Role of Women in Philippine Society Filipino Women

and Feminism
By: G. Fitzsimmons

Published: July 8, 2008

In a culture where machismo is alive and well and where sexism is often validated by social norms and
tradition, Filipino women are nevertheless said to be the most empowered and the most politicized
members of their gender in Asia. This is perhaps due in part to their longer history of activism (Filipino
historians cite the founding of "Asociacion Feminista Filipina" in 1905 as the birth of feminism in the
Philippines) or simply to a culture that many say is "overtly patriarchal but covertly matriarchal".
The Philippines is a country of sharp contrasts and paradoxes. And the role of women in Philippine
society is one area where this depiction is most palpable. While it can be said that Filipino women have
gained more leverage than their other Asian sisters in elevating their status in society, their fight
against oppression and exploitation is far from won. They may have come a long way but they still
have far to go.
The Filipino women's first steps toward more visibility in society were powered by their vital role in the
family. The country's pioneer feminists recognized that as wives and mothers in a culture that
inherently respected women in these roles, they had a solid place from which to approach the task.
And they concluded that they had to be better educated in order to better educate the society about
their issues and concerns. Education would give them a voice that was not only louder but also a lot
clearer. As Sister Mary John Mananzan, the famous Filipino feminist nun, said in "Challenge to the
Inner Room: Selected Essays and Speeches on Women": "For good or ill, the women, especially in the
Philippines, almost have a monopoly in educating the nation's citizenry from birth to maturity. The
task of education in the family is almost exclusively the mother's responsibility. Statistics show that
there are by far more women than men teachers in the Philippine educational system. It is therefore
imperative that enlightened education entail re-evaluation of.... society's expectations of male and
female roles." Indeed, much of the progress in empowering Filipino women can be attributed to
mothers creating a home environment where their sons and daughters regard themselves as equals
and where girls and boys are subjected to the same value system and standards of behavior.
Education is definitely one of the areas where Filipino women have taken the greatest strides.
According to statistics, women have a higher literacy rate than men and more women than men reach
and complete college education. This has resulted in more and more women professionals in both the
public and private sectors. These data, however, have yet to translate into real equality in the
workplace. Men still far outnumber women in top-level executive positions. Cultural bias and gender
stereotyping are still formidable barriers.
Filipino women have worked hard to carve their rightful niche in society. Forwarding their cause has
not been easy but progress has definitely been made. Today, the road may remain full of obstacles but
it is still being taken. The words may be continually drowned but they are still being spoken. The
voices may be silenced time and again but they are still being raised. In the big picture, that is a very
good thing.

GENDER ROLES WITHIN THE PHILIPPINES

By Joy Heinrich, University of Southern Mississippi
Did you know that the Philippines are split into three different regions? The three regions are called
Luzon, Visaya, and Mindanao. These words that the average person can barely pronounce are found
in Southeast Asia. The government is run by a president. In the history of the fourteen presidents, two
have been women in which currently there is one in office. Corazon Cojuanco-Aquino was the first
woman president to take office in 1986. Her husband was Senator Benigno Aquino in which he as
assassinated years earlier after running for office against Ferdinand Marcos who was then the current
president. Two years later, Senator Benigno Aquino, Marcoss rival in the political arena, broke his selfimposed exile in the United States and returned to the Philippines. After his plane landed at the Manila
International Airport, Aquino, escorted by military men, was shot to death as he descended the stairs
of the plane (Astorga pg 570). This was a huge milestone in the Philippines because there were
protests and to have a woman run for president, people did not know what to think. Interviewing my
friend Donald Rico, who was born and lived in the Philippines until he was fifteen years old, talked
about this story briefly and how it was a big deal a couple of years before he was born. Rico talked
about gender differences and how the Philippines are a males world.
Gender roles in the Philippines are found in many different places; for instance, school systems, dating,
marriage, and especially their families. There are several different elements that play a role in
categorizing men and women into certain statuses among their gender roles. When Filipinos are born
they automatically are expected to assume a specific role. They are defined by their sex and then
assume that gender role. Gender differences play a key part on what they are suppose to do as an
individual of that sex and what they are not supposed to do. In a matter of speaking each gender has a
set of social norms they follow. Males in retrospect get more respect because females take after their
mothers and elder women to take less dominating roles, thus being more feminine in the jobs they
choose to hold. The women are not always what we call frilly or girly, because they may be tom boys
but they still have that less dominating role in their societie. Men on the other hand are categorized
into the more dominating roles in society. Men are brought up to take after their fathers or the elder
man in their life. They are defined as being more confident, accomplished, and well rounded
individuals.
Currently, school systems are strict on students, especially males. Rico mentions the reality of how
school systems are, compared to his experience here in the United States. He briefly stated how
Filipino schools make their students look presentable, Males must have short hair and females must
wear skirts down to their shins. Dressing inappropriately is not tolerated. The most interesting fact is
how males and females go to the same location for school but they divide males and females into two
separate parts of the school. Also for prom, the school assigns the date: for example, the school would
line up the students from shortest to tallest and that person opposite is the date. Attending a college
or university for the average person is highly unlikely because there is no financial aid available so only
the wealthy go and receives the higher education. In all, education is very important to Filipinos and is
stressed by their parents to have the best education possible to succeed to the top.
Dating in particular, is a crucial time for both families to get to know each other. Its typical that the
children do not date until they are eighteen because once again, education is the main priority in their
lives until age eighteen. Usually the girls parents meet the guy in a meeting first before going out. The
male of course pays for the date and Rico even said that on a friendship level, the male pays for the
females. Rico wondered why he was always broke! Females on a date must never wear a skirt or shorts
that are above the knee cap. Males really like their females to look presentable and classy.
Next, getting married is something that most people would like to experience in their lifetime in not
only western countries but in the Philippines as well. The economic status determines the size of the
wedding and the more money spent on the wedding, the better it looks toward the family. The males

