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UMI
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A dissertation entitled
THE
by
A l e x a n d e r T.
Degree to be awarded:
Naughton
December 1 % a _ _
May 19_____
August 19
r '.s
"Major Professor
/? c
/
Date of Examination
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by
Alexander T. Naughton
Doctor of Philosophy
(Buddhist Studies)
at the
University of Wisconsin- Madison
1989
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Table of Contents
C h ap ter One General Introduction................................................1
Methodology Rationale................................................................. 2
G eneral Religion
What is Religion?........................................................................5
Religious T ru th ......................................................................... 22
Purva-paksa
....................................................................... 31
Y oga........................................................................................... 35
Buddhism, Christianity,and other traditions......................... 40
Some ethical considerations.................................................... 59
Sum m siy.................................................................................... 64
C h ap ter Two
Buddhist O m niscience......................................67
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263
iii
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Chapter One
General Introduction
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M ethodology
Rationale
The purpose of this study is to report on and examine certain
philosophical or theological opinions held by influential figures in
the history of Indian Mahayana Buddhism. The approach strives to
be impartial and objective, in the manner of a reporter. Personal
sympathy (if any) with these opinions is entirely irrelevant, as any
impulse to ridicule them is inappropriate. Thus it is hoped to avoid
the extremes of advocacy and denigration. Regardless o f what we
may think, people did have these ideas, and they did take them seri
ously enough to attempt to live by them. In the course o f examining
these opinions, it will be necessary to enter into the intellectual life
of Mahayana philosophy to a certain degree, but we should be wary
of any tendency to identify with this climate uncritically, or to feel
that we can or should understand this system from the inside. Indian
Mahayana has been extinct for almost a millenium, and the mindset
of those responsible for its development must always remain some
thing of a mystery to investigators from a different cultural, social,
or historical background. Nevertheless, insofar as we are dealing
with a system of thought that is primarily religious, it is vital to
recognize that these ideas were never meant to be studied in the
manner we propose. While it is true that the Buddhist tradition does
explicitly invite critical investigation, it is hardly likely that anyone
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of that time could have foreseen the modes of inquiry of the late
twentieth century. We are not Indian Mahayanists, and their per
spective and their insight is something which we can know only
from their remaining records, which are themselves products or ex
pressions of that insight and perspective. These texts were produced
from the inside, and were meant to be understood from the same
standpoint. We are stuck on the outside, and whatever we glean
from these texts will be at best oniy a partial re-creation of their
original significance. Yet this need not be considered a drawback,
for the process of development of any living culture or society
inevitably involves the re-creation and reinterpretation of its own
past. Thus in exploring an unfamiliar religion, not only do we
change it in rendering it accessible to an audience for which it was
never intended, but we are simultaneously also changed by it as we
appropriate whatever insights we may uncover (even mistakenly)
into our own understanding. The challenge is to do this in a manner
which is intellectually responsible to two opposing ideals: on the
one hand, to present unfamiliar ideas as accurately as possible, while
on the other hand making them comprehensible outside their proper
context. That this is possible at all is rather remarkable, and indi
cates the underlying unity of human nature, which can be easily
forgotten in the process o f splitting hairs. The scholars responsible
for the texts we shall investigate would doubtless have as much dif
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General Religion
What is Religion?
Religion, in one sense, is humanitys search for m eaning.1 It is
an expression of the need for human beings to feel that their lives
have meaning and cosmic significance, which is a fundamental necessity. Yet much of the troubles in the world today seem to be ex
acerbated by religion. For example, the protracted war between Iran
and Iraq, tensions in the Middle East, and the situation in Northern
Ireland, are all due at least in part to religious differences. So it is
apparent that the term "religion" is used to refer to a rather broad
range of phenomena. At the opposite end of the scale from the vari
ous prominent war-mongering religious fanatics, there are people
such as Mother Theresa, Bishop Desmond Tutu, and the present
Dalai Lama, who exemplify a totally different side of what it means
to be religious.
The word religion has an obscure derivation. It may be from the
word religare, tn bind, or it may have some other linguistic his
tory.3 However, following Tillich, we can give a general definition
1 Howlett: 1980, p. 284: "And what is religion? It is our attemnt as human beings
to grasp the meaning of our own existence and hat of the universe in which we
dwell. To no less a degree it is our attempt to relate to other human beings, to see
that their needs are the same as ours, and to meet them in so far as we are able."
2 This idea of the necessity of religion is expressed variously by Peter Berger,
Paul Tillich, and W. Cantwell-Smith.
