Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ENERGY CONVERSION
(EE 413/ECE 412)
THE DYNAMO-PRINCIPLES
AND CONSTRUCTION
Z P
=
x 10 8
60 a
Fig.1 two-pole
generator
N
S
1 cycle
S
2 cycles
Commutation in DC Generator
From the foregoing discussion, it should be clear
that the generated voltage, as well as the
current, in dc armature winding is alternating. It
is true, of course, that nothing can be done in the
modern generator to develop an internal dc emf;
what can be done, however, is to rectify the
internal alternating current so that the brush
voltage the external voltage is direct current.
The mechanism for doing this consists of the
commutator (in its simplest form it may be
represented by a split ring) and its brushes. (See
figure)
Commutation in DC Generator
Commutation in DC Generator
Brushes are located so that they touch two
segments exactly on top and bottom.
Each conductor is permanently connected to
a segment (or a semi ring).
The split ring rotates with the rotating coil.
Brushes and poles are stationary.
Load
Load
(a)
(b)
When the plane of the coil is vertical, it will be short-circuited by the brushes, thus,
the generated voltage is zero. When conductor a is moving downward (clockwise
rotation) and cutting the flux under a north pole, semi ring x will be negative; at the
same time, conductor b will be moving upward and cutting flux under a south pole,
thus making semi ring y positive. The brush touching semi ring y will therefore be
positive, while the other brush will be negative; the current through the load will be
from left to right.
+x
x
a
I
Load
Load
(c)
(d)
During the next half revolution, conductor a will change places with conductor b
under the poles, and this exchange will cause the generated voltages in the two
conductors to reverse their direction. However, when this happens, the semi rings,
to which they are connected, automatically change places under the stationary
brushes.
S
y
Load
(e)
(b)
(a)
(d)
(c)
Fig. 5
(e)
coil A
coil B
N
Force
The first important point to be made in connection with the study of motor is
this: if a current-bearing wire is in nonuniform magnetic field so that the flux
density on one side of the conductor is greater than that of the other side, the
conductor will experience a force action in a direction away from the higher
density to the lower density.
F=
Il
10
, dynes
F=
Il
11 ,300 ,000
, lb
Commutation in DC Motors
It should be clear here that the function of
the commutator and the brushes in a dc
motor is to act as an inverter, that is, to
change the direct current to alternating
current, because the current in the armature
conductors must be alternating if rotation in
the same direction is to continue.
Armature Windings
Function: It is where the electric power originates in the
generator and where the torque is developed in the
motor.
Types of Armature winding:
The two types of armature winding used on modern dc
machines are designated lap and wave. They may be
distinguished from each other in two general ways:
1) from the standpoint of construction they differ only
by the manner in which the coil ends are connected to
the commutator bars.
Armature Windings
Lap coil
Wave Coil
Coil end
Coil end
Adjacent Commutator
Segments
(a) Simplex-Lap
Connections
(b) Simplex-Wave
Connections
Armature Windings
Recognizing this simple construction difference, it should,
therefore, be clear that:
(a) a lap winding is one in which the coil ends are
connected to the commutator segments that are near
one another and;
(b) a wave winding is one in which the coil ends are
connected to commutator segments that are some
distance from one another- nearly 360 electrical
degrees apart.
Armature Windings
2) from the standpoint of an electrical circuit they
differ in the number of parallel paths between
the positive and the negative brushes. Like for
example, simplex-lap windings have as many
parallel paths as main poles, while simplex-wave
windings have two parallel paths regardless of
the number of poles.
S
Y S= k
P
Where YS = coil pitch, slots
S = total number of armature slots
P = number of main poles
k = any part of S/P that is subtracted to
make YS an integer
28
0=7
a) YS =
4
39 3
b) YS =
=9
4 4
Slots 1 and 8
Slots 1 and 10
Cm
Y c=
P
2
34 1
= 11
a) YC =
3
63 + 1
b) YC =
= 16
4
Tracing, 1-12-23-34
Tracing, 1-17-33-49-2
For Wave:
For Frog-leg:
a L = mP
aW = 2m
aFL = 2 P
Solution:
21 1
YC =
= 10 or 11
2
S
For Lap and Wave: Y P=
P
Where: S = number of slots
P = number of poles
Note: If YP= integer, then armature winding is a full-pitch winding.
If YP is not an integer, then the armature winding is a fractionalpitch winding.