family pays for the cost of the entire wedding. What does a male not pay for? Barong Tagalog is what
the male wears to the ceremony and the female wears the classic white dress. Before marriage, the
Filipino woman is considered special, such that the dowry, which in European societies ordinarily refer
to the brides parents giving presents to the groom, is just the opposite in this case. Dowry in the
Philippines means a gift of the grooms family to the bride (Fulgado pg 2 ). Rico said Once the family
is married, they ride around town to let everybody know they are married now. From his personal
experience, he has seen his share of married couples ride around town.
Above all, family is the most important aspect of a lot of peoples life. Males and females have their
roles of handling work and family life. Males are out working and making money for their family and
highly insist their spouse taking any job. It is the male figure who takes care of the family and if he
cannot provide, he is not doing his job. Females are required to stay at home and do the chores like
cook and clean. The only time females have a job is when they work out in the rice fields or if they own
a restaurant.
Another consideration to a family is the driving responsibilities. Males are the drivers and hardly will a
female be out on the road according to Rico. When a family or a male owns a car, they are considered
to be somewhat wealthy. Like many countries besides the United States, people take public
transportation because its easier and cheaper to get around. Grandparents are to live with a son or
daughter and their family because the elderly should not live by themselves especially if they have lost
their spouse. Children being obedient to their parents, is a key success in parents raising their
children. Rico stressed to me that his parents were strict and they still are to this day especially being
in college because its to further his education.
Overall, the Filipino culture is unique to learn about, especially gender roles. Gender differences are a
key part of the Philippines today. Such as males being the dominate figure and women having a lower
rank. Specific types of gender roles can be found in school systems, dating, marriage, and especially in
the families. Males are considered free and females are kind of like slaves. The men have supreme
dominance in the house hold. Even if the man was to lose his job the wife would not hold a job;
because she would be taking away the husbands dominance in the house hold. The women have roles
for cooking and cleaning instead of working superior jobs like in a business as a dominant figure.
When looking at why Filipinos like to go abroad you come to the conclusion, its because of education,
and getting paid more money, especially for females. A domestic female worker was living in the
United States from the Philippines and described why the Philippines were nice, but the United States
is better for money. Life is hard in the Philippines. You do not earn enough. [There], your work load is
light, but you do not have any money. Here you make your money, but your body is exhausted.
(Parrenas pg. 151). Females living outside of the Philippines do better than being in the country so
moving away is the best way to gain status and succeed in life.
GENDER ROLES WITHIN THE PHILIPPINES
By Joy Heinrich, University of Southern Mississippi
Did you know that the Philippines are split into three different regions? The three regions are called
Luzon, Visaya, and Mindanao. These words that the average person can barely pronounce are found
in Southeast Asia. The government is run by a president. In the history of the fourteen presidents, two
have been women in which currently there is one in office. Corazon Cojuanco-Aquino was the first
woman president to take office in 1986. Her husband was Senator Benigno Aquino in which he as
assassinated years earlier after running for office against Ferdinand Marcos who was then the current
president. Two years later, Senator Benigno Aquino, Marcoss rival in the political arena, broke his selfimposed exile in the United States and returned to the Philippines. After his plane landed at the Manila
International Airport, Aquino, escorted by military men, was shot to death as he descended the stairs
of the plane (Astorga pg 570). This was a huge milestone in the Philippines because there were
protests and to have a woman run for president, people did not know what to think. Interviewing my