3 See Smith: 1978, pp. 19-50
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uation has been true for some time, and it seems only to be getting
worse. However, it does entail a significant change in ones ap
proach to the world. Information has often been crucial for survival,
and highly prized by the minority who had access to it. In real
terms, it is doubtless still a numerical minority who have such
overwhelming access at present, but it is also a much higher per
centage of the world population, with increased ability to implement
their decisions. In fact, there is an overload of information, which
leads to the development of a capacity to ignore messages of one
sort or another. In this view, Buddhism is simply one among many
competing varieties of stimuli. But religion, as defined here, enables
and underlies participation in such a world.1 Therefore, any person
who is puzzled by aspects o f his or her own religious heritage, or
someone who simply wishes to be well-informed about the varietv
of products in the contemporary spiritual supermarket should inves
tigate the available alternatives. Buddhism is a comparatively lesserknown alternative, and has often been casually dismissed as pes
simistic and life-denying. The reasons for this have to do with the
general character of certain basic Buddhist doctrines. For instance,
Buddhism denies the existence of a self. This kind of assertion is ab
surdly outrageous,2 since our selves form such a fundamental part
1 Tillich: 1952 (p. 47) talks of "a meaning which gives meaning to all meanings".
2 Budvhists themselves admit this, and state quite explicitly that they picked the
self as the object of their negation because of this very character. Its supposed ex
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1 However, we should not have to "choose between being intellectual and being
pious" (Kitagawa: 1959, p. 7).
2 A similar point was made by Einstein in protesting the theories of quantum me
chanics, saying that "God does not play dice with the universe." Yet the physicist
Stephen Hawking (quoted in Howlett: 1980, p. 219) writes: "It therefore seems
that Einstein was doubly wrong when he said, 'God does not play dice with the
world.' Consideration of particle emission from black holes would seem to sug
gest that God not only plays dice but also sometimes throws them where they
cannot be seen." This amounts to agreement with the statement in Suzuki: 1968, p.
135 that "irrationality makes up human life." To accept this point of view is to
abandon any hope for a rationally meaningful life. It is also a peculiar position for
which to argue, as in Suzuki: 1968, p. 131: "Mere logicality has no spiritual force
which will compel us to follow it. Intellectual acquiescence occupies a corner of
our surface consciousness, it does not penetrate into the seat of one's inner per
sonality." Statements that humans are not fundamentally rational are inevitably
dogmatic, since they deny the applicability of reason itself.
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to ignore suffering people, that too becomes a cause for some future
state of our own existence.
Another principle we should bear in mind if we are to analyze or
construct (which are simply opposite movements along the same
axis) a religion along traditional lines is that it must embody two
separate aspects.1 On the one hand, for it to have a character tradi
tionally associated with religion, it must have reference to some
transcendent principle.2 Insofar as this principle is transcendent, it is
removed from all mundane concerns, and serves to relativize them
for the believer. 3 This will provide a stronghold for the believer
when mundane affairs are interrupted by tragedy. From the stand
point of the transcendent, nothing mundane is worth getting upset
about, and so the believer is able to prevent personal tragedy from
turning into self-destruction. However, if it is simply transcendent,
it becomes inaccessible to ordinary people, and thus there must be a
countervailing principle in virtue of which people can understand
that the transcendent does have some connection with their mundane
existence. This may be expressed as the principle of immanence.
The immanence aspect is directly accessible to all people, or at least
1 The ideas in this paragraph are derived from, if not directly traceable to. Gordon
Kaufman, and his experiments in "constructive theology".
2 W. C. Smith, in Kitagawa: 1959, p. 50fn: "every religion has to do with tran
scendent reality".
3 Friedrich Heiler, in Kitagawa: 1959, p. 156: "the greatest of all relativists is God
himself, the Absolute".
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!6
rating their methods.1 The Church has also exhibited the inveterate
tendency of all bureaucracies to become more concerned with its
own continuity (if not growth) than with serving any outside inter
ests, such as the purposes for which that bureaucracy was originally
instituted.
Christ promised Eternal Life, yet in an Indian context, eternal
life is a fair description of the problem religious adepts have at
tempted to solve. The language is similar, but the content is quite
different, so we must be wary of superficial analyses. Yet sweeping
generalizations also have their place, as ways of establishing broad
parameters within which further refinement will be necessary. The
appeal o f Buddhist doctrines is largely intellectual, whereas
Christianity speaks more to human emotions. Every person contains
both aspects to a greater or lesser degree, and their relative strength
is a factor which contributes to the individual personality or charac
ter. There is no question of right and wrong in this context, for it is
simply a matter of individual suitability. It may be compared to
artistic sensibilities. One person likes Rembrandt, while another's
favorite ir. deKooning, or one considers the music of Beethoven to
be the best, while another gives the prize to Charlie Parker.2 It is
1 See K. Thomas: 1971.
2 This fact was brought home to me quite dramatically by a friend who had been a
Zen monk for 10 years. When I asked him if he was a Buddhist, instead of the af
firmative answer which I expected, he replied that he considered himself to be a
Christian. This meant that when he needed religious solutions to his own prob-
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lems, Buddhist answers lacked the power to convince him, while Christian an
swers resolved his difficulties.