2
1
8
8
3
5
c
d
Multi-Element Winding
When there are n times as many segments as slots, each
complete coil must have n coil elements. Thus, if the ratio
of segments to slots is 2, 3, 4, etc., the individual coils will
have 2, 3, 4, etc., elements.
a) Number of active elements = number of
commutator segments, C
Number of coils = C; if C=S (single-element coil)
Number of active elements = C; if C is not equal to S
(multi-element
coil)
Multi-Element Winding
b) Number of elements per coil =
C
+K
S
Multi-Element Winding
Multi-Element Winding
Example:
Given: Simplex- lap, S = 12 slots, C = 24 segments, P = 4
poles
Required: Draw a complete winding diagram.
Solution:
a) YS = (12/4) 0= 3 slots
b) YC = 1
c) a = (1)(4)= 4 parallel paths
d) Reentrancy = HCF of 24 & 1 = 1 (singly-reentrant)
e) m=1
f) b = 4
Multi-Element Winding
g) width of each brush = 1 segment
h) Number of elements per coil = 24/12= 2
elements per coil
i) Number of active elements = 24 elements
j) Number of conductors per slot = (2)(2)= 4
conductors per slot
Multi-Element Winding
2-element coil
1
12
11
23
22
21
20
19
18
24 1
2 3
4
5
6
17
16
15 14 13 12
8
9
10
11
10
7
9
a
S
Equalizer
c'
a'
C
N
b
c
S
N
b'
C
no. of equalizers =
P
2
Where: C = number of commutator segments
P = number of poles
Frog-leg Winding
Another construction of the armature winding, which
combines the advantages of both lap and wave types and
which is used on machines manufactured by the AllisChalmers Manufacturing company, is called a frog-leg
winding. The term frog-leg is used to indicate the
similarity between this type of coil and the legs of a frog.
In this discussion, it must be noted that the real purpose
of this type of winding is to eliminate the equalizer
connections and yet to retain their advantages. The wave
portion of the frog-leg winding, acting together with the
lap portion, serves to replace the equalizers, but acts, in
addition, as a current-carrying winding.
Frog-leg Winding
It is thus possible to obtain 100% equalization of
the winding and also to make the maximum use of
all copper placed on the armature.
Going back to figure 11, it discloses the fact
that, theoretically, points A, B, and C are at the same
potential. Since this is so, it is at once evident that
points a and a, b and b, and c and c are also at the
same potential because these points are connected to
the equalizer and are themselves outside the
influence of the magnetic field.
Frog-leg Winding
A
Equalizer
D
S
c'
a'
C
N
b
c
S
F
b'
Frog-leg Winding
By carefully looking at figure 12, you will observe
that it really represents a sort of combination lap-wave
winding. The wave winding was introduced when the
second set of connections was made, i.e., E, F and D.
Suppose that the wire representing each of the single-turn
coil of Fig.12 is slit in half lengthwise from each of the
commutator segments up to the points a, a, b, b, c and c.
Electrically, no change has taken place from such an
imaginary slitting process. Furthermore, the equalizer can
now be omitted for the reason that any wave elements,
such as E, and the succeeding lap element, such as B,
connect two points on the commutator exactly two pole
pitches apart.
Frog-leg Winding
A
Lap Coil
D
S
c'
a'
Wave Coil
N
b
c
S
F
b'
Frog-leg Winding
In practice, the lap portion of the frog-leg
winding is always simplex, so that it is necessary to
give the wave portion a multiplicity equal to P/2. Thus
for frog-leg winding, the number of parallel paths is
given by
aFL = a L + aW
aFL = mP + 2m
aFL
P
= (1)P + 2 = 2 P
2
Frog-leg Winding
Example:
Determine the coil and commutator pitches for a 24-slot,
48-segment, 6-pole frog-leg armature winding.
Solution:
24
0=4
For both lap and wave sections: YS =
6
Yc = 1
Lap portion will be simplex:
48 3
Yc =
= 15
3
Types of DC Generators
According to the type of the main field winding
used
a) Series Generator - it uses only the series
field winding
Types of DC Generators
b) Shunt Generator - it uses only the shunt field
winding
Types of DC Generators
RSE
RSH
Types of DC Generators
b) Separately- Excited DC Generator the field
windings are excited by current supplied by a
separate source.
Types of DC Generators
c) Dual Excited DC Generator the source of
excitation for the field windings is both the
armature and a separate source. This applies to
compound generators.
Types of DC Generators
Types of Self-Excited Compound Generators
According to the connection of the field windings with
respect to the armature
a) Short-shunt Compound Generator - the shunt
field is directly connected across the armature.
b) Long-shunt Compound Generator the shunt
field is connected in parallel across the armature
through the series field.
