replacement parts; in 1977, 200 fake fire detection and control systems for Boeing aircraft were discovered.
98
It is clear that the original text does not indicate grammatically or structurally whether
or not the clause preceding the semicolon and the clause following it have similar values.
The reader has to guess at the writers implication behind the semicolon. The relationship
expressed between these two clauses is in fact that of addition.
Looking at the students translations, it was found that 10 students expressed an addition relationship; none of them expressed a contrast relationship. At the same time, 3
students have not even attempted to translate it. It was observed that 7 students translated it as fa (causative), expressing a relationship that is not implied. There is another
function which can be performed by the use of the semicolon. This function is its contrastive emphatic meaning. That is, the semicolon in English can be interpreted to mean
emphasis, requiring a different mark in Arabic. This mark is the conjunction bal. It
emphasizes the clause in which it is used in a prominent position, compared to the
preceding clauses. Here is an example taken from Cary (1984: 64):
Text (3) English
Loui must have gone to the police. What right had they to persue him like
this? He had done no wrong; he was trying to do the right thing, the sensible
thing.
It was found that only 3 students translated the semicolon correctly as emphatic; 2 translated it as an additive; 11 students did not translate it at all; 4 expressed a causative relationship. It should be pointed out that the way the semicolon is used in English, in the
above three examples, is very clear to the native speakers of English. However, this punctuation mark tends to be problematic in Arabic. The students translation of examples 1, 2
and 3 shows that Arabs tend to treat the English semicolon as additive, as is the case with
almost all punctuation marks in their own language. Sometimes it is not even looked into,
and the semantic and pragmatic implications are completely ignored. This indicates that
there is a language interference problem in the way this punctuation mark is used.
7.4.2 Colon (:)
This colon is different from semicolon in the fact that the colon is cataphoric (i.e. referring or pointing forward). From a semantic point of view, it is a way of marking the
identity between what is being expressed and what is about to be expressed. For example,
I said this , where the meaning of what follows the colon must be equivalent to this but
more specific (see Quirk et al 1985: Ch. 12 for more information on this topic).
From a translation point of view, and according to Newmark (1981), when the sentence
is viewed logically and not grammatically, or used in such a way that it requires clarifi-
99
A Texbook of Translation
cation or illustration, it is normally punctuated with a colon. Therefore, the colon has a
cataphoric function: it is always followed by an explanation or an illustration (Halliday
1985). That is, the clause following it is a substantiation of something in the one which
precedes it.
When it comes to translating the colon, the translator should account for it by marks that
have the same semantic and pragmatic functions. These functions are represented in the
following example taken from Cary (1984: 63):
Text (4) English
Tom, without thought, answered: My name is Stone, and then, angry to
see himself faced by a policeman, went on: What do you want here? Why
should I answer your questions?
It should be noted here that the translator has to interpret the uses of the colon carefully;
he should account for the non-verbal uses of this punctuation mark during the process
of translation. To provide an accurate translation of the above example, the translator
should opt for equivalent words such as fa (causative) or id (substantative).
In the students translations, it was found that 13 students translated the colon as an additive, and only 2 translated it expressing contrast. At the same time, 1 student translated
it as emphatic and 3 students did not translate it at all.
As the text above shows, the first colon has not been translated; it does not need to
be translated simply because what follows after the verb answered is axiomatically
understood as substantiation. However, the second colon should have been translated
because its presence in the sentence adds a temporal sequence. Thus, it can be seen
how punctuation marks which need to be conveyed into the target language are not
appropriately conveyed by translation students. This shows that students have only a
vague idea about the specific semantic and pragmatic functions of punctuation marks.
It also shows that students, when they attempt to translate punctuation marks, do not
think of the distortion they may create from not conveying the correct meaning of this
punctuation mark in the target text. The following table shows the results of students
translations of the texts under discussion:
100
Additive
Contrast
Causative
Emphatic
Not Translated
Text (1)
12
Text (2)
10
Text (3)
11
Text (4)
13
As the above table shows, students seem to be confused about the uses of the semicolon
and colon; they also seem to be influenced by the writing patterns of their native language. It is, therefore, important for translators to be made aware of these functions and
see to it that these punctuation marks are not misunderstood or simply overlooked.
Based on their translations, we can observe that students are not only unfamiliar with
the way most punctuation marks are used in English; they are also not familiar with the
punctuation marks used in their own language. Therefore, it is to be expected that any attempt by them to translate an English text into Arabic will suffer so long as they have not
captured the exact meaning (i.e. semantic and pragmatic implications) of these marks.
To sum up, the purpose of this chapter has been to investigate the specific semantic and
pragmatic functions of two important but problematic punctuation marks. These were
the colon and semicolon. Emphasis was placed on how to maintain such implications in
the translation process.
It was noted that the system of punctuation in Arabic is inadequate because it does not
have well-established rules for the use of specific punctuation marks. Therefore, much
work needs to be done in order to identify what is considered to be the sentence in Arabic if one wants to establish a coherent system of punctuation. As for the semantic and
pragmatic functions of the colon and semicolon, they include what is called rebuttal,
emphasis, addition, substantiation, and contrast.
Moreover, this chapter has illustrated that translating punctuation marks from English
into Arabic is indeed very problematic to translators and translation students. This has
been exemplified by the translations of the 20 Arab M.A. translation students. The results were disappointing: it was found that most of these students are not familiar with
101
A Texbook of Translation
the semantic and pragmatic functions of punctuation marks in general and the specific
punctuation marks discussed in this chapter in particular. Therefore, translation students
need to be taught not to allow the source language punctuation marks to influence the
punctuation marks in their translation, simply because languages have different systems
of punctuating. Students should also dig deeper for implications springing from the use
of a specific punctuation mark so as to maintain those implications in their translations.
To enhance the student and working translators understanding of the essence of punctuation marks, more contrastive studies of the marks are needed, not only from a linguistic
point of view but also from a translation point of view. Our hope is to make professional
translators as well as students aware of this important yet problematic issue.
102
Radical individualism should thus be taken with a large grain of salt if works
like Luthers Bible and the King James Version can legitimately be criticized
for fantasy and inconsistence it nevertheless seems difficult to classify them as
automatically second-rate because of group authorship such prejudice should
quietly be absorbed by the more global principle that the collective profession
provided the conditions necessary for the rise of the authoritative individual
Text 1
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
103
CHAPTER 8
105
A Texbook of Translation
106
107
A Texbook of Translation
literary works in terms of the way sounds, words, imagery expressions, and sentences
are conveyed or relayed. They should be conveyed carefully, conforming to the writers
original work.
For an excellent translator, it is not enough to convey literary works from one language
to another, but such conveyance should be creative, profoundly imaginative and talented.
The translator can limit or identify the kind of work contemplated and the literary flavor
manifested in it. This is why translating poetry is different from translating novels. Also,
translating both poetry and novels is different from translating theatrical texts. The way
theatrical texts are written conforms with the feature of speakability (Wellwarth 1981:
140), i.e. the text is written to be read aloud so the writer can have access to the kind of
rhythm or projection so as to help the actor perform his role. The writer of a theatrical dialogue is also an artist. He has to sense the word, and see whether it suits the actor or not.
He feels the text to see whether or not it has a persuasive effect on its audience, particularly if one takes into account that in translating literary works, one deals with feelings,
emotions, melodies, senses, and above all, the writers own experiences of the world.
Translator
Transference
Creative Writing
Proper Reading
108
To this effect, some believe (see Diaz-Diocretz 1985: 33-37) that translation is a process
of creation. The writer does not write his text at one time, but at different times. First
he reads it, then writes a draft, and then rewrites it again and again. The distinction between writing and translating is therefore a matter of creativity. However, both are creative works, but the difference between them is that the translation process is less creative
in the way that it is less imaginative. In more specific terms, in writing, the writer has to
come up with an original idea or thought whereas in translation, the translator has to
base his translation on an idea that has already been formulated. Therefore, the writing
process is more creative, as it requires more imagination.
Within the literary translation process, a good translator is not the one who remains faithful
and close to the original text, but the one who is close to the mentality and thinking as well
as the experience of the writer. The former involves translating the text whereas the latter
involves creating the text. As for the first, a given message can be perceived from quite a different perspective (Jakobson 1960: 353). This depends very much on the texts readership.
Therefore, the text varies according to its readers. Creative translation creates and reforms
the text in a way that the writer and the translator are in full harmony and conformity.