friend Donald Rico, who was born and lived in the Philippines until he was fifteen years old, talked
about this story briefly and how it was a big deal a couple of years before he was born. Rico talked
about gender differences and how the Philippines are a males world.
Gender roles in the Philippines are found in many different places; for instance, school systems, dating,
marriage, and especially their families. There are several different elements that play a role in
categorizing men and women into certain statuses among their gender roles. When Filipinos are born
they automatically are expected to assume a specific role. They are defined by their sex and then
assume that gender role. Gender differences play a key part on what they are suppose to do as an
individual of that sex and what they are not supposed to do. In a matter of speaking each gender has a
set of social norms they follow. Males in retrospect get more respect because females take after their
mothers and elder women to take less dominating roles, thus being more feminine in the jobs they
choose to hold. The women are not always what we call frilly or girly, because they may be tom boys
but they still have that less dominating role in their societie. Men on the other hand are categorized
into the more dominating roles in society. Men are brought up to take after their fathers or the elder
man in their life. They are defined as being more confident, accomplished, and well rounded
individuals.
Currently, school systems are strict on students, especially males. Rico mentions the reality of how
school systems are, compared to his experience here in the United States. He briefly stated how
Filipino schools make their students look presentable, Males must have short hair and females must
wear skirts down to their shins. Dressing inappropriately is not tolerated. The most interesting fact is
how males and females go to the same location for school but they divide males and females into two
separate parts of the school. Also for prom, the school assigns the date: for example, the school would
line up the students from shortest to tallest and that person opposite is the date. Attending a college
or university for the average person is highly unlikely because there is no financial aid available so only
the wealthy go and receives the higher education. In all, education is very important to Filipinos and is
stressed by their parents to have the best education possible to succeed to the top.
Dating in particular, is a crucial time for both families to get to know each other. Its typical that the
children do not date until they are eighteen because once again, education is the main priority in their
lives until age eighteen. Usually the girls parents meet the guy in a meeting first before going out. The
male of course pays for the date and Rico even said that on a friendship level, the male pays for the
females. Rico wondered why he was always broke! Females on a date must never wear a skirt or shorts
that are above the knee cap. Males really like their females to look presentable and classy.
Next, getting married is something that most people would like to experience in their lifetime in not
only western countries but in the Philippines as well. The economic status determines the size of the
wedding and the more money spent on the wedding, the better it looks toward the family. The males
family pays for the cost of the entire wedding. What does a male not pay for? Barong Tagalog is what
the male wears to the ceremony and the female wears the classic white dress. Before marriage, the
Filipino woman is considered special, such that the dowry, which in European societies ordinarily refer
to the brides parents giving presents to the groom, is just the opposite in this case. Dowry in the
Philippines means a gift of the grooms family to the bride (Fulgado pg 2 ). Rico said Once the family
is married, they ride around town to let everybody know they are married now. From his personal
experience, he has seen his share of married couples ride around town.
Above all, family is the most important aspect of a lot of peoples life. Males and females have their
roles of handling work and family life. Males are out working and making money for their family and
highly insist their spouse taking any job. It is the male figure who takes care of the family and if he
cannot provide, he is not doing his job. Females are required to stay at home and do the chores like
cook and clean. The only time females have a job is when they work out in the rice fields or if they own
a restaurant.

Another consideration to a family is the driving responsibilities. Males are the drivers and hardly will a
female be out on the road according to Rico. When a family or a male owns a car, they are considered
to be somewhat wealthy. Like many countries besides the United States, people take public
transportation because its easier and cheaper to get around. Grandparents are to live with a son or
daughter and their family because the elderly should not live by themselves especially if they have lost
their spouse. Children being obedient to their parents, is a key success in parents raising their
children. Rico stressed to me that his parents were strict and they still are to this day especially being
in college because its to further his education.
Overall, the Filipino culture is unique to learn about, especially gender roles. Gender differences are a
key part of the Philippines today. Such as males being the dominate figure and women having a lower
rank. Specific types of gender roles can be found in school systems, dating, marriage, and especially in
the families. Males are considered free and females are kind of like slaves. The men have supreme
dominance in the house hold. Even if the man was to lose his job the wife would not hold a job;
because she would be taking away the husbands dominance in the house hold. The women have roles
for cooking and cleaning instead of working superior jobs like in a business as a dominant figure.
When looking at why Filipinos like to go abroad you come to the conclusion, its because of education,
and getting paid more money, especially for females. A domestic female worker was living in the
United States from the Philippines and described why the Philippines were nice, but the United States
is better for money. Life is hard in the Philippines. You do not earn enough. [There], your work load is
light, but you do not have any money. Here you make your money, but your body is exhausted.
(Parrenas pg. 151). Females living outside of the Philippines do better than being in the country so
moving away is the best way to gain status and succeed in life.