Types of DC Generators
Types of DC Generators
According to the direction of the magnetic
field produced by the series field and the shunt
field windings
a) Cumulative compound the direction of
magnetic fields for series and shunt are the
same.
b) Differential compound the direction of
the magnetic fields for series and shunt
are opposite.
Types of DC Generators
According to the relative magnitude of the output
terminal voltage at no-load and full-load (for cumulative
compound)
a) Flat Compounded the no-load voltage is equal
to the full-load voltage
b) Under Compounded the no-load voltage is
greater than the full-load voltage
c) Over compounded the no-load voltage is less
than the full-load voltage
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
When a shunt or compound generator operates without
load- that is, when it is driven by a prime mover, is properly
excited, and has none of the load switches closed a
voltage will appear at the terminals that are normally
connected to the electrical devices. This generated voltage
will depend, for a given machine, upon two factors:
(1) the speed of rotation
(2) the flux
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
If the flux is kept constant while the speed is increased
or decreased, the voltage will rise or fall, respectively,
in direct proportion to the change in speed.
300
250
Eg
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Speed (rpm)
2000
2500
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
Similarly, if the speed is held constant while the flux (not
the field current) is varied, the voltage will change in direct
proportion to the change in magnetism. However, to show
that the generated voltage is directly proportional to the
flux is much more difficult because magnetism
measurements are not made as readily as are those of
amperes and volts. This determination is not particularly
important from a practical point of view, because it is more
desirable to know how the no-load generated voltage is
affected by changes in field current.
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
This relationship is not a direct one for all changes
in excitation, because magnetic saturation sets in after
the field current is increased beyond a certain value.
To show the relationship between the generated
voltage and the field current, a so-called saturation
curve (sometimes called magnetization curve) can be
plotted. Note particularly that the curve is virtually a
straight line up to the so-called knee; this is true
because, in this region, the iron portions of the
magnetic circuit are unsaturated and require a
comparatively low percent of the total mmf.
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
400
350
accelerating
voltage
300
knee
Eg
250
build-up voltage
200
150
100
excitation line
50
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Field Current
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
With increasing values of flux density the iron
saturates, the magnetic permeability drops, and
a greater percent, of the field ampere-turns are
required for the iron. It should also be observed
that the initial voltage is not zero at zero field
current; its value Er, usually low, is due to
residual magnetism.
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
Significance of the Saturation (Magnetization) Curve
Such a curve emphasizes the extremely important
fact that the generated voltage is directly proportional
to the flux and not the field current.
Curve such as this is extremely important for the
purpose of analyzing, predicting, and comparing the
operating performance of the various types of
generator.
700
Eg
Rated
output
Characteristic load vs. output
curve of self-excited shunt
generator
Vt = Eg IARA
Vt = k - IARA
under
flat
FL
over
Rated output
Characteristic Curves for Cumulative
Compound Generator
I SE RD
=
I D RSE
Since
I L = I SE + I D
It follows that
I SE
RD
= IL x
RD + RSE
Magnetization Curve
1600
1200
800
Field Ampere Turns
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
400
Generated Voltage
External
Characteristic
10 20 30 40 50 60
Load Amperes
70 80
90
VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage Regulation is a measure of the extent to
which the voltage of a generator changes as the
load is gradually lowered from its rated value to zero
load. The foregoing may be expressed in percent
form as follows:
V V
% Voltage Regulation =
x 100%
V
L
FL
FL
Example:
The following data were obtained for the magnetization
curve of a 4-pole interpole shunt generator, each field coil
of which has 1000 turns.
If
If
If
0.8
160
1.56
260
0.1
20
1.0
200
1.92
280
0.4
80
1.14
220
2.40
300
0.6
120
1.32
240
3.04
320
Solution:
400
350
300
250
200
Build-up voltage
= 300 volts
150
100
50
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
400
350
IAFLRA= 30 V
300
250
200
VFL = 252 V
150
100
50
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
V V
x 100%
%V .R . =
V
L
FL
FL
300 252
=
x 100%
252
= 19.05%
Example:
A 20-kW 250-volt short shunt compound generator has a
series field whose resistance is 0.022 and each of whose
four coils has 6 turns. If a diverter having a resistance of
0.058 is connected across the series field, calculate the
series-field ampere-turns per pole at full load.