109
A Texbook of Translation
Linguistic Context
Co-text
Language-specific
Linguistically interpreted
General Context
Linguistic context
Culture-specific
Culturally interpreted
Contex
Another example is the English word dating. This word is used freely and frequently
within the English culture. In Arabic, however, it has no exact equivalent. Therefore,
relying only on the linguistic context would provide an unacceptable translation, as
the English word implies connotations that are not implied in the Arabic culture (i.e.
intimate relations).
To this effect, translating literary texts requires understanding paralinguistic features.
Translators should possess the capability of analyzing, sensing and feeling the literary
text. A mastery of the foreign language and its culture and the translators own language
and culture would form a good base for the translator. However, only mastering the foreign language itself is not good enough for making a good translator of literature, as he
needs to be more familiar with the effects of sounds and the rhythmic setting of the text,
particularly in poetry.
As for poetry, it is the art of employing words in such a manner as to produce an illusion
on the senses: the art of doing by means of words what the painter does by means of colors
(Savory 1957: 76). Savory also points out that poetry has certain features such as rhythm,
metrical rhythm, emotion, sensuous emotion, increased figure of speech, conventional
word-order, and above all imagination. The ability to see features as an object or in a particular situation which another might miss is one of the necessities the translator of literature
should possess. Full mastery of both languages and cultures enables the translator to at least
produce the form as well as the manner or the style of the original text.
As for the strategy of translating poetry, some believe that poetry is translatable either
through prose strategy or verse strategy. Tytler (1979: 107) believes that by using
prose strategy, some of the sweetness and melody of the versification of the poem may
perish. Therefore, it is believed that verse strategy is close to the original form of the text
than that of prose. Verse strategy gives us an opportunity to enjoy and experience figures
110
of speech. It also allows us to utilize any word-order that may prove to be suitable. To this
effect, the translator may opt for verse strategy in translating poetry, simply because it has
the power of stirring the emotions of readers better than that of prose.
To make these remarks more convincing, the following example, taken from the work of
an American romantic poet, Philip Freneau, demonstrates how verse strategy in translating English poetry into Arabic is more effective and provocative than that of prose. In
describing his love of nature, Freneau (1970: 149) wrote:
Faire flower, that dost so comely grow,
Hide in this silent, dull retreat,
Untouched thy honeyd blossoms blow,
Unseen thy little branches greet:
No roving foot shall crush thee here,
No busy hand provoke a tear.
If the translator opts for prose translation, the translation in Arabic should look like this:
Translation (1):
.
.
(Below is a literal translation of the above Arabic text.)
You are the beautiful flower that grows elegantly. You are hidden in this calm
and boring retreat.
Your
honeyed
blossoms
blow without someone touching
you, and your little
branches
greet
without
seen. There will not be a
being
foot that will crush you, nor will be a hand that fools around with you.
.
the
above
Compare
prose
translation
with
thefollowing
verse translation, in which the
of
.focus
and
preference
are given
to
theform
the
original
text.
.
Translation (2):
.
111
A Texbook of Translation
112
Once upon a time there was a great and powerful king of Persia named Sabur,
whose wealth and wisdom surpassed all mother monarchs. He comforted those
whose spirits were broken, and he treated those who fled to him for refuge with
honor. He loved the poor and was hospitable to strangers, and he always sought
to defend the oppressed against their oppressors.
Text 1
King Sabur had three daughters as beautiful as flower gardens in the full moon
and a son as handsome as the moon. And it was his custom to celebrate two
holidays during the year, the New Year, or the Autumnal Equinox. On both occasions he threw open his palace, gave alms to the people, made proclamations of safety
and security and prompted his chamberlains and viceroys. The people of his realm came
to him, saluted him, and celebrated these holy days with joy, and they also brought him
gifts, servants, and eunuchs.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
* Arabian Nights, Burton (1997: 70)
113
A Texbook of Translation
Text 2
Translate the following sonnet by William Shakespeare into the target language.
You must translate it in two ways: one through prose translation, and the other
through verse translation. After you finish, compare the two translations.
Sonnet 130
My mistress eyes are nothing like the sun;
Coral is far more red, than her lips red:
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.
I have seen roses damaskd, red and white,
But no such roses see I in her cheeks;
And in some perfumes is there more delight
Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks.
I love to hear her speak, yet well I know
That music hath a far more pleasing sound:
I grant I never saw a goddess go,-My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground:
And yet by heaven, I think my love as rare,
As any she belied with false compare.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
114
CHAPTER 9
115
A Texbook of Translation
not be used in foreign language teaching because it causes language interference. Translation can inhibit thinking in the foreign language and can produce compound bilingualism rather then coordinate bilingualism. Besides, using translation in foreign language
teaching can interfere in attaining automatic habits. It also makes the learner assume
that there is one-to-one-correspondence of meaning between native language and foreign language. Using translation directs the learners attention to the formal properties of
foreign language items rather than their communicative functions.
From a different perspective, translation is extremely important for foreign language
teaching simply because it allows conscious learning and control of the foreign language,
and as a result, it reduces native language interference. It is to be noted here that conscious learning does not preclude automatic habits. Driving a car and tying a tie can be
thought of as an example. Using translation can make learning meaningful because the
learner is an active participant in the process. Learning a foreign language is not like acquiring a native language, as learning a language involves conscious learning (i.e. through
grammar books, etc.) whereas acquiring a language involves unconscious learning. The
fact that children acquire the language and become native speakers in it is an example of
unconscious learning. Linguists and translators agree to the fact that translation, since it
is done consciously, is an excellent exercise for language learning, but the pity in it is that
most translators have partial understanding of the text they read.
In learning a native language, the learner is there to fall back on prior knowledge. Such
knowledge is extremely important for learning new knowledge. Here, one has to assume
that the learner makes use of the prior knowledge that exists within him and, in that, there
is a process of mental translation going on throughout the process of language learning.
It could be, in this respect, that the use of translation is helpful even more for advanced
learners. For beginners, of course, it is useful simply because it expounds grammar and
teaches vocabularies.
It should be noted that the above pro or against arguments for using translation have
been made by different scholars such as translation practitioners, linguists, psycholinguists, sociolinguists, etc. Those scholars have more likely linguistic and behavioristic
backgrounds. However, one attraction towards using translation as a means of teaching
foreign language has to do with the teacher, and that is, whether or not the teacher wants
language learners to use translation for learning a foreign language. Teachers and university professors, in particular, know this fact very well. They know, whether they like it or
not, that language learners indirectly and unconsciously use the translation method for
learning a language. Harris and Sherwood (1978) claim that a child is conscious of his
bilingualism and freely switches from one language to another while learning a language.
Harris and Sherwood call this natural translation (i.e. translation which is done by peo-
116
ple who have not had special training in translation). This kind of language learning led
Harris and Sherwood to believe that translation is co-extensive with bilingualism.
Other studies have touched upon the subject of translation and bilingualism, indicating
that from the earliest stages of bilingualism, the two languages are compounded. That is,
they are made up from one another. Therefore, avoiding native language interferences while
learning a foreign language is almost impossible (Harris and Sherwood 1978: 10-12).
117
A Texbook of Translation
118
119
A Texbook of Translation
that did not use translation techniques. This shows that using translation is indeed significant in the teaching of foreign language skills.
120
CHAPTER 10
Translation and
Pragmatics of Discourse
10.1 Introduction
This chapter has three objectives: first, it examines the pragmatic variables in an intercultural and interpersonal context. Second, it argues that the use of a common language
across cultures does not always guarantee mutual understanding. Third, it highlights areas where miscommunication is likely to occur as a result of intercultural and interpersonal differences. Finally, this chapter provides implications for interpreters in terms of
how to eliminate factors giving rise to intercultural/interpersonal misunderstanding.
121
A Texbook of Translation
is simply due to the many contextual variables such as facial expressions, hand movements, tone and quality of voice, etc. These variables may not really be ubiquitous in the
written mode of discourse. This does not mean that such variables are not all equally
present in the written mode of translation, but they tend to be easily manifested in the
oral mode of language (i.e. interpreting).
Although spoken and written languages in cross-cultural communications are viewed as
if they were two separable entities, one has to take into account the fact that in both activities, there is a transference and/or conversion of meaning from one language system to
another language system and from one community to another community. However, this
particular transference can be done in speech and in writing. It can also be done through
subtitling below a television screen or a film screen. In all of this, speaking and writing
involves meaning transference or conversion. There is no need to go into the controversy
of what constitutes meaning. However, one needs to point out that meaning is generally understood here as the totality of the information conveyed in a particular message,
whether stated or implied (Shiyab 1990). To this effect, what is called meaning in the
oral mode of language (i.e. interpreting, is what this chapter is going to investigate).