Sex Education: Defining Gender Roles During the Sexual

Revolution and Today
Posted on May 2, 2012 by Ashley Ardinger

When discussing sex education in the United States, there are a number of reasons as to
why it is a controversial subject taught in schools. Differences in religion, questions of
age appropriateness, and varying opinions in regards to whether co-ed or single sex
education is more effective, all plague the integration of successful sex education
programs into schools across the nation. Sexual boundaries in the 1950s in the United
States were very clearly defined: there was no pre-marital sex, and the path to marriage
began with friendship, moved to courtship and going steady, and ended with a
heterosexual marriage and children. These societal understandings influenced the types
of sex education taught in schools beginning in the elementary years. Activities and
lessons taught students that men were breadwinners, broadly meaning that men had the
job that supported themselves and their families, were in charge of finances within the
family, had their main responsibilities outside of the home. The same lessons taught
students that women were homemakers: women were expected to keep a clean home
for their husbands, supported their husbands, and gave birth and raised their children

to grow up and accept these same gender roles. My research asks the following
questions: how were male and female gender roles portrayed in U.S. sex education
materials before the sexual revolution in the 1950s, and during the sexual revolution of
the 1960s. Also, how do the gender roles presented in 1960s materials differ from those
presented in sex education materials today?
I argue that although one would expect sex education materials during the sexual
revolution in the 60s to have changed due to a societys changing acceptance of
appropriate gender roles, in reality, they looked very similar to, if not unchanged, from
sex education materials in the 50s. When looking at sex education from the 60s to
today, however, there are dramatic changes regarding redefining gender roles within
society. More specifically, sex education curricula that are widely used throughout the
nation, such as the SexEd Library 1 , and many others, include full lesson plans to
discuss with students the current gender roles within society and how to confront
situations where one feels uncomfortable in the role that they are placed in.
The 1950s represent a time where people were expected to live their lives within the
confines of acceptable social behavior, which embodied a moral, heterosexual way of
life. The definition of sex education in the 1950s and 1960s remained the same
according to H. Frederick Kilanders book Sex Education in the Schools. It was defined
as:
[including] all educational measures which in any way may help young people prepare
to meet the problems of life that have their center in the sex instinct and inevitably come
in some form into the experience of every normal human being. 2
Despite changing beliefs of what a normal human being experience was in the
transition from the 1950s to the 1960s, this definition remained a standard for sex
education courses. The 1950s sex education materials depicted an image of
stereotypical men and women in society, which pressured young students to adhere to
these presupposed roles.
Source: YouTube 3
Source: YouTube 4

These two films are examples of lessons taught in sex education classrooms in the 50s
before the sexual revolution began. There are many obvious examples of stereotypically
defining gender, and elementary and secondary school-aged students were absorbing
these values and understandings. At this very vulnerable and influential time of life,
students were understanding of the roles of men and women in society, and were
expected by their teachers to mimic their actions. These same values and lessons taught
within sex education courses can be found in Sex Education in the Public Schools by
G.G. Wetherill. This book describes a sex education curriculum from the 1950s in San
Diego, California with an extremely strong emphasis on the differences between boys
and girls both physically and in relationships, family lives, etc. 5 In a report on the book
written by G.G. Wetherill himself, he mentions one lesson that is responsible for the
discussion of strengthening right attitudes toward sex and growing up, boy-girl
relationships, and moral and spiritual values. 6 In the same curriculum, Wetherill
describes one of the ultimate goals of the lessons as being to encourage good home
teaching, interpret masculine and feminine roles in society 7 The focus on a
traditional family life with a mother that is at home raising the children and keeping the
household functional, and a father who is working throughout the day and making an
income to support the family is emphasized in this program, and can be seen in Jeffery
Morans When Sex Goes to School. Moran interprets Wetherills curriculum in the
following way: In short, family life education had become the remedy for almost all the
problems that plagued individuals or communities at midcentury. 8 To look at the way
stereotypical gender roles were more specifically inserted into sex education materials in
the 50s, Esther Schulz and Sally Williams Family Life and Sex Education: Curriculum
and Instruction includes a section called The Physical Aspects of Necking and Petting
from a 1959 curriculum in New York. This lesson is directed towards a girl who is out on
her first date with a young boy who she would like to go steady with. The entire story is
extremely emotional and sensitive, with sentences such as the emotions that this kind
of kiss stirs are not simple and straight-forward and uncomplicated. This kiss evokes
more than a simple exchange of pleasant thoughts. 9 The very sensitive way of
describing this big step in an adolescents life is stereotypical of all sex education lessons
for girls in the 50s. As the lesson continues, there is more discussion of what a girl
learns from her parents about cheating: in grade school you learned not to cheat, and
you didnt cheat, because your parents and the teacher said not to. 10 Finally, the lesson
strongly advises the girl not to have premarital sex because it ruins her reputation as a
moral young woman and causes various other problems in her life:

pregnancy outside of marriage is a mistake because it hurts you and the child, your
family, and the man who is the father of the child. Only a very irresponsible or immature
person can ignore these responsibilities. 11
The end of the 1950s came with drastic changes in the way women and men viewed
themselves and their gender roles in society, however, sex education lessons and
materials did not change to accommodate the nations changing perceptions.
As the 1960s approached and the U.S. began to experience a change in the perception of
sexuality and appropriate sexual behavior, older generations were shocked. Young
women were presenting themselves as what society believed to be immoral by proudly
exclaiming that they have had multiple sexual partners before marriage. Morans book
showed the media portraying young women making statements such as, weve
discarded the idea that the loss of virginity is related to degeneracy. 12 Kristin Lukers
When Sex Goes to School interpreted the 1960s in the following way: sex, gender,
marriage, and authority were all enmeshed in the sixties, and the sexual revolution
represented them all. 13 As changes like this continued to occur and the media played
an integral role in presenting women as increasingly powerful outside of the home in a
working environment, very few changes were being made in sex education materials to
teach young America that the stereotypical gender roles were no longer the norm.
According to Kilander,
Industry and business have been removing adults, especially mothers, from the routine
of the home, in which important educational influences formerly accompanied normal
family life. Families have become smaller. And more and more, children and youth are
segregated outside of the home into groups about the same age. 14
The 1967 Anaheim, California Sex Education Course Outline for Grades Seven through
Twelve notes the same changes in society in the U.S. and even states an effort to create
a sex education course that coincides with these changes. Parents and teachers in a
citizens advisory committee met, and after a very thoughtful and thorough study of the
whole problem of sex education devised a revamped program for teaching their
students about sex. 15 This school took on a positive, objective approach for sex
education, and emphasized developing effective interpersonal relations and attitudes to
serve as a specific basis for making meaningful moral judgments. 16 The planning and
preparation behind sex education curricula played a major role in the actual

implementation of programs within schools. Not only does Kilander map objectives of
both Family Life Education and Sex Education, but he does so beginning as early as
preschool. He defends his position of this early-age sex education plan with the top
three reasons: sex education is not as emotional a problem at this age level the child
is most likely already beginning to pick up inaccurate information the child accepts
sex education more readily and naturally at this age level. 17 Kilanders curriculum
planning at the preschool age level revolves around the two most popular questions that
seem to plague this age group: What is the difference between boys and girls? and
how do babies get born? 18 The first of these two questions shows the beginning of a
definite line showing that there is a significant difference between boys and girls.
Kilander continues to point out with the aims of sex education in the early elementary
years, that it is important for curricula to emphasize the roles of boys and girls. For
example, Kilander writes as his number two aim for sex education in elementary school:
give direction toward male or female role in adult life. 19 As the years continue in
elementary school, more gender-specific goals are defined by the lessons in sex
education, like appreciate efforts of mother and father for family members, 20 which
puts young students in the position to define the differences in the roles that the most
influential people in their lives play. In the curriculum for sex education, role-play is
often times an integral part in the growth of students and their understanding of specific
topics. Kilander writes, Some of these might pertain to family roles of mothers and
fathers, to simple courtesies or manners displayed by family members toward one
another and by boys and girls toward each other in the classroom, cafeteria,
etc. 21 When speaking of desirable attitudes, Kilander discusses examples such as
how girls would help care for a new baby, for example. Some of the concepts that sex
education is meant to make clear for younger students include gender role stereotyping
topics. For example, the curriculum emphasizes that every person needs to have a
feeling of belonging, 22 which is true, and with the lessons in 1960s sex education
classes, the students belong to either a stereotypical male group, or stereotypical female
group. Within the lessons of 60s sex education, there is an extreme emphasis on the
differences of boys and girls, their role in the family, and where each individual student
belongs in these groups that are defined by a gender stereotyping society.
In 1960s secondary sex education, the objectives become far more detailed and
advanced. Students are expected to learn about sexual intercourse, marriage, boy-girl
and man-woman relationships of the right kind, and many others. 23 In the Anaheim,

