Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Date: 01.03.2006/06.03.2006/07.03.2006
Session I-III
Topic: Chapter I
Faculty: Anita Kanavalli
MSRIT
Notes:
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (nodes) that use a
common network protocol to share resources with each other over a network medium.
interconnected collection of autonomous computers connected by a single technology
[Tanenbaum]
To share information or receive a service via a network, group members must be able to
communicate with each other.
The following is a figure which shows a communication model.
Communication Model
Source
Generates data to be transmitted
Transmitter
Converts data into transmittable signals
Transmission System
Carries data
Receiver
Converts received signal into data
Destination
Takes incoming data
The figure also shows an example of a public telephone network.
The networks can be classified as shown below
Wired, Wireless and Fiber Optic Networks
All the machines are connected using a wire and can share all the resources.
mobile
hosts
The above figure shows a wireless network. It consists of mobile machines such as
laptops and there is a base station it is called as access point. The machines can access
other network using the access point. The access point is wired to the router which is a
switching element and is inturn connected to the wired network. IEEE 802.11 describes
the wireless technology.
Fiber optic network:
The machines can be connected using the fiber optic cable. This is mainly used in
connecting the systems in the backbone. Different servers and ISP provider equipment
are the examples of the systems in the backbone. The fiber optic cable uses light as the
signal to transmit information in the cable. It offers good bandwidth and less interference
but it is expensive to use this cable.
LANs
company/univ local area network (LAN) connects end system to edge router
Ethernet:
shared or dedicated link connects end system and router10
Mbs,
100Mbps,Gigabit Ethernet
deployment: institutions, home LANs happening now
Occupies a small geographical area. Use only one type media and different
topologies. Printers scanners and machines can be connected.
LANs give lot of flexibility, speed ,reliability, adaptability, security private
ownership.
Connection to other LANs and WANs
MANs
It is larger than the LAN and occupies a city or a group of nearby corporate offices. It
uses the same technology as LAN. The example is the cable TV network. It uses the
coaxial cable. The service provider connects the home TVs this forms a large network.
The service is provided by the cable TV operator. Fiber optic cable is also used. It can
support both voice and data transmission.
WANs
Business applications
Resource sharing: end systems (hosts):
run application programs
e.g. Web, email
at edge of network
client/server model
client host requests, receives service from always-on server
e.g. Web browser/server; email client/server
Client/server model is applicable in an intranet.
E-mail: Now all the companies uses email as the means of communication
E-commerce: Now teleshopping and marketing is very popular and finding the
application in business
Mobile users are connected using network such as laptops palmtops etc
Like wise even home users have increased now and becoming popular.
hosts
routers
switches
links of various media
applications
protocols
reliability
connection type
How to simplify the complex structures. A layered structured can be used to reduce the
complexity. Most of the network are organized as a stack of layers or levels each one
built over the other. The number of layers and the name of the layers and the function of
each layer differ from network to network. The purpose of each layer is to offer service to
layer above it. Layer n on one machine carries conversation with layer n on another
machine. The rules and conventions used collectively known as the layer n protocol.
For example consider a five layered network.
State information
Error Control
Guard against loss or damage of data and control information
Error control is implemented as two separate functions:
Not a network architecture, because it does not specify the exact services and
protocols to be used in each layer, it just formally defines and codifies the concept
of layered network architecture
Each layer describe what happens at each stage in the processing of data for
transmission
Layers help to reduce complexity
Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions
Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers
The functions of different layers
Physical
responsible for transmitting raw bits over a communication path
concerned with issues such as
-mechanical interfaces, e.g. design of a network connector
-electrical interfaces, e.g. voltage level of bits
-procedural interfaces, e.g. whether transmission may
proceed simultaneously in both directions
Data Link
Responsible for the transfer of data between the ends of a physical link
Provides for error detection, "framing", and flow control
Resolves problems due to damaged, lost, or duplicate frames
Formatted messages are referred to as frames rather than packets
Network
Service primitives
A service is specified by a set of primitives available to a user process to access the
service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action
taken by a peer entity. The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the service
being provided. The primitives for connection oriented are different from the
connectionless service.
The five different service primitives for implementing a simple connection oriented
service
Listen: The server executes LISTEN to indicate that it is prepared to accept the incoming
connection. The server process is blocked until a request for connection appears
Connect: the client process executes a CONNECT call to establish the connection with
the server. Specify the address too.