To relate theories of pragmatics to writing in an intercultural/cross-cultural context, one
has to understand the relationship between the addressor and the addressee. What was
the message and for whom was it destined? Unless these issues are taken into account,
understanding will be obscure and murky. One can imagine, for instance, that when
speakers have words on a printed page, they (words) are, in a sense, disassociated from
the people who produce those words and from the people for whom those words are
destined. For example, look at a particular message written on a page; one sees the words
on the page; however, no one sees who wrote those words in the first place. It might have
been the speaker or somebody also. Who knows? In a sense, since we have seen the message, then we are the people whom it is destined for, but we should be aware that it is a
message that was not originally destined for us; it was destined for somebody else.
It is axiomatic that in a large number of, but not all, situations of speaking, the text-producer and text-receiver are both present in one situation, in one moment in time, and in
one place; therefore, it is easy to observe communication happening.
One can reflect on the fact that during meetings, whether political or social, one might
think of the position of chairs and tables in the meeting room before the meeting even
starts. The point here is that this particular preparation might have taken minutes or even
hours. The question: why is that? I think that when people put a great deal of thought into
exactly where they place the tables and chairs, it hardly matters, although there might
be a particular configuration of tables and chairs which perhaps may not be an entirely
122
symmetrical one and might have its significance, but nevertheless, for such a meeting, it
took minutes and hours.
My second example is a stylized form of an exchange that took place between two people
coming from two different cultures. These people were speaking English to each other
and it was the opening exchange of these two businessmen who had a task to negotiate a
business deal, which they failed to negotiate. The meeting was unsuccessful and the difficulty can be traced back to the very first words they spoke to each other and these are
the first words in a largely stylized form. Here is the conversation that took place between
these two people:
A: Hello!
B: Hello, he replied as he turned around to see who was talking to him.
A: It has been a long time since we have seen each other.
B: Yes. Too long, I am afraid, he replied.
A: Well, that depends on what you mean by a long time, he remarked.
Here one can realize that at this stage of the conversation, something has already gone
wrong. There is already something not working properly in terms of communication and
the questions are: can one identify what has gone wrong here and where does it start? The
point is, that by the end of this short exchange, a very competitive atmosphere is being
created because (A) is saying it has been a long time and (B) is saying well, that is your
fault, not mine, etc and for people who are trying to work out a successful business
deal, they got off on the wrong foot. Things have already started to go wrong, and instead
of being cooperative, they are finding themselves competing with each other.
123
A Texbook of Translation
and/or in some linguistic cultures. In some languages, Arabic for example, it is more acceptable to interrupt the person one is speaking with than it is in other cultures. English
is a case in point. But if one is going to interrupt, there are ways of doing it linguistically;
there are ways when one should not do it linguistically. These, incidentally, are among the
most difficult problems facing language learners at all times. We are all familiar with the
kind of difficulty we face when we learn a foreign language. We actually commit, in one
way or another, a number of verbal and non-verbal offences, which are either very aggressive towards the person we are speaking to or not aggressive enough.
124
conversation time is shared to a certain extent. Therefore, you will not go on longer than
you feel necessary. If someone asks you a question like, Can you show me the way to the
White House?, you will try to give him/her instructions on how to reach the White House,
which will be as short and explicit as possible. You would not say, Well, in America, as a
whole, there are many white houses. There are small white houses and large white houses.
I assume the one you want to go to is the one where the President resides. On the other
hand, if you got a taxi, you could take X street, but if you do not have one, you could take
Y street. No one would do that because they know time is limited. Grice states that the
maxim quantity is to make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purpose of the exchange. Do not make your contribution more informative than
required (Grice 1975: 47).
The third maxim is the maxim of relevance or relation. It is very simply stated be relevant. Let us consider the previous example:
Can you show me the way to the White House?
You would not normally expect a response such as:
I saw a nice woman walking down the street.
The above would not be a relevant reply. Therefore, the maxim indicates that if we assume
that the person speaking to us is being cooperative, which is the underlying assumption
if he/she is being cooperative, then he/she will give us a reply which is in some sense relevant to what we have said in the first place.
The fourth maxim is the maxim of truthfulness. Grice states Do not say what you believe
to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence (Grice 1975: 48). In other
words, do not lie, but then why should that be a normal maxim of talk exchanges. One can
see that this maxim is very closely related to the maxim of quality, and Grice receives a lot of
criticism about the overlapping of both maxims. However, this maxim, as well as the other
quality maxim, relates back to this cooperative principle that when someone is talking to
you, your first assumption is that they are not telling you a pack of lies. You may have other
evidence, which would lead you to the conclusion that perhaps they are telling you a pack
of lies. However, the first natural (my italics) assumption is that when you go up to someone
and ask Can you show me the way to the White House?, they are not going to show you the
way to a white house instead, otherwise their response will be untruthful.
The last maxim is manner and is stated as Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression.
Avoid ambiguity. Be brief. Be orderly. Perhaps be orderly is important because what we
125
A Texbook of Translation
normally expect, when one asks somebody a question, is that the answer that comes back
to us will be in a sequence and the elements which are used will be in a certain order. This
will make it easy for us to understand what has been said. This is the normal assumption.
Grice (1975: 51), in trying to show how these maxims work, gives this little exchange:
A: I am out of petrol.
B: There is a garage around the corner.
Now Grice says on the face of it if we just look at this as a sequence of linguistic elements,
people could say, if they knew nothing about the way the world works, in general, that (B)
is not being relevant. (A) says I am out of petrol and (B) starts talking about something
that is around the corner. The point here, however, as Grice says is that the normal assumption is the person that we say this to I am out of petrol is, in fact, being cooperative. Therefore, rather than assuming that (B) is being uncooperative, we start looking
at the words that (B) says to see if there is some meaning. In other words, there are contextual variables in the utterance that would enable the audience to make a connection
between the real world and the implication behind uttering that statement. According to
Grice (1975: 45-51), this is called implicature. This particular maxim is one that has had a
lot written about since it is certainly something essential for interpreters and translators.
10.5 Assessment
Grices maxims are very useful in the semantic analysis of texts. Such usefulness, however,
is reduced by the generality, not to say vagueness, with which they are formulated (Lyons
1977). According to Lyons, evaluating utterances is far more difficult than quantifying the
amount of semantic information in an utterance.
Taking this into account (i.e. conversation between people) one can say that what is interesting about a breakdown in communication is that the people who are experiencing
the breakdown do not even notice that communication has broken down until much later
when things start to get aggressive.
At this point, one needs to add bi-cultural dimension to Grices Cooperative Principle,
because Grice is talking about it in relation to all people everywhere. So, what should
the interpreter do in cases where the interpreter notices that something is going wrong
in the interpreting act or feels that the speaker has lost his way in the conversation? The
dilemma is whether the interpreter can intervene and say, you have got this wrong; you
are not understanding each other. This is not intended as a criticism. It is intended to be
cooperative, etc. Conversely, do the interpreters have this right?
126
127
A Texbook of Translation
In this conversation, there is a problem that is traceable back to the fact that (A) kept on
asking (B) very personal questions, and (A) finally interpreted this as an attempt to undermine his respect, his position, etc. As a result, both speakers did not get on very well
with each other. However, it should be pointed out that this is a finding which comes in
via social-psychology that we all have what is known as close group and neutral group.
Your close group is those people in your immediate surrounding with whom you identify, with whom you have close relations (i.e. your family, your close friends, etc.). In different cultures, these are defined in different ways and there are different norms. There
are such things as close group, although we never meditate or think of who is or is not
in the close group or in the neutral group. Nevertheless, we instinctively feel this. Of
course, there is the neutral group which is everyone else.
Another complexity in cross-cultural communications is that which results from differences in the perception of ones cultural and linguistic elements (Noss 1986). For example, in the Jordanian culture, it is considered polite to welcome strangers from a foreign
country by treating them immediately as part of your close group. Therefore, at times
you ask them some personal questions. It is a way of welcoming people, or getting close
to them, trying to make him/her feel at home. However, this is not so for the Americans
and consequently one gets these misinterpreted intentions which are a source of difficulty. Now, in going on about that, one may talk about the different kinds of difficulties
which people are observed to have, and the sources of intercultural communication difficulties. There are four kinds: first, peoples language behavior; secondly, peoples nonverbal behavior; thirdly, the basis on which we make attribution about other people; and
fourthly, the inside/outside group bias. When it comes to language behavior, people may
fail to understand each other because they do not understand the language (i.e. cultural
aspects) that each other speak. The point here is that people are behaving linguistically
in a proper manner within their own language community, but misinterpreted within
another language community due to cultural differences.