California sex education curriculum, the same morals are emphasized. This source
specifically focuses on the values of marriage and the more traditional views of dating,
sex, and relationships. A great example of this is Appendix III on page 4 with the
Dating Ladder. It begins at the bottom rung with children playing together, and ends
with the highest rung and engagement and marriage. 24 Learning activities in
secondary school sex education classes can range from as simple as finding where body
organs are located, to the discussion of making appropriate life decisions. In a test of
attitudes of the students in the sex education class, some of the questions that
students must respond to include A girl should remember that she is a lady, and should
never participate in vigorous sports, and A boy could not get serious with a girl who
has a reputation of being promiscuous.25 Both of these examples give students the
opportunity to believe that either of these options are something to agree with, or
disagree with. In todays society, the response would clearly be disagree for both of
these examples, however, with the lessons of sex education in the 1960s, all of the
emphasis of acceptable gender roles in society led students to agree with both of these
statements due to the fact that society was acceptable of the idea that men were breadwinners and women were home-makers. This general idea that was a result of sex
education classes during the 60s is not any different from the perception of gender roles
in society through sex education materials in the 1950s.
When looking at the changes that occurred between sex education materials from the
1960s to today, the most significant differences can be seen beginning as early as the
late 1990s. Luker interprets these changes through statistics of women in the working
environment: between 1960 and 1998, the number of high-powered professional
women leapt from just under 5 percent to over 25 percent. 26 This dramatic change can
also be seen in changes to sex education materials between the 1960s and today. The
Department of Curriculum and Instruction in Montgomery County Public Schools,
Rockville, Maryland 8th Grade Health Curriculum from 2005 clearly shows the
emphasis in redefining gender roles and no longer only accepting the stereotypical
male-female roles. For example, the teaching topics have expanded from only how to act
appropriately on a date, to mental health discussions such as managing stress to risktaking. 27 The most significant differences between 1960s sex education materials and
todays materials is the inclusion of an entire lesson dedicated to gender roles and
gender identities. The Maryland 8th Grade Health Curriculum has various examples
defining what a stereotypical gender role may be. For example, on page 11, the
curriculum defines gender role stereotyping in ways such as girls are better at English,

boys are better at science or boys dont cry, girls do. The lesson plan then asks
students to discuss how these stereotypes are destructive to the community and can
hinder the ability of people to accept and respect diversity. 28 Another main source
for teachers of sex education courses today is the website SexEd Library. This website
shows lesson plans and teacher notes for how to discuss the very sensitive issues of sex
and health in 2012. Similar to the Rockville, Maryland curriculum, the SexEd Library
has an entire lesson devoted to the understanding and acceptance of various definitions
of gender and gender roles. A Society and Culture unit has a lesson called gender roles,
which is summarized as a:
lesson [that] helps young people explore the sources of gender role beliefs, learn the
similarities and differences between the expectations of each gender, recognize that a
persons beliefs about roles can influence his or her decisions. 29

Source: SexEd Library 30

Examples of specific lessons that combat the stereotypical gender role identification include
having young students list activities that boys and men do next to a list of activities done by girls
and women. The examples shown in the lesson include boys and men can box, wrestle without
being teased, etc., and girls and women can have babies, wear skirts and dresses without being
teased, etc. 31 Worksheets for these lessons include filling out famous men and women who are
artists, astronauts, explorers, musicians, etc.

These lessons are seen throughout the nation in 21st century sex education materials
and in comparing them to 1960s materials, the most significant change is the inclusion
of entire lessons devoted to the discussion of the roles of men and women within society.
Due to the beginning of the sexual revolution in the 1960s, one would expect sex
education materials for young students to have changed in regards to what gender roles

are acceptable and expected in society. Research shows, however, that that was not the
case and many of the same values and gender role expectations remained in sex
education materials from the 1950s to the 1960s. The most significant changes that one
can see in these materials are between the 1960s and today in the 21st century. Sex
education materials are more sensitive towards the changing understanding in society
that women are not expected to stay home and raise children for their adult lives, but
rather they can have extremely successful careers as well. At the same time, sex
education materials today show that men are able to manage a household and raise
children without being criticized by society. This redefinition of acceptable gender roles
in society is the most significant change in sex education between the 1960s and today.
As the nation continues to change and the acceptance of various definitions of gender
and sexual orientation become more widely known, sex education materials will
continue to change, and discussions between teachers and students about these topics
will become more necessary.

Women's suffrage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Votes for women" redirects here. For the Mark Twain speech, see Votes for Women (speech).