1 Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. My usage of "Semitic" to designate this group
is based on Smart: 1964, pp. 39,134,140,163, and 215.
L This is the axis of confrontation vs. inner realization which has been explored in
Berger: 1981.
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and State can reinforce each others power over individual citizens
and believers.
It is usual to classify religions into different traditions, such as
Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and so forth, based on
geographical and historical considerations. However, taking our lead
from Cantwell Smith1 and Duncan Howlett,2 we may instead assert
that religion is in fact a unity, that all of the so-called different
traditions are merely socially conditioned manifestations of the same
basic process: human response to the transcendent. Furthermore,
within this process, occurring all over the globe throughout all of
recorded history, there are several different strands that appear in
each of the various traditions. Rather than classifying by way of
tradition then, we might adopt a preliminary classification based on
types of response which cuts across traditional boundaries. For ex
ample, there is the response o f faith and devotionalism, found in the
proliferation of bhakti cults in India, as the very meaning of the
word Islam, in the Pure Land sects o f China and Japan, and in a va
riety of Christian denominations in the West. O f more interest for
our topic is what can be called the critical response, exemplified in
Mahayana Buddhism by Nagarjuna and the Madhyamaka school,
and the apophatic tradition of Christian theology. That is to say that
1 perhaps most clearly expressed in his most recent work. Towards a World
Theology. Full reference in bibliography.
2 Howlett: 1980.
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1 Any attempt to maintain that "all religious traditions are basically the same" is,
on the face of it, almost unbelievably presumptuous. (As in Tracy: 1987, p. 92:
"The belief that ultimately all the religious [sic] are finally one is implausible.")
However, it does seem apparent that religious values and religious expressions are
more easily converted across the boundaries of the various traditions than they are
translatable into stricdy secular terms.
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instance, they all function as religion in the special sense being used
here. As such, they all strive against suffering, despair, and human
misery in ail its forms. In these times when political leaders are
motivated more by opinion polls than by a desire to serve their
country and their fellow creatures, religious influence can help
make the difference between survival and extinction in the years
ahead. Therefore, all people concerned for the continued existence
of life on this planet should endeavor to make use o f all the skillful
religious techniques that have been developed over the millenia.
Buddhists need to leam from the Christian heritage of service and
social welfare activities. English speaking people can in turn benefit
from the wide variety of mental training exercises developed within
Buddhism as a viable alternative solution to the dilemma of suffer
ing.
Religious Truth
Leaving aside the issue of what truth is in itself,1 we move on to
the more limited notion of religious truth. As we have defined reli
gion, this is a kind of truth that makes an existential difference. It is
certainly true that 2 + 2 = 4, but it is difficult to imagine how that
could significantly affect someones basic world view. Religious
1 defined in Tracy: 1987, p. 121 as "fundamentally an event that happens to a
subject and is not under the control of any subject;" also Einstein's view of truth
(quoted in Howlett: 1980, p. 271) as "what stands the test of experience".
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truths (such as, "Jesus is the Son of God," or "All phenomena are
impermanent") function in certain specific ways. They may be
classed as religious either internally or externally, i.e., due to the
kind of language involved (concerning religious figures such as
Jesus or Mohammed), or due to the context in which they are used.
That is to say that the same statement, which gramatically appears to
be a universal proposition, such as the examples we have cited
above, may be true for a believer and untrue for a non-believer.
They may even be true for an individual at one time, but not at an
other. One definition of truth is as a property of propositions. Given
two propositions, P and not-P, only one is true, and so forth.
Religious truth does not fit this definition, since it is true only inso
far as it relates meaningfully to the person and situation in which it
occurs.1 Furthermore the relationship of truth to language is a diffi
cult one to establish. According to Buddhist theory, truth is not
monolithic. Depending on the form of Buddhism, there are two or
three or even more truths, aside from the well-known Four Noble
Truths. The classical Buddhist apoha theory is a good example of a
critical approach to language. A word designates a particular object
by means of excluding everything that is different from that object.
1 Buddhists (at least) were more interested in reality than truth, though they also
put a good bit of effort into examining the relationship between the two, especially
as mediated by propositions.
2 See Sharma: 1968; Matilal: 1971, pp. 39-46; H. Nakamura: 1986, p. 467; and
Tracy: 1987, pp. 53 and 56 for modem parallels.
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with even our ordinary experience. All names