A similar point to be made here, which concerns different races and cultures, is that it so
happens that the socio-economics of a particular country, Britain for example, are such
that the people who serve food in many establishments are largely of Pakistani or Indian
origins. The people receiving the food, in this case, are mostly British. The language of
exchange between these two groups is English. When we all speak a foreign language
very often, one of the last things to change is our intonation patterns. We might get the
grammar right, but we do not always perceive that intonation patterns carry meaning. In
certain languages (i.e. Urdu), people ask questions with falling intonation which might
be interpreted as an insult, uncooperative, impolite, and rude in other languages. English
is an example. This may give rise to breakdowns in communication and may result in
128
unpleasant encounters due to cultural barriers. For more information on this subject, see
Gumperz et al 1981 and Gumperz 1982.
To relate breakdown in communication back to the business of interpreting, court interpreting is one of the situations where this is most difficult. It is a well observed fact that
in a courtroom where there is one interpreter representing what the judge is saying to the
witness and what the witness is saying to the judge, the pressures on that interpreter are
very great. Sometimes interpreters feel uneasy about what they do because, for the witness or the accused person, they are agents of the court, employed by the court for the
courts purposes and therefore potentially an enemy or hostile. The accused person tends
to treat interpreters as distant people, very much like out group people. Conversely, the
judge and the magistrates in the court will tend to think people may ask for interpreters
because they want to erect a smoke screen; they want to make everything very indirect
and to stop us getting them. They, therefore, distrust interpreters because they regard
them as an ally of the accused person. So, interpreters are halfway in between and have
this problem of loyalties.
Under those circumstances, the interpreter, for whom the accused person is, by definition, part of the inside-group (may have the same nationality, same age, same cultural
background, etc.), has to assume a neutrality which is very difficult to maintain.
To sum up, I would like to conclude at this point that there is a need for interpreters to
have very explicit training in the pragmatics of discourse and the way in which they operate particularly in an intercultural context. This unfortunately is not explicitly part of the
interpreters training. Moreover, what I have stated about interpreting, (i.e. the oral mode
of using language), is equally applicable to the written mode of using language. However,
the pragmatic variables of discourse in written languages (translating) are more difficult
to perceive than in spoken languages (interpreting).
What are the main ideas you have learnt from this chapter?
Define the term pragmatics and explain how it can effect communication.
What are Grices maxims?
Compare between the maxim of relevance and the maxim of quality.
Are there any codes of ethics in interpreting? Why do you think so?
What is Grices main principle?
Look through this chapter again, and explain the term Implicature.
Give two factors that contribute to breakdown in cross cultural communication.
129
CHAPTER 11
131
A Texbook of Translation
Translation has and will continue to play a significant role in human interaction and in
the transference of knowledge (ibid: 11); this unquestionably will put a greater demand
on translation. With the dissemination of information, whether it be internet or computer information, medical terminologies, technological and scientific discoveries, the
demand on transferring this knowledge from one language to another will definitely increase, simply because the world progresses scientifically, and many lexical items emerge
by the minute. Therefore, translators have to find ways to render these new items into
other languages.
At the present time, translators unfortunately have little to say about newly scientific
terms, and this may hinder the translator from translating effectively. I assume people as
well as linguists have to develop a sense of appreciation of what translators go through
before they read a translated scientific text. Words such as bolt, gaskets, stave sheet, tank
chime, all have their own translation problems, resulting either from the lack of such terms
in one language or another or the difficulty of approximating between target language
and source language terms. In any act of translation, an engineering project, for example, translators do not only deal with linguistic terminology, but also with terms that are
relevant to building projects. That is, translators working on an engineering project may
work on translating non-existing terminology related to project foundation, grounding,
drainage, external paving, electric systems, multimedia communication systems, doors
and windows, glazing, pluming, tiling, paintwork, wall covering, carpeting, false ceiling, lifts, air conditioning, fittings and fixtures of all kinds, etc. This is only one kind of
environment translators may choose to work in. Other areas of scientific translation may
include new discoveries, internet and computer technology, new species or disease discoveries, space and aviation worlds, etc. People may think at times that translation skills
are homogeneous, but a cursory look at a simple scientific text will prove the contrary.
Translators have to develop skills to translate scientific texts, but such skills are not the
same to translate literary or journalistic texts. Here is a text that manifests one level of
difficulty in scientific translation:
Notched Panel Installation Supplement
Taken from Liquids Storage Erection Manual (2005)
Care must be used in erecting a notched panel tank. The tank must be protected from wind damage at all times. Rings should be stable before attempting to use an inside drive-out ladder.
Installation of the notched panel tank proceeds as outlined in the Liquid
Erection Manual for the floor and bottom chime connection. The following procedures are for preparation of the tank panels (gasket and bolts) and
132
133
A Texbook of Translation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Along the same line, Ilyas (1989: 109) describes scientific translation as being difficult
since its language is direct and technical. He believes that scientific texts do not express
views or opinions, but rather facts, experiments and hypotheses. Therefore, it does not
accrue emotional association and implications. This, according to Ilyas, explains why a
scientific text is more direct and free from alternatives. A scientific text is also less artistic, and its language is characterized by impersonal style and a precise signification. Ilyas
believes that the difficulty of translating scientific material emerges when one translates
from a language spoken by a developed nation into the language spoken by a developing
or underdeveloped nation. One wonders then how the following examples (taken from
Ilyas) can be rendered into other languages:
Bismuth
Nadir
Alcazar
Borax
Sherbet
Algebra
Cipher
Elixir
Alembic
Alkali
Alcohol
Carburetor
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
134
The question here is whether or not such terms have equivalents in other languages.
Translators, therefore, have to resort to methods of extraction or derivation, loanwords
or borrowing, coinage, innovation or creation.
Scientific Texts
Literary Texts
- Logicality
- Precision
- Vagueness
- Reason
- Emotion
- Generalization
- Concretion
- Referential meaning
- Emotive meaning
- Denotation
- Connotation
- Lexical affixation
- Grammatical affixation
- Standard expressions
Table (1): Differences between Science and Literature According Al Hassnawi (2004)
135
A Texbook of Translation
Like some other disciplines, science has specialized terminology. It has its own jargon
and its own writing style. Jones (1965) presents the following ten stylistic characteristics
as a summary of good scientific writing:
1)
It presents facts. It deals with the application of scientific generalizations to specific situations.
2) It is accurate and truthful. It does not guess. It tells the whole truth.
3) It is disinterested. Its purpose is to inform, not to achieve selfish purposes or to persuade a reader. Facts alone do not make writing scientific.
4) It is systematic and logically developed.
5) It is not emotive. Its appeal is to reason and understand, not feel. When
it generalizes, it does so in accordance with the laws of inductive reasoning. It avoids high-level abstraction with emotional appeal.
6) It excludes unsupported opinions.
7) It is sincere. It tells the truth and avoids language that would make a
reader question its sincerity.
8) It is not argumentative. It reaches its general conclusions on the basis of
facts.
9) It is not directly persuasive. It is concerned with facts, with the general
laws that may be derived from the study of facts, and with the application of general laws to specific problems. If it persuades, it does so by
logical reasoning.
10) It does not exaggerate. Because it is disinterested, it does not distort facts.
It should be pointed out here that while the above differentiation between the language
of science and language of arts is extremely significant, in the end it all boils down to the
translators experience in this particular field. I believe experience with capacity to visualize
the scientific term, and invention and creativity along with the requirements of a scientific
translator are key elements to translation, particularly scientific translation. As Robinson
(2003) states that experience is everything. While experience is important, he flatly asserts
that some experiences are richer and more memorable than others (ibid 136).
136
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. The standard way of mopping oil spills starts by containing the slick, using large floating booms and then the salvage team uses skimming equipment to scoop up the oil.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
137
A Texbook of Translation
Text 1
Foot ulcers are a major problem for patients with diabetes and statistics indicate that at least 15% of such patients have suffered at one time or another from this
condition. Several factors place diabetic patients at high risk for ulceration of the foot.