Solution:
20 kW
I =
= 80 A
250V
0.058
I = (80 A)
= 58 A
0.058 + 0.022
FL
SE
( I )
SE
= (58 A) 6 turns
2
ZIA
2aP
Example
The lap-wound armature of a 6-pole dc generator has a
total of 378 conductors and carries 800 A at full load. If
the pole arc is 6.75 in. and the armature is 20 in.,
calculate the maximum cross-magnetizing ampere-turns
per pole that has a magnetizing or demagnetizing effect
on each pole tip.
6.75
=
= 0.645
20
6
(0.645)(378)(800)
Cross magnetizin g I/pole =
(2)(6)(6)
= 2710 amp. - turns
Brush Shifting
When the armature of a dc machine (without interpoles)
carries current, the magnetic and mechanical neutrals do
not coincide. This affects commutation because sparking
will occur at the brushes unless they occupy positions that
short-circuit coil sides in the neutral zone; the brushes
must therefore, be shifted to locations that reduce
sparking. Moreover, the brushes must be shifted back and
forth continually as the load changes because the effect of
armature reaction depends upon the value of the armature
current; or they must located in some compromise position
that represents the best average load.
Brush Shifting
However, when this is done a certain
Mechanical
number of armature ampere turns
Neutral
A
tend to demagnetize the main field
New Magnetic
apart from the demagnetizing action
Neutral
that results from field distortion.
Figure a illustrates the
S demagnetizing action of the
N
armature when the brushes are not
yet shifted to a new position. Only
those conductors that are directly
under the pole faces have a
A
considerable demagnetizing effect
a) Without Brush Shifting
upon the main poles since those
conductors in the interpolar zones act upon high-reluctance magnetic
circuit.
Brush Shifting
However, when the brushes
are shifted to an angle AO, the
A
A
directions of the currents in
c
a
the conductors in the AOregion will therefore change.
Now then, if diametrically
S
N
opposite conductors are
paired in an angle 2AO, it is
seen that their effect, as
b
d
ampere turns, is to
b) With Brush Shifting
demagnetize the main field.
In other words, a brush shift
of AO means that the number of conductors in 4AO, that is, a to c and b
to d, are involved in a direct demagnetizing action of two main poles.
Mechanical Neutral
Brush Shifting
Thus,
1 4 A ZIA
Demagnetiz ing amp conductors / pole = X
X
2 360
a
AZIA
Demagnetiz ing I / pole =
360a
Brush Shifting
Mechanical Neutral
A
New Magnetic Neutral
N
b
Brush Shifting
It follows, therefore, that in a P-pole machine
the
360 2 PA ZIA
Total cross magnetizin g I / pole =
x
360
2 aP
360 2 PA
=
x ZIA
720 aP
Brush Shifting
Example
The armature has a commutator whose diameter
is 15 in. If the brushes are shifted 1.25 in. in the
direction of rotation for the purpose of improving
commutation, calculate (a) the demagnetizing
ampere-turns per pole; (b) the total crossmagnetizing ampere-turns per pole.
Brush Shifting
Solution:
1.25
A=
x 360 = 9.55
x 15
9.55 x 378 x 800
Demagnetiz ing I / pole =
360 x 6
= 1335 AT
Brush Shifting
360 2 x 6 x 9.55
Total cross magnetizin g I / pole =
x 378 x 800
720 x 6 x 6
= 2865 AT
Note: Brush shift does not alter the direction of the fluxdensity distribution. It can only improve commutation,
although, as indicated above, it is accompanied by an
additional undesirable demagnetizing influence.
Armature-core surface
Armature-core surface
IA
a'
b'
N
IA
c =
gi
6.45
x Agi
And
mmf
0.4 x ( I )gi
c =
=
( e x 2.54 ) / Agi
gi x Agi
6.45
From which
( I )gi = 0.313 gi x e
ZIA
( I )i =
+ ( 0.313 gi x e ) + ( 0.6 x 0.313 gi x e )
2 aP
ZIA
( I )i =
+ 0.5 gie
2 aP
Solution
(NI)gi = 0.313 x 14800 x 0.28 = 13000 amp-turns
1 328 x 280
+ ( 12500 x 0.24 ) = 5320 amp turns
( I )i =
2 2 x 6
5320
=
= 19 turns per pole
280
Compensating Windings
Compensating windings are used
for the purpose of neutralizing the
effect of armature reaction in the
S zones outside the influence of the
N
interpoles and particularly to
maintain a uniform flux
distribution under the faces of the
main poles. They are special
windings placed in slots or holes in the pole faces and carry, as do the
interpole windings, the total armature current.