U.S. women suffragists demonstrating for the right to vote, February 1913.
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Women's suffrage (also known as woman suffrage)[1] is the right of women to vote and to stand for
electoral office. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Sweden, Finland and some western
U.S. states in the late 19th century.[2] National and international organizations formed to coordinate
efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance(1904), and also
worked for equal civil rights for women.[3]
In 1893, New Zealand, then a self-governing British colony, granted adult women the right to vote
and the self-governing British colony of South Australia did the same in 1895, the latter also
permitting women to stand for office. Australia federated in 1901, and women acquired the right to
vote and stand in federal elections from 1902, but discriminatory restrictions
against Aboriginal women (and men) voting in national elections were not completely removed until
1962.[4][5][6]
The first European country to introduce women's suffrage was the Grand Duchy of Finland, then part
of the Russian Empire, which elected the world's first female members of parliament in the 1907
parliamentary elections. Norway followed, granting full women's suffrage in 1913. Most European,
Asian and African countries did not pass women's suffrage until after World War I. Late adopters
were France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952,[7] Switzerland in 1971,[8] and Liechtenstein in

1984.[9] The nations of North America and most nations in Central and South America passed
women's suffrage before World War II (see table in Summary below).
Extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain
legislation or constitutional amendments for women's suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for
women was granted before universal suffrage for men; for instance, literate women were granted
suffrage before all men received it. The United Nations encouraged women's suffrage in the years
following World War II, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (1979) identifies it as a basic right with 188 countries currently being parties to this
Convention.
Contents

1 History

2 Suffrage movements

3 Summary

4 Details by country
4.1 Asia

4.1.1 Bangladesh

4.1.2 India

4.1.3 Indonesia

4.1.4 Iran

4.1.5 Japan

4.1.6 Kuwait

4.1.7 Pakistan

4.1.8 Philippines

4.1.9 Saudi Arabia

4.1.10 Sri Lanka

4.2 Africa

4.2.1 Sierra Leone

4.2.2 South Africa

4.2.3 Southern Rhodesia

4.3 Europe

4.3.1 Austria

4.3.2 Belgium

4.3.3 Czech Republic

4.3.4 Denmark

4.3.5 Estonia

4.3.6 Finland

4.3.7 France

4.3.8 Germany

4.3.9 Italy

4.3.10 Liechtenstein

4.3.11 Netherlands

4.3.12 Norway

4.3.13 Poland

4.3.14 Portugal

4.3.15 San Marino

4.3.16 Spain

4.3.17 Sweden

4.3.18 Switzerland

4.3.19 Turkey

4.3.20 United Kingdom

4.4 The Americas

4.4.1 Argentina

4.4.2 Brazil

4.4.3 Canada

4.4.4 Chile

4.4.5 United States

4.4.6 Venezuela

4.4.7 Mexico
4.5 Oceania

4.5.1 Australia

4.5.2 Cook Islands

4.5.3 New Zealand

5 Women's suffrage in religions

5.1 Catholicism

5.2 Islam

5.3 Hinduism

5.4 Judaism

6 See also

7 Notes

8 References

9 Further reading

10 External links

History[edit]

Anna II, Abbess of Quedlinburg. In the pre-modern era in some parts of Europe, abbesses were permitted to
participate and vote in various European national assemblies by virtue of their rank within the Catholic and Protestant
churches.

In ancient Athenian democracy, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only men were permitted
to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though various
forms of Parliament arose at different times. The high rank ascribed to abbesses within the Catholic
Church permitted some women the right to sit and vote at national assemblies - as with various highranking abbesses in Medieval Germany, who were ranked among the independent princes of the
empire. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times. [10] AngloSaxon kings, as well as Henry III and Edward I, deliberated with influential English abbesses in their
respective Witenagemot Councils and Parliament in a fashion similar to the medieval Germans. [11][citation
needed]

In 1362, during the 35th year of Edward III of England's reign, numerous British and Irish

peeresses were summoned to vote in Parliament by proxy.[12] Marie Guyart, a French nun who
worked with the First Nations peoples of Canada during the seventeenth century, wrote in 1654
regarding the suffrage practices of Iroquois women, "These female chieftains are women of standing
amongst the savages, and they have a deciding vote in the councils. They make decisions there like
the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace." [13] The Iroquois,
like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a matrilineal kinship system. Property and
descent were passed through the female line. Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and
could depose them.
The emergence of modern democracy generally began with male citizens obtaining the right to vote
in advance of female citizens, except in the Kingdom of Hawai'i, where universal manhood and
women's suffrage was introduced in 1840; however, a constitutional amendment in 1852 rescinded
female voting and put property qualifications on male voting.

South Australiansuffragette Catherine Helen Spence stood for office in 1897. In a first for the modern world, South
Australia granted women the right to stand for Parliament in 1895.