These include foot deformities such as bunions, corns and calluses, peripheral neuropathy (damage to nerves supplying the feet), micro or macro angiopathy (damage to
blood vessels leading to decreased blood flow to the feet) and obesity leading to high
pressure on the foot. Other risk factors include poor glucose control, duration of diabetes over 10 years and smoking.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
138
Giant fuel tankers spewing oil into the sea are an all too familiar sight. When
an oil spill accident occurs within a marine environment, it usually leads to
serious environmental and economical impacts on the whole society. Oil spill
mitigation techniques are complex and evolving. In this research project, the
research team headed by Dr. Mamdouh Ghannam has investigated the possibility of developing a new technique based on the density difference between
crude oil and water as well as the energy of the injected air bubbles to move
the crude oil spill towards a recovery unit. The Unit has been designed and
built (see Graphic) by a team of female students, Nadia Saleh, Nada Naser and
Fatima Khaliefa, as part of their graduation project during the first semester
of the academic year 2002/2003.
Text 2
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
139
A Texbook of Translation
Scientific Terms
Definition
TL Equivalent
Acceleration
________________
Acquired mutations
________________
Adenine (A)
________________
Acupuncture
________________
Alleles
________________
Allopathy
________________
________________
Amino acid sequence The linear order of the amino acids in protein
or peptide.
________________
Alpha-fetoprotein
(AEP)
Amniocentesis
140
________________
Autosome
________________
Bates method
________________
Bone marrow
transplantation
________________
________________
CAM
________________
Carrier
________________
Catheter
________________
Chelation therapy
________________
Chiropractic
medicine
________________
Clone
________________
Cloning
________________
Codon
________________
Colonoscopy
________________
Consanguinity
Genetic relationship.
________________
Conserved sequence
A base sequence in a DNA molecule (or an amino acid sequence in a protein) that has remained
essentially unchanged throughout evolution.
________________
141
A Texbook of Translation
CT or CAT scan
________________
Current
________________
Diploid
________________
Distance
________________
DNA
________________
DNA hybridization
A technique for selectively binding specific segments of single-stranded (ss) DNA or RNA by
base pairing to complementary sequences on
ssDNA molecules that are trapped on a nitrocellulose filter.
________________
DNA probe
________________
Domain
________________
Double helix
The shape that two linear strands of DNA assume when bonded together.
________________
E. coli
Common bacterium that has been studied intensively by geneticists because of its small genome size, normal lack of pathogenicity, and
ease of growth in the laboratory.
________________
________________
Electrophoresis
142
Enzyme
________________
Erythrocytes
________________
Euchromatin
________________
Eugenics
________________
Eukaryote
Cell or organism with membrane-bound, structurally discrete nucleus and other well-developed subcellular compartments. Eukaryotes include all organisms except viruses, bacteria, and
blue-green algae.
________________
Exogenous DNA
________________
Exons
________________
Fecal occult blood test A test to check for hidden blood in stool. Fecal
(FEE-kul-o-KULT)
refers to stool. Occult means hidden.
FISH
________________
________________
________________
Flow karyotyping
Use of flow cytometry to analyze and/or separate chromosomes on the basis of their DNA
content.
________________
Gamete
________________
Flower essence
therapy
143
A Texbook of Translation
Gene
________________
Gene expression
The process by which a genes coded information is translated into the structures present and
operating in the cell (either proteins or RNAs).
________________
A chromosome map showing the relative positions of the known genes on the chromosomes
of a given species.
________________
Genome
________________
Genotype
________________
Golden Age of
Quackery
________________
Grahamism
________________
________________
________________
Haploid
Hereditary mutation
Heterogeneity
________________
________________
144
Heterozygosity
________________
Heterozygote
________________
Homeobox
A short stretch of nucleotides whose base sequence is virtually identical in all the genes that
contain it. It has been found in many organisms
from fruit flies to human beings. In the fruit fly,
a homeobox appears to determine when particular groups of genes are expressed during
development.
________________
Homologies
Similarities in DNA or protein sequences between individuals of the same species or among
different species.
________________
Homeopathy
________________
Homozygote
________________
Hormones
________________
Housekeeping genes
________________
HUGO
________________
Hybridization
________________
145
A Texbook of Translation
Imaging
________________
Immune system
The complex group of cells and organs that defends the body against infection and disease.
________________
In situ hybridization
Use of a DNA or RNA probe to detect the presence of the complementary DNA sequence in
cloned bacterial or cultured eukaryotic cells.
________________
In vitro
________________
Inborn errors of
metabolism
________________
Incomplete
penetrance
The gene for a condition is present, but not obviously expressed in all individuals in a family
with the gene.
________________
Informatics
________________
Interferon
(in-ter-FEER-on)
A type of biological response modifier (a substance that can improve the bodys natural response to disease). It slows the rate of growth
and division of cancer cells, causing them to become sluggish and die.
________________
Interleukin-2
(in-ter-LOO-kin)
A type of biological response modifier (a substance that can improve the bodys natural response to disease). It stimulates the growth of
certain disease-fighting blood cells in the immune system.
________________
Introns
The DNA base sequences interrupting the protein- coding sequences of a gene; these sequences are transcribed into RNA but are cut out of
the message before it is translated into protein.
________________
Iridology
________________
Journaling
________________
146
Karyotype
________________
Kilobase (kb)
________________
Kinetic energy
Notice that this energy of motion is proportional to the square of the speed. The unit of Joule
may also be expressed as kg(m/sec)(m/sec).
________________
Ligase
________________
Local treatment
________________
Localize
________________
The position on a chromosome of a gene or other chromosome marker; also, the DNA at that
position. The use of locus is sometimes restricted to mean regions of DNA that are expressed.
________________
Lod score
________________
Lymph (limf)
________________
Lymph nodes
________________
Macrorestriction map Map depicting the order of and distance between sites at which restriction enzymes cleave
chromosomes.
________________
Malignant
(ma-LIG-nant)
Cancerous.
________________
Mammogram
(MAM-o-gram)
________________
Mass
________________
Megabase (Mb)
________________
147
A Texbook of Translation
Meiosis
________________
Melanoma
________________
Metaphase
________________
Metastasis
(meh-TAS-ta-sis)
________________
Missense mutation
________________
Mitochondrial DNA
________________
Mitosis
The process of nuclear division in cells that produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell.
________________
Molecule
________________
Monoclonal
antibodies
________________
Moxa
________________
________________
Newborn screening
Examining blood samples from a newborn
(for genetic disorders) infant to detect disease-related abnormalities or deficiencies in gene products. There are
other purposes for, and methods of, screening
newborns.
________________
Mutation
148
Nitrogenous base
________________
Nucleic acid
________________
Nucleotide
________________
Oncogenes
________________
Oncologist
(on-KOL-o-jist)
Pap test
________________
Parthenogenesis
________________
Pedigree
________________
Pelvic
________________
Penetrance
________________
Phage
________________
Phenotype
________________
Plasmid
________________
149
________________
A Texbook of Translation
Pleiotropy
________________
Plum blossom
________________
________________
Polymerase
________________
Polymerase, DNA or
RNA
________________
Position
________________
Predisposition
________________
Primer
Nucleotides used in the polymerase chain reaction to initiate DNA synthesis at a particular
location.
________________
Proband
________________
Probe
Single-stranded DNA labeled with radioactive isotopes or tagged in other ways for ease in
identification.
________________
Promoter
________________
Polygenic disorders
150
Protein
________________
Purine
A nitrogen-containing, single-ring, basic compound that occurs in nucleic acids. The purines
in DNA and RNA are adenine and guanine.
________________
Pyrimidine
________________
Radionuclide
scanning
An exam that produces pictures (scans) of internal parts of the body. The patient is given an
injection or swallows a small amount of radioactive material. A machine called a scanner then
measures the radioactivity in certain organs.
________________
Recessive
A gene that is phenotypically manifest in the homozygous state but is masked in the presence of
a dominant allele.
________________
Recombination
________________
________________
________________
Reproductive cells
________________
Resolution
________________
Reiki
Remission
151
A Texbook of Translation
RNA
________________
________________
Sarcoma
________________
Screening
________________
Sequencing
________________
Shotgun method
________________
Side effects
________________
Sigmoidoscopy (sigmoy-DOS-ko-pee)
________________
Single-gene disorder
________________
Hybrid cell line derived from two different species; contains a complete chromosomal complement of one species and a partial chromosomal
complement of the other; human/hamster hybrids grow and divide, losing human chromosomes with each generation until they finally
stabilize, the hybrid cell line established is then
utilized to detect the presence of genes on the
remaining human chromosome.