Compensating Windings
In the simple two-pole sketch, one set of connectors would
join the upper three pole-face conductors on the north pole to
the upper three conductors on the south pole, while similar
connections would be made for the lower six conductors of the
north and south poles; the two sets would then be joined in
series and connected in series with the armature winding. The
current directions in these conductors are opposite to those in
the wires of the armature winding directly below in order to
neutralize only that portion of the armature cross-magnetizing
ampere-turns that lie directly under the pole faces. It must,
therefore, for 100% compensation, always build up an mmf
that is equal to the armature mmf per pole face;
Compensating Windings
This is ZIA/2aP amp-turns per pole. But the compensating
winding current is the total armature current IA. It follows,
therefore, that
ZIA
CIA
=
2 aP
2
C=
aP
Compensating Windings
Example
A 3000-kW, 600-V. 16-pole generator has a lapwound armature with a total 3250 conductors. If
the pole faces cover 63% of the entire
circumference, calculate (a) the current in the
compensating winding; (b) the number of
conductors in each pole face of the compensating
winding. (Neglect the shunt-field current.)
Compensating Windings
Solution
3000 kW
IA =
= 5000 A
600 V
0.63 x 3250
C=
= 8 conductors
16 x 16
Compensating Windings
Note: The use of compensating windings together with
properly designed interpole windings in dc machine will
provide sparkless commutation and eliminate the possibility
of flashover, at least insofar as armature reaction is
concerned. These desirable operating characteristics come
about because the resultant field is absolutely uniform and
the interpolar zones are supplied with the necessary flux to
combat the voltage of self-inductance; moreover, such
conditions prevail at all values of armature current because
the neutralizing effects are caused by the very current that is
initially responsible for the difficulty.
To Load
+ Bus
IA
Load
Ammeter
Main Switch
IB
SA
DPDT Switch
Load
Ammeter
SB
Main Switch
Voltmeter
FB
FA
Shunt Field
Field Rheostat
Field Rheostat
ISEB
RSEA
V VLB VFLB
=
IB
IFLB
VFLB
VFLA
I A
IBNEW
IB
IA
V VLA VFLA
=
I A
IFLA
IFLA
IFLB
V L VFL
%V .R =
x 100%
VFL
Therefore,
V
%VRA x VFLA
=
IA
100 x IFLA
V
%VRB x VFLB
=
I B
100 x IFLB
IB EW = IB IB
IA EW = IA IA
DC MOTOR
DC MOTOR
DC MOTOR
DC MOTOR
DC MOTOR
Classification of Direct-Current
Motors
There are also three general types of motor, namely,
series, shunt and compound, all of which are widely used in
many applications. Each type of motor has very definite
operating characteristics that differ markedly from those of
the other two, so that it is important to know the load
requirements before a proper selection is made. For the
purpose of classification, it is convenient, therefore, to
indicate how a motor behaves between no load and full
load by using such terms as constant speed and variable
speed.
Classification of Direct-Current
Motors
Constant-speed type if a change from no mechanical load
to full load causes the speed to drop approximately 8% or
less; shunt motors fall into this classification.
V A EC
IA =
RA '
E C = k
V A k
IA =
RA '
EC = V A I A RA '
EC I A = V A I A
2
I A RA
V A VB I A RA EC = 0
V A V B E C 115 2 108
IA =
=
= 22.7 A
RA
0.22
Solution
(a) E C = k = 2.2 x10 7 (620000)(1520) = 207.5 V
V A V B E C 230 2 207.5
(b) I A =
= 47.7 A
=
RA '
0.43
Starting a DC Motor
At the instant a dc motor is started, the counter emf is
zero because the armature is not revolving. It should be
understood that at the instant of starting, the armature
current would be extremely high unless some resistance,
called starter, were added to offset the lack of EC. As the
speed increases, the starter may be cut out gradually
because EC rises; finally, when the motor has attained
normal speed, the starter is completely cut out of the
armature circuit.
Starting a DC Motor
Manual Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
There are two standard types of starter for shunt and
compound motors, namely, three-point and four-point.
Three-point Starter It has three terminals
labeled L, F, and A that are connected respectively
to one line terminal, one-shunt field terminal, and
one armature terminal.
Starting a DC Motor
Manual Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Starting a DC Motor
Manual Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Four-point Starter
Of particular importance, compared with the internal
connections of a three-point starter, it should be noted that
one change has been made. The holding coil has been
removed from the shunt-field circuit and, in series with a
current limiting resistor, has been placed in a separate circuit in
parallel with the armature and the shunt field. With this
arrangement, the holding coil current is independent of any
field-rheostat changes and thus overcomes the objection of the
three-point starter.