Woman Suffrage Headquarters, Cleveland, 1913

A movement for women's suffrage originated in France in the 1780s and 1790s during the period of
the French Revolution. Nicolas de Condorcet and Olympe de Gouges advocated women's suffrage
in national elections.[citation needed] Various countries, colonies and states granted restricted women's
suffrage in the latter half of the 19th century.
In Sweden, conditional women's suffrage was in effect during the Age of Liberty (17181771).
[14]

Other possible contenders for first "country" to grant female suffrage include the Corsican

Republic (1755), the Pitcairn Islands (1838), the Isle of Man (1881), and Franceville (1889), but
some of these operated only briefly as independent states and others were not clearly independent.
In 1756, Lydia Taft became the first legal woman voter in colonial America. This occurred
under British rule in the Massachusetts Colony.[15] In aNew England town meeting in Uxbridge,
Massachusetts, she voted on at least three occasions.[16] Unmarried women who owned property
could vote in New Jersey from 1776 to 1807.

Eighteen female MPs joined the Turkish Parliament in 1935

In the 1792 elections in Sierra Leone, then a new British colony, all heads of household could vote
and one-third were ethnic African women.[17]
The female descendants of the Bounty mutineers who lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from
1838. This right was transferred after they resettled in 1856 to Norfolk Island (now an Australian
external territory).[6]
The seed for the first Woman's Rights Convention in the United States in Seneca Falls, New
York was planted in 1840, when Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott at the World Anti-Slavery
Convention in London. The conference refused to seat Mott and other women delegates from the
United States of America because of their sex. In 1851, Stanton met temperance worker Susan B.
Anthony, and shortly the two would be joined in the long struggle to secure the vote for women in the
United States. In 1868 Anthony encouraged working women from the printing and sewing trades in
New York, who were excluded from men's trade unions, to form Workingwomen's Associations. As a
delegate to the National Labor Congress in 1868, Anthony persuaded the committee on female labor
to call for votes for women and equal pay for equal work. The men at the conference deleted the
reference to the vote.[18]
In the United States, some of the territories or newer states were the first to extend suffrage to
women. For instance, women in theWyoming Territory could vote as of 1869.
The 1871 Paris Commune recognized women's right to vote, but after it fell women were again
excluded from voting.[citation needed] They regained suffrage in July 1944 by order of Charles de Gaulle's
government in exile (at that time most of Franceincluding Pariswas under Nazi occupation; Paris
was liberated the following month).
In 1881 the Isle of Man, an internally self-governing dependent territory of the British Crown,
enfranchised women property owners. With this it provided the first action for women's suffrage
within the British Isles.[6]
The Pacific colony of Franceville, declaring independence in 1889, became the first selfgoverning nation to adopt universal suffrage without distinction of sex or color; [19] however, it soon
came back under French and British colonial rule.

Of currently existing independent countries, New Zealand was the first to acknowledge women's
right to vote in 1893 when it was a self-governing British colony.[20] Unrestricted women's suffrage in
terms of voting rights (women were not initially permitted to stand for election) was adopted in New
Zealand in 1893. Following a successful movement led by Kate Sheppard, the women's suffrage
bill was adopted weeks before the general election of that year. The women of the British
protectorate of Cook Islands obtained the same right soon after and beat New Zealand's women to
the polls in 1893.[21]
The self-governing British colony of South Australia enacted universal suffrage in 1894, also allowing
women to stand for the colonial parliament that year.[22] The Commonwealth of Australia federated in
1901, with women voting and standing for office in some states. TheAustralian Federal
Parliament extended voting rights to all adult women for Federal elections from 1902 (with the
exception of Aboriginalwomen in some states).[23]
The first European country to introduce women's suffrage was the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1906.
It was among reforms passed following the 1905 uprising. As a result of the1907 parliamentary
elections, Finland's voters elected 19 women as the first female members of a representative
parliament; they took their seats later that year.
In the years before World War I, women in Norway (1913) and Denmark (1915) also won the right to
vote, as did women in the remaining Australian states. Near the end of the war, Canada, Russia,
Germany, and Poland also recognized women's right to vote. British women over 30 had the vote in
1918, Dutch women in 1919, and American women won the vote on August 26, 1920 with the
passage of the 19th Amendment. Irish women won the same voting rights as men in the Irish Free
State constitution, 1922. In 1928, British women won suffrage on the same terms as men, that is, for
persons 21 years old and older. Suffrage of Turkish women introduced in 1930 for local elections and
in 1934 for national elections.
Voting rights for women were introduced into international law by the United Nations' Human Rights
Commission, whose elected chair was Eleanor Roosevelt. In 1948 the United Nations adopted
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Article 21 stated: "(1) Everyone has the right to take part
in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (3) The will of the
people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and
genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or
by equivalent free voting procedures."
The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Political Rights of Women,
which went into force in 1954, enshrining the equal rights of women to vote, hold office, and access
public services as set out by national laws. One of the most recent jurisdictions to acknowledge
women's full right to vote was Bhutan in 2008 (its first national elections).[24]