________________
Sanger sequence
152
Southern blotting
________________
________________
Tandem repeat
sequences
________________
Tantra
________________
Telomere
________________
Transferase
________________
Translation
________________
Vector
________________
Velocity vector
________________
Voltage
________________
Syndrome
153
A Texbook of Translation
Western blotting
analysis
________________
Wholeness
________________
________________
Wilms tumor
154
CHAPTER 12
155
A Texbook of Translation
guage of law (i.e. philosophers of law) have to come up with their theory of understanding law and how it is used. The use of language, according to Wikipedia (2006a), is:
Crucial to any legal system, not only in the same way that is crucial to politics in
general, but in the specific respect that law makers typically use language to make
the law and courts typically use language to state their grounds of decisions.
While language has a huge impact on the interpretation of the law, it is sometimes littered with vagueness and ambiguity. Some philosophers of law believe that vagueness is a
must in legal language, and vagueness is an inescapable attribute of language (see Christie 1964: 886). Christie believes that the exploitation of vagueness in language reaches
maximum utilization when groups in control of the legislators and those in control of
the courts are antagonistic to each other. It seems that common people are excluded from
this language as if legal language was destined for only those who utilize the law. It is no
wonder that the layman has no capacity to interpret the legal language, and he resorts to
lawyers for legal language interpretation. The way legal language was vaguely construed
makes it hard for the ordinary man to understand. As Christie (1964: 889) states:
Vagueness has some uses in law which permits men, through the use of
language, to achieve more sophisticated methods of social control, for example, the use of vague language in legal directives to postpone ultimate
decision. Such postponement may be desired for a variety of reasons that
are often interconnected.
As for legal translation, it is understood here as the translation of binding documents
such as marriage or business contracts, birth certificates, agreements, etc. From a different angle, legal translation is the translation of texts within the field of law (Wikipedia
2006a). The word law comes from the late old English Lagu of probable Germanic origin. According to Wikipedia, law in politics or jurisprudence is a set of rules or norms of
conduct which mandate, prescribe or permit specified relationships among people and
organizations, intended to provide methods for ensuring the impartial treatment of such
people, and provide punishments of /for those who do not follow the established rules of
conduct. There are different kinds of law: legal law, civil law, religious law, customary law,
common law, etc. Also, within the body of law, there is private law, public law, procedural
law, international law, philosophical law, anthropology of law, history law, etc. For more
information on these types of law, see Wikipedia (2006a).
It is really too hard to appreciate what is involved in legal translation, unless one is familiar with legal language. However, like literary translation, many translation theorists and
practitioners believe that legal translation is hard to handle simply because its language is
156
embedded within its culture. De Leo (1999) believes that legal translation is littered with
a series of different obstacles that makes the translators job extremely difficult. CapellasEspuny (1999) rightly states that terminological problems are among the problems posed
by legal translation. Therefore, legal translators have to be professional translators. They
should also be aware of the two legal systems involved.
3.
Having classified legal texts into categories, one may realize that the problem of translating legal texts results from the lack of finding equivalent items in the target language. I wonder if words such as invoice, agreement, contract, white paper, back-up
documents, and scripts are all having one to one correspondence. Also, some legal
documents can also give rise to some translation problems. For example, words such as
draft, original, proof are all types of documents. Can any two languages involved in the
translation have exact equivalents?
157
A Texbook of Translation
158
2. Sense Translation:
There is still a controversy whether legal translation should be literal or free. As indicated
above, translating legal binding documents can be literal, but at other times they can be
translated with some form of freedom. The translation strategy used will depend on the
type of text. Free translation focuses on meaning or content whereas literal translation
focuses on form. From a practical perspective, methods and techniques of translating
legal binding texts vary from one institution to another. Weisflog (1987) cited by Sarcevic
(2002) asserts that authenticated translations must be comprehensible. Substance must
prevail over form. This is contradictory to what other legal translations have advocated
(see Didier 1990). Koutsivitis (1988) believes that legal texts must be translated freely, and
the sense of the word in legal texts has to be completely understood otherwise the translated text will be littered with ambiguity. Koutsivitis believes that the translators ultimate
task is to transfer the sense of the original. So what are the ways in which legal texts can
be translated? Altay (2002), in an article entitled Difficulties Encountered in the Translation of Legal Texts, suggests ways of translating concepts that do not exist in the target
language and culture as follows:
1. Paraphrase: This method is used to explain the SL concept that is alien or peculiar
to the target reader. Such peculiarity results from the fact that this concept has no
equivalent concept in the target culture.
2. Functional Equivalence: Here the legal translator uses the closest equivalent concept.
It happens that providing functional equivalents of a legal SL term becomes very difficult as the two legal systems have nothing in common.
3. Word-for-Word Translation: This method is sometimes exchangeable with literal
translation, although there is a slight difference between the two methods. Word-for
word translation involves translating a lexical item for a lexical item in the target language. The translator may make some linguistic adjustments to the text when needed.
Adjustments include prepositions, endings, grammatical features, etc.
Regardless of what method or strategy legal translators use in translating legal documents,
I believe it all boils down to the kinds of texts and the constraints surrounding its production. In some parts of the world, legal texts have been adopted from other western countries (Syria, Lebanon and France are a case in point). Within these countries, translators
may find the same legal terminology unless there is a legal institution that does not exist
in one country or another. In this case, translators have to extract terminology relevant to
the target culture. Capellas-Espuny (1999) maintains that the translation of certain technical terms is impossible because institutions and legal systems in one country may differ
from those in another country due to social, cultural and historical differences. In such
159
A Texbook of Translation
cases, functional equivalence is the ideal translation for such technical terms. According
to Wikipedia (2006a), when translating a legal text, translators have to keep in mind that
the legal system of the source language is structured in a way that suits the culture, and
this is reflected in the legal language. Therefore, the target text is to be read by someone
who is familiar with the legal systems of the two languages involved.
160
Legal Terms
Definition
TL Equivalent
Accused
The person charged. The person who has allegedly committed the offence.
________________
Acknowledgement of
Service
________________
Acquittal
________________
Act
________________
Adjudication
________________
Administration Order An order by a County Court directing a debtor to pay a specified monthly installment into
Court in respect of outstanding debts. The Court
retains the payments made and at intervals distributes it between the creditors on a pro-rata
basis.
Adoption
________________
________________
Voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and another person who is not the
spouse, while the marriage is still valid. This is
common fact relied on for divorce.
________________
Advocate
________________
Affidavit
________________
Affirmation
________________
An alternative method by which parties can resolve their dispute could be arbitration.
________________
Adultery
Alternative Dispute
Resolution
161
A Texbook of Translation
Ancillary Relief
Additional claims (e.g. in respect of maintenance) attached to the petition for divorce/judicial separation/nullity.
________________
Annul
________________
Appeal
Application to a higher court or authority for review of a decision by a lower court or authority.
________________
Appellant
________________
Appellate Court
________________
Applicant
Person making the request or demand (e.g. person who issues an application).
________________
Application
________________
Appraisement or
Appraisal
________________
Attachment of
Earnings
________________
Award
________________
Bail
________________
Bailiff
________________
Bankrupt
________________
Barrister
________________
Bench Warrant
________________
162
Brief
________________
Case Conference
________________
Case number
________________
Caution
________________
Caveat
________________
Certificate of Legal
Aid Costs
________________
Cessate
________________
Chambers
________________
Charge
________________
Charging Order
________________
Circuit Court
________________
Circuit Judge
________________
Civil
Matters concerning private rights and not offences against the state.
________________
163
A Texbook of Translation
Civil Justice
________________
Claim
________________
Claimant
________________
Claim form
________________
Codicil
________________
Commissioner of
Oaths
________________
Committal
________________
Common Law
________________
Compensation
________________
Concurrent Sentence A direction by a Court that a number of sentences of imprisonment should run at the same
time.
________________
Concurrent Writ
________________
Conditional
Discharge
________________
Conduct Money
Money paid to a witness in advance of the hearing of a case as compensation for time spent attending court.
________________
164
Consecutive Sentence An order for a subsequent sentence of imprisonment to commence as soon as a previous
sentence expires. Can apply to more than two
sentences.
________________
Contempt of Court
________________
Contributory
________________
Co-respondent
________________
Corroboration
Evidence by one person confirming that of another or supporting evidence, for example forensic evidence (bloodstain, fibers, etc.) in murder cases.