Starting a DC Motor
Manual Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Starting a DC Motor
Whenever a starter, whose duty is to accelerate a
motor from rest to normal speed, is equipped with a
means of governing, in some predetermined manner, the
electric power delivered to the apparatus to which it is
connected, it is called an electric controller.
The basic functions of a controller are acceleration,
retardation, line closing, reversing, braking, protection,
and others.
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
The use of starters that will perform the function of
accelerating motors automatically, although somewhat
more expensive, is preferable to the manual types. There
are several reasons for such preference:
Automatic starters are reliable and, when
properly adjusted, will bring motors up to speed
without the blowing of fuses of the opening of circuit
breakers under all conditions of loading.
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Push-button stations for starting and stopping
may be conveniently located for remote-control
operation.
The starting resistors may be cut out at a desired
time rate so that acceleration may be uniform and in
accordance with the demands of the load.
To conserve power, a motor is more likely to be
stopped when it is idle by simply pressing a button.
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Electric braking facilities may be readily provided
so that a motor may be brought to rest quickly and
smoothly.
Overload and temperature protection of
equipment is usually incorporated.
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Three Types of Automatic Starters
Counter EMF (Speed-Limit) Starter In this
scheme, a number of relays are connected across
the armature where the counter emf increases as
the motor accelerates, and the former are adjusted
to pick up at predetermined values of voltage.
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
OL - overload
- normally open contacts
- normally closed contacts
Shunt Field
OL
1AX
R1
R2
R3
1A
2A
3A
2AX
M
3AX
1AX
1A
2AX
2A
3AX
3A
Start
OL
Stop
M1
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Time-Limit Acceleration Starter In this type, a
group of relays is timed to operate at preset
intervals, by means of devices that function
mechanically, pneumatically, or electrically.
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Current-Limit Acceleration Starter In this type,
the relays are designed so that they are sensitive to
current changes in the armature circuit.
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
Starting a DC Motor
Example:
The armature of a 220-volt shunt motor has a resistance of
0.18 . If the armature current is not to exceed 76 A,
calculate: (a) the resistance that must be inserted in series
with the armature at the instant of starting; (b) the value
to which this resistance can be reduced when the armature
accelerates until EC is 168 volts; (c) the armature resistance
at the instant of starting if no resistance is inserted in the
armature circuit. Assume a 2-volt drop at the brushes.
Starting a DC Motor
Solution
a)
V A VB EC
IA =
R A '+ R starter
R starter
V A V B VC
230 2 0
=
RA ' =
0.18 = 2.82
IA
76
230 2
c) I A = 0.18 = 1267 A.
76
Starting a DC Motor
Example:
A 20-hp 220-volt 540-rpm shunt motor has an armature
resistance of 0.12 and a field resistance of 52.4 . If the
resistance of a starter is 1.93 , what line current does the
motor take at the instant of starting? Assume a motor
efficiency of 88% and a brush drop of 3 volts.
Starting a DC Motor
Solution
At the instant of starting, EC = 0:
I Astarting
I Line starting
220 3 0
=
= 105.85 A
1.93 + 0.12
= I SH + I Astarting
220
=
+ 105.85 = 110.05 A
52.4
speed.
On the other hand, reducing the load on a motor causes its
armature to take less current while it speeds up.
In both shunt and compound motors, the no-load speed is
very definite and stable; these types of motor do not attempt
to operate at excessive unsafe speeds when running idle. If the
mechanical load is completely removed from a shunt motor, it
will operate at a speed only slightly higher than the normal
speed; this will generally be between 2 and 8 percent higher
than the normal speed.
Pd = EC I A
But
Therefore
ZP
EC =
x 10 8
60 a
ZP
Pd =
x 10 8 x I A
60 a
2T
T
hp =
=
33000 5250
T
Pd =
x 746
5250
T
ZP
8
x 746
x 10 x I A =
5250
60 a
ZP
5250
x x I A
=
8
60 x 746 x 10 a
T=
x x I A
T=
x x I A
T = k 1I A
T = k (k 1I A )I A
T = k2 I
2
A
T = k1 I A
The torque vs. load characteristic of a compound motor,
where the series-field and shunt-field ampere turns aid each
other (cumulative compound), is a composite of the shunt and
series motors, and the extent to which the curve departs from
that exhibited by the shunt machine depends upon the
strength of the series field with respect to the shunt field.