When the server receives this packet it unblocks the server and sends back the
acknowledgement and this releases the client. At this point the client and server both are
running. The connection established.
A service is the set of primitives or operations where as protocol are the rules.
Example networks
Internet
X.25
First public data network
Connection number used for data transfer of packets
data packets contain 3 byte header and upto 128 bytes of data
X.25 replaced by Frame Relay
Frame Relay
Frame Relay is a way of sending information over a WAN by dividing data into
packets
It operates at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI reference model
It relies on upper-layer protocols such as TCP for error correction
Frame Relay is a switched data link-layer protocol that handles multiple virtual
circuits using (HDLC) encapsulation
Frame Relay interface can be either a carrier-provided public network or a
network of privately owned equipment, serving a single enterprise
Frame Relay benefits
Reduced internetworking costs
Statistically multiplexed traffic from multiple sources over private backbone
networks can reduce the number of circuits and corresponding cost of bandwidth
Lower Equipment Costs
Lower cost than dedicated leased lines
Mobility
Flexibility
Hard to wire areas
Reduced cost of wireless systems
Improved performance of wireless systems
Adhoc networks
Ad hoc network: IEEE 802.11 stations can dynamically form network without AP
Applications:
laptop meeting in conference room, car
interconnection of personal devices
battlefield
IETF MANET (Mobile Ad hoc Networks) working group
LAN generations
First
Typified by CSMA/CD and token ring
Provided terminal to host and client server
Moderate data rates
Second
Typified by FDDI
Needed for backbone LANs
Support of high performance workstations
Third
Typified by ATM
Provide the aggregate throughput and real time support for multimedia
applications
ATM
ATM is a high-speed switching network architecture
ATM can be used to carry data, voice, and video
separately or simultaneously over same network path
ATM has a robust quality of service (QoS)
can provide seamless interconnectivity between LANs and WANs
supports a wide range of data rates:
25 to 155 Mbps over copper
100 to 622 Mbps and higher over fiber
common implementation is 155-Mbps ATM
ATM is specified via a three-layer reference model:
Physical layer (OSIs physical layer)
ATM layer (generally OSIs data link layer)
ATM adaptation layer (AAL) (generally OSIs higher-level layers (transport,
session, and application)
Physical layer (2 sublayers)
Physical medium PM (lower sublayer)
definition for the medium
the bit-timing capabilities.
Transmission convergence (TC) (upper sublayer)
makes sure that valid cells are being created and transmitted
involves breaking off individual cells from the data stream of the
higher layer (the ATM layer)
checking the cells header
Encoding the bit values
ATM layer
service-independent layer
creates cell headers and trailers
defines virtual channels and paths and gives them unique identifiers
cells are multiplexed or demultiplexed.
ATM layer creates the cells and uses the physical layer to transmit them.
ATM adaptation layer (AAL) (2 sublayers)
Segmentation and reassembly SAR (lower sublayer)
packages variable size packets into fixed-size cells at the
transmitting end
repackages the cells at the receiving end
responsible for finding and dealing with cells that are out of order
or lost
convergence sublayer CS (upper sublayer)
provides the interface for the various services (e.g. data, voice, and
video).
users connect to CS through service access points
(SAPs).
ATM cells are always 53 bytes long
partitioned into
5 byte header contains addressing information
48 byte payload contains user data
ATM virtual connections consist of either
permanent or switched virtual circuits
that logically connect source and destination sites
Virtual circuits are identified by specific virtual channel identifiers (VCIs).
A collection of virtual channels that all have the same endpoints is called a virtual
path connection (VPC)
VPCs are specified by virtual path identifiers (VPIs)
Virtual connections established
VCI and VPI assignments are made dynamically by ATM end nodes and
switches at the time data are to be transmitted
VCI is not of interest to e.g. public switches they would only use the VPI
ATM LAN
Local area network emulation (LANE) interface
can provide a service interface for the network layer that functions exactly
as the same as Ethernet/802.3 and token ring
Questions:
1. Compare computer networks and distributed systems. What are the
applications of computer networks?
2. A system has a n layer hierarchy. Applications generate messages of M
bytes.At each of the layer a n byte header is added. What fraction of the
network bandwidth is filled with the headers?
3. Bring out the design issues of computer networks. Differentiate between
services and protocols.
4. Explain the following with respect to network software; protocol hierarchy,
protocol layers
5. Compare the connection oriented and connectionless services
6. Differentiate between broadcasting and multicasting
7. Why does ATM uses cells?
8. Explain client server model with an example.