________________
Counsel
A Barrister.
________________
Count
________________
Counterclaim
________________
________________
Court
________________
Court of Appeal
________________
________________
County Court
Court of First
Instance
165
A Texbook of Translation
Court of Limited
Jurisdiction
________________
Court of Protection
________________
Court Room
________________
Covenant
________________
Creditor
________________
Criminal
________________
Crown Court
The Crown Court deals with all the crime committed for trial by Magistrates Courts. Cases
for trial are heard before a judge and jury. The
Crown Court also acts as an appeal Court for
cases heard and dealt with by the Magistrates.
The Crown Court can also deal with some civil
and family matters.
________________
Damages
________________
Debtor
________________
Decree
________________
Decree Absolute
________________
Decree Nisi
________________
Declaration
________________
Deed
________________
Default Judgment
Obtained by the claimant as a result of the failure of a defendant to comply with the requirements of a claim (i.e. reply or pay within a 14
day period after service of the claim).
________________
166
Defendant
________________
Deponent
________________
Deposition
________________
Designated Civil
Judge
________________
Detailed Assessment
________________
Determination
________________
Devi
________________
Disability
________________
Discovery of
Documents
________________
Discontinuance
________________
Dismissal
________________
District Judge
________________
________________
________________
Divisional Court
Divorce
167
A Texbook of Translation
Dock
________________
Enforcement
Method of pursuing a civil action after judgment has been made in favor of a party.
________________
Estate
________________
Execution
________________
Executor
________________
Exempt
________________
Exhibit
________________
Expert Witness
________________
Federal Courts
The court system which handles civil and criminal cases based on jurisdictions enumerated in
the Constitution and Federal statutes.
________________
Fee
________________
Fiat
A decree of command.
________________
Garnishee
________________
Guarantor
________________
A person appointed to safeguard/protect/manage the interests of a child or person under mental disability.
________________
Guardian
168
High Court
________________
Indictable Offence
________________
Injunction
________________
Insolvency
________________
Inspection of
Documents
________________
Interlocutory
Interim, pending a full order/decision, e.g. interlocutory judgment awarded an entered as final judgment.
________________
Intestate
________________
Issue
________________
Judge
________________
Judgment
________________
Judicial/Judiciary
________________
169
A Texbook of Translation
Jurat
________________
Juror
________________
Jury
________________
A lay magistrate person appointed to administer judicial business in a Magistrates Court. Also
sits in the Crown Court with a judge or recorder
to hear appeals and committals for sentence.
________________
Jurisdiction
The area and matters over which a court has legal authority.
________________
Juvenile
________________
Law
________________
Lease
________________
Legal Personal
Representative
________________
Legatee
________________
Levy
________________
Libel
________________
Licence
________________
Lien
________________
170
Listing
This form is used to ensure that all issues are resolved and that the parties are ready for trial.
________________
Litigation
Legal proceedings.
________________
Lord Chancellor
________________
________________
Lord Justice of Appeal Title given to certain judges sitting in the Court
of Appeal.
________________
Magistrates Court
A court where criminal proceedings are commenced before justices of the peace who examine the evidence/statement and either deal with
the case themselves or commit to the Crown
Court for trial or sentence.
________________
________________
Matter
________________
Minor
________________
Mitigation
________________
Mortgage
A loan of money advanced to purchase property. The transfer of the property is withheld as
security for payment.
________________
Mortgagor
________________
Mortgagee
________________
Motion
________________
Non-Molestation
________________
171
A Texbook of Translation
Non-Suit
Proceedings where the plaintiff has failed to establish to the Courts satisfaction that there is a
case for the defendant to answer.
________________
Notary Public
________________
Notice of Issue
________________
________________
Oath
________________
Official Solicitor
________________
Oral Examination
________________
Order
A direction by a Court.
________________
Originating
Application
________________
Ouster
________________
Particulars
________________
Party
________________
Penal Notice
Directions attached to an order of a Court stating the penalty for disobedience may result in
imprisonment.
________________
Nullity
172
Petition
________________
Petitioner
________________
Plaintiff
See claimant.
________________
Plaint Note
________________
Plaint Number
________________
Plea
________________
Pleading
________________
Possession
Proceedings
________________
Power of Arrest
________________
President of the Fam- Senior judge and head of the Family Division of
ily Division
the High Court of Justice.
________________
Pre-trial Review
A preliminary appointment at which the District Judge consider the issues before the
Court and fixes the timetable for the trial.
________________
Probate
________________
Probate Court
________________
Prosecution
________________
Prosecutor
________________
173
A Texbook of Translation
Public Trustee
________________
Putative Father
________________
Quash
________________
Quantum
________________
Queens Council
Barristers of at least ten years standing may apply to become queens counsel. Queens Councils undertake work of an important nature and
are referred to as silks which is derived from
the Courts gown that is worn. Will be known as
Kings counsel if a king assumes the throne.
________________
Receiver
________________
Recognisance
________________
________________
Redetermination
________________
Remand
To order an accused person to be kept in custody or placed on bail pending further court
appearance
________________
Recorder
174
Respondent
________________
Right of Audience
________________
Service
________________
Sheriff
________________
Silk
________________
Slander
________________
________________
Member of the legal profession chiefly concerned with advising clients and preparing their
cases and representing them in some courts.
May also act as advocates before certain Courts
or tribunals.
________________
Specified Claim
________________
Squatter
________________
Statement
________________
Stay of Execution
________________
Stipendiary
Magistrate
Subpoena
________________
Suit
________________
Solicitor
175
________________
A Texbook of Translation
Suitor
________________
Summary Judgment
________________
Summary Offence
________________
Summing-up
________________
Summons
________________
Summons (Jury)
________________
Summons (Witness)
________________
Superior Court
________________
Supreme Court
________________
Supreme Court of
Judicature
________________
Surety
________________
Surrogate Court
________________
Suspended Sentence
________________
Territorial Courts
A court in an administrative territory of the United States that has local and federal jurisdiction.
________________
Testor
________________
176
Tipstaff
________________
Tort
________________
Trial Window
________________
Tribunal
________________
Trust
Property legally entrusted to a person with instructions to use it for another person.
________________
Trustee
________________
Verdict
________________
Vice Chancellor
________________
Walking Possession
________________
________________
Ward of Court
177
A Texbook of Translation
Warrant of
Committal
________________
________________
________________
________________
Warrant of Delivery
Warrant of
Restitution
________________
Will
________________
Winding Up
The voluntary or compulsory closure of a company and the subsequent realization of assets
and payment to creditors.
________________
Witness
________________
Writ of Summons
________________
178
Text 1
179
A Texbook of Translation
_____________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
180
*Articles of Partnership
The said parties hereby agree to become copartners, under the firm name of
.., and as such partners to carry on together the business of buying and selling all sorts of dry goods, at .. street, in the city of
.....
Text 2
-_____________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
* Passage adopted from New Websters Law for Everyone by Hugo Sonnenschein (1982).
181
Bibliography
Adams, Willi Paul and David Thelen (1999). Interpreting the Declaration of Independence by
Translation: A round Table. In The Journal of American History. Bloomington, Indiana: Organization of American Historians.
Al Hassnawi, Ali (2004, March) Aspects of Scientific Translation: English into Arabic Translation
as a Case Study. Available at <http://www.translationdirectory.com/article10.htm>.
Altay, Ayfer (2002). Difficulties Encountered in the Translation of Legal Texts: The Case of Turkey. Translation Journal, Vol. 6, No. 4. Available at <http://www.accurapid.com/journal/
22legal.htm>.
AllRefer.com (2003). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Columbia University Press. Licensed
from Columbia University Press.
Antaki, Charles (1994). Explaining and Arguing: the Social Organization of Accounts. London:
Sage.
Austin, J. (1962). How to Do things with Words. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University.
Baker, M. (1994). In Other Words: A course book on translation. London/New York: Routledge. vii
+ 304 pp.
Bakhtin, Michael M. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination. Four Essays in M. Holcust (ed), trans.
Carly Emerson and M. Holcust, Austin: University of Texas Press.
Barhoudarov, L. S. (1983). The Role of Translation as a Means in Developing Oral and Written
Speech Habits in the Senior Years of Instruction at a Language-Teaching College. In Translation in Foreign Language Teaching. Paris: Round Table FIT-UNESCO, pp. 13-17.
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translating and Translation: Theory and Practice. London & New York:
Longman.
Bennani, Ben (1981). Translating Arabic Poetry: an Interpretive, Intertextual Approach. In
Translating Spectrum, edited by Marilyn G. Rose. Albany: State University of New York
Press, 135-39.
183
A Texbook of Translation
Bialystok, E. and M. Frolich (1980). Oral Communication Strategies for Lexical Difficulties. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin, 5, No. 1, pp. 3-30.
Bolinger, D.L., and D. A. Sears (1981). Aspects of Language. 3rd ed. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
Brooks, Cleanth and Warren, Robert Penn (1952). Fundamentals of Good Writing. London: Dennis Dobson.
Brooks, Cleanth and Warren, Robert Penn (1970). Modern Rhetoric. New York: Harcourt, Brace
& World.
Burton, Richard (Translator) (1997). Arabian Nights . London: Penguin Popular Classics, pp. 312.
Capellas-Espuny, Gemma (1999). The Problem of Terminological Equivalence in International
Maritime Law. In Translation Journal, Vo. 3, No. 3. Available at <http://accurapid.com/
journal/09legal1.htm>.
Cary, Joyce (1984). The Breakout. In, R. Hindmarsh (ed.) Liar! Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Catford, J. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Oxford University Press.
Chriss, R. (2000). Translation as a Profession. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from <http://home.
comcast.net/>.
Christie, George C. (1964). Vagueness and Legal Language. In Minnesota Law Review, Vol. 48,
885 pp.
Crombie, Margaret (2004). Dyslexia and Foreign Language Learning. New York: Routledge Taylor
& Francis Group.
Crystal D. (1986). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 240 pp.
De Beaugrande, Robert (1978). Factors in a Theory of Poetic Translation. Assen: Van Gorcum, 186 pp.
De Beaugrande, Robert (1980). Text, Discourse, and Process: Toward a Multi-disciplinary Science of
Texts. London: Longman.
De Beaugrande, Robert and W. Dressler (1981). Introduction to Text Linguistics. London: Longman. viii + 270 pp.
De Leo, Davide (1999). Pitfalls in Legal Translation. Translation Journal, Vol. 3, No. 2. Available
at <http://www.accurapid.com/journal/08legal.htm>.
Delisle, Jean (1981). Lanalyse du discourse comme methode d traduction. Ottawa: Attawa University
Press, pp. 76 -77.
Delisle, Jean and Judith Woodsworth (1996). Introduction. In Translators through History. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing Company, 346 pp.
Diaz-Diocaretz, Myriam. (1985). Translating Poetic Discourse. Amsterdam /Philadelphia: John
Benjamins Publishing Company, vii + 167 pp.
Di Pietro, R. (1971) Language Structures in Contrast. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.
Didier, Emmanual (1990). Langues et langages du droit, Montreal: Wilson & Lafleur.
Dummett, Michael (1993). Frege-Philosophy of Language. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press.
184
Bibliography
185
A Texbook of Translation
Gumperz, John and Gumperz, Jenny Cook (1981). Ethnic Differences in Communicative Style.
In, C. Ferguson et al (eds.) Language in the USA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
pp. 431-445.
Gutknecht, Christoph and Lutz J. Rolle (1996). Translating by Factors. New York: SUNY Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1970). Language Structure and Language Function. In, John Lyons (ed.) New
Horizons in Linguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Exploration in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. vi
+ 387 pp.
Harris, B. and B. Sherwood. (1978). Translation as an Innate Skill. In , D. Gerver and H.W. Sinaiko
(eds.) Language Interpretation and Communication. New York: Plenum press, pp. 155-170.
Hatim, B. (1983). Discourse context and text-type: contributions from Arabic linguists. Paper read
at BAAL conference on discourse, Hatfield.
Hatim, B. (1984). A text-typological approach to syllabus design in translator training. The Incorporated Linguist, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 146-149.
Hatim, B. (1987). Text linguistic models for the analysis of discourse errors. In J. Mohaghan (ed.),
Grammar in the Construction of Texts. London: F. Pinter.
Hatim, B and I. Mason (1990). Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman.
Hawkes, T. (1986). Structrualism and Semiotics. London: Methuem. 192 pp.
Her Majestys Court Service, UK (2005). Available at: http://info.babylon.com/gl_index/gl_template.php?id=51085.
HIebec, B. (1985). Factors and steps in translation. Babel 35, 3, pp. 129-141.
Hymes, Dell (editor). (1964). Language in Culture and Society. New York: Harper and Row.
Ilyas, A. (1989). Theories of Translation: Theoretical Issues and Practical Implications. Mosul: University of Mosul.
Izzy, C. (2005). Idioms as the transliteration of foreign words/phrases. English Language Forum
(ESL). Available at: <http:// www.usingenglish.com/forum/archive/f-8-p-133.html>.
Jakobson, R. (1959). On Linguistic Aspects of Translation. In, R.A. Brower (ed.) On Translation.
Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Jakobson, R. (1960). Linguistics and Poetics. In, T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Style in Language. Cambridge,
Mass: M.I.T. Press, pp. 348-365.
Jakobson, R. (1971). Language in relation to other communication systems. Selected Writings,
Vol. II, pp. 697-708.
Jakobson, R. (1985). Selected Writings, Vol. 7. Gruyter.
James, C. (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman.
John, G.C. (1988). Towards text-typology. In Alan Turney (ed.), Applied Text Linguistics. Six contributions from Exeter. University of Exeter: Exeter Linguistic Studies.
Jones, Paul W. (1965). Writing Scientific Papers and Reports (5th edition). Dubuque, IA: William C.
Brown Publishers.
186
Bibliography
187
A Texbook of Translation
188
Bibliography
Odlin, T. (2001). Language Transfer: Cross Linguistic Influence in Language learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Ogden, C.K., and I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning. London: Kegan Paul, Tranch,
Trubner & Co., Ltd.
Panoulle, C. (1993). Creativity in Non-Literary Translation. Perspective: Studies in Translatology, (1).
Quine, Willard van Orman (1992). Word and Object. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Quirk, R. (et al) (1985). A University Grammar of English. London: Longman. vi + 484 pp.
Robinson, Douglas (2003). Becoming a Translator: An Accelerated Course (An Introduction to the
Theory and practice of Translation). Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Rabin, C. (1958). The Linguistics of Translation. In Andrew Donald Booth (ed.), Aspects of Translation. London: Secker and Warburg, pp. 123-145.
Research Affairs (2003). United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, Volume 5, Issue 2, pp. 10 and 16.
Ross, Stephen David (1981). Translation & Similarity. In, M.G. Rose (ed.). Translation Spectrum.
SUNY University Press, pp. 8-14.
Rubrecht, Brian (2005). Knowing Before Learning: Ten Concepts Students Should Understand
Prior to Enrolling in a University Translation or Interpretation Class. Available at EServer
TC Library <http://tc.eserver.org/25820.html>
Saeed, John I. (1997). Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sager, J.C. (1988). Language Engineering and Translation: Consequence of Automation. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 451-462.
Sapir, Edward (1921). Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
Sapir, Edward (1951). Culture, Language and Personality: Selected Essays. University of California
Press, pp. 65-77.
Sapir, Edward (1956). Culture, Language and Personality. Berkely: University of California Press.
arevi, Susan (2002). Legal Translation and Translation Theory: a Receiver-Oriented Approach.
Available at <http://www.tradulex.org/Actes2000/sarcevic.pdf>.
Savory, Theodore. (1957). The Art of Translation. London: Jonathan Cape, pp. 191.
Seal, B. (1979). Writing Efficently. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Shakespeare, Willam. Sonnet 130. Available at <http://www.academicdb.com/william_shakespeare__sonnet_4659>.
Shaobin, Ji (2002). English as a Global Language in China. The Weekly Column, Article 99, May.
Available at < http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/May 2002/art992992.htm.>
Shiyab, S. (1990). The Structure of Argumentation in Arabic: Editorials as a Case Study. Ph.D. thesis,
Heriot-Watt University, U.K. i + 474 pp.
Shiyab, S. (1994). Translation of texts and their contexts. BABEL, Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 232-238.
Shiyab, S. (1996). Lexical cohesion with reference to the identity chain. IRAL, XXXV/3 (August).
Heidelberg: Julius Groos Verlag.
Skowronski, W. (1982). Translation as a Technique of Teaching the Productive Skills to Advanced
Learners of English as a Foreign Language. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Poznan University, Poland.
189
A Texbook of Translation
190
Bibliography
191