Co
m
po
un
d
Sh
(c un
t
u
Se
ri e m u
la
s
tiv
e)
Rated Torque
ng
rlExamination
of the curves indicates
oa
e
v
O
that
between no load and full load
the shunt motor develops the
greatest torque, while the series
motor develops the least; the torque
develop byFullthe
compound falls
load
between these two.
At overloads, the overload torque
of a series motor is considerably
higher than that developed by a
shunt motor; the compound motor
again falls Rated
between
the other two.
I
A
Armature Current
Characteristic torque vs. armature-current curves for three
types of motor
ZP
5250
(a) T =
x x IA
8
60 x 746 x 10 a
828 x 4
5250
5
(40)
1
.
93
x
10
=
8
60 x 746 x 10 2
= 15 lb ft
2T (2 )(1750)(15)
(b) hp =
=
33000
33000
= 5 horsepower
Solution
T=
2
k2 I A
T2
=
T1
2
I A2
2
I A1
T2 56
= 2
62 48
T 2= 84.4 lb ft
T = kt I A
T2 t 2 I A2
=
T1 t1 I A1
hp2
(1.08t1 )( 238)
T2
=
271
t1 ( 215)
T2 = 324 lb ft
(
2 )(1120)(324)
=
33000
= 69.1 horsepower
V A I A RA '
=
k
(
230 2) (0.30 x 50)
1500 =
k
(
230 1) (0.30 x 5)
2 =
k
227.5
2
k 227.5
=
=
213
1500
213
k
2 = 1602.11 rpm
2
(
220 1) 5(0.27 + 0.05 )
=
k (0.90 FL )
2
=
1400
217.4
k (0.9 FL )
=
194
k FL
2 = 1743.18 rpm
217.4
0.9
194
L FL
% speed regulation =
x 100
FL
Solution
L FL
%speed regulation =
x 100%
FL
1210 1150
=
x 100%
1150
= 5.22%
230 1 ( 5 2 )( 0.3 )
=
k
FL =
1230 1200
%S .R =
x 100%
1200
= 2.5%
230 2 ( 20 2 )( 0.3 )
= 1200
k
[
L
230 1 ( 5 2 )0.3] / k
=
1200 [230 2 ( 20 2 )0.3] / k
L = 1230 rpm
V A I A R A '
$ =
k var
V A I A (R A '+ R var )
$ =
k
I ARA '
k
A var
Efficiency of Dynamos
A dynamo is a machine that converts energy from one form to
another.
When this conversion takes place at a uniform rate, that is,
when the energy received by the machine per unit time and the
energy delivered by the machine in the same unit of time are
constant, then it is proper to say that a dynamo converts power
from one form to another.
The power received by a dynamo is called its input; the power
delivered by the dynamo is called its output.
The power input to a dynamo is always more than its power
output.
Efficiency of Dynamos
The difference between the power input to a machine (in
watts) and its power output (in watts) is called the power loss
because it is unavailable to drive mechanical load in a motor or
to supply electrical power in a generator.
This power loss always produces heating in the dynamo;
therefore, the greater the power loss, as a percentage of the
input, the hotter will the machine tend to become. If this loss
should reach an excessive value, the temperature rise might be
high enough to cause failure.
Efficiency of Dynamos
POWER LOSSES IN DYNAMOS
STRAY-LOAD
LOSS
ROTATIONAL LOSSES
(STRAY-POWER LOSSES)
ELECTRICAL LOSSES
copper losses
Hysteresis Loss
The hysteresis loss takes place in the revolving armature core
because the magnetic polarity in the iron changes in step with
changing positions of the magnetic material under various poles.
When an armature-core tooth is passing under a north pole,
its polarity will be south; the iron particles are then oriented with
their north ends pointing toward the shaft center. When this
same tooth moves under a south pole, its polarity will be north
and the iron particles will then be directed away from the shaft
center. The rapid jerking around of the tiny magnetic molecules
in the armature-core iron as it revolves rapidly causes a sort of
magnetic particle friction and produces heating.
Hysteresis Loss
In the modern dynamo, it depends upon the flux density in the
armature-core iron, the speed of rotation, the quality of the
magnetic iron, and the weight of the iron.
Ph = k h f w
1.6
Ph = k h ' $ w
kh = 6.2 x 10-10
1.6
Eddy-Current Loss
As the armature core revolves, voltages are generated in the
iron exactly as they are in the copper wires. These voltages are
objectionable, however, because they create a flow of current in
the iron core in eddies.
These eddy currents result because the generated voltages in
the iron near the outside surface are greater than those closer to
the center of the shaft because of the higher speed; the
difference in potential then causes currents to flow in the iron.
Eddy currents may be minimized by slicing or laminating the
armature core and then coating each lamination with a highresistance varnish.
Eddy-Current Loss
Eddy-current loss depends upon the core flux density, the
speed of rotation, the thickness of the laminations and the
volume of iron; it is independent of the quality of the magnetic
iron.
Pe = ke f t V
2 2
Pe = ke ' $ t V
2 2
Copper Losses
Copper losses always occur when there is a current flow
through the various copper circuits.
The various copper losses are (1) the armature-winding, (2)
the shunt field, (3) the series field, (4) the interpole field, and (5)
the compensating-winding field.
The shunt field loss is the only one that remains nearly
constant (except for minor line-voltage changes). Since the other
fields are always connected in the armature circuit, their losses
are almost proportional to the square of the load
Stray-load Loss
It results from such factors as:
the distortion of the flux because of armature reaction
lack of uniform division of the current in the armature
winding through the various paths and through the
individual conductors of large cross-sectional area
short-circuit
currents
in
the
coils
undergoing
commutation
The indeterminate nature of the stray-load loss makes it
necessary to assign it a reasonable value arbitrarily; it is usually
assumed to be 1% of the output of the machine when the rating
is about 150 kW (200 hp) or more; for the smaller ratings, the
stray-load loss is generally neglected when efficiency calculations
are made, without much loss of accuracy.
Efficiency of DC Generators
The efficiency of a dc generator is the ratio of the electrical
power output to the mechanical input, converted to watts.
watts output
% =
100%
watts input
Since watts input = watts output + watts losses,
watts output
% =
100%
watts output + watts losses
Efficiency of DC Generators
The two methods for determining the efficiency of a generator
are:
by directly measuring the total power output and the total
power input (direct efficiency test) this involves an actual
test upon the generator in which electrical instruments
measure the output, while a calibrated motor drives the
machine under test.
by making certain necessary tests from which various power
losses are determined (conventional method) - this involves
actual test upon the generator to determine the resistances of
the armature, interpole winding, series field winding,
compensating winding, and shunt field winding after which the
various copper losses are determined by calculations. A test is
also performed to measure the rotational loss.
Efficiency of DC Motors
The efficiency of a dc motor is the ratio of the mechanical
power output, converted to watts to the electrical input.
watts output
% =
100%
watts output + watts losses
The conventional efficiency of a motor may be determined in
exactly the same way as for a generator, with one exception. In
making the test for the rotational loss, the impressed voltage
across the armature must equal the terminal emf minus the
brush contact and armature-resistance drops at full load.
For Motor:
EA = V - Vb - IaRa
SPL = E A I A I RA '
2
A
2
A
Maximum Efficiency
If a test is performed upon a dynamo, or calculation are
made, to determine its performance, it will be found that the
efficiency increases with increasing values of load, reaches a
maximum and then proceeds to drop.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Maximum Efficiency
% max
watts output
=
watts output + 2constant losses
2$T
Hp =
k
Where: T = (scale reading dead weight) x length of arm
N = speed in rpm
Hp = horsepower output
k = 33 000 if T is in lb-ft
= 44 760 if T is in N-m
Sample Problems
1) The hysteresis and eddy current losses of a dc machine
running at 1000 rpm are 250 W and 100 W respectively. If
the flux remains constant, at what speed will the total iron
loss be halved.
2) In a dc generator, the iron losses at 1000 rpm are 10 kW at
a given field current. At a speed of 750 rpm and at the
same field current, the total iron losses become 6 kW.
Determine the iron losses at 500 rpm.
Sample Problems
3) The following information is given in connection with a 10
kW 250-V flat-compound generator: Rsh = 125 , Ra = 0.4
, Rse = 0.05 , SPL = 452 watts, Vb (assumed constant)
= 3 volts. Calculate the efficiency (a) at full load; (b) at
50% load
4) Using the given data of Prob. 3, calculate (a) the power
output of the generator when the efficiency is maximum;
(b) the maximum efficiency
Sample Problems
5) A 10-kW 220-V 1400-rpm shunt generator is operated at
rated speed as a motor. The armature takes 2.95 A from a
232-volt source. The total armature resistance including
brushes is 0.26 , and the shunt field resistance is 146.5
. Determine (a) the SPL; (b) the full load efficiency when
the machine is operating as a generator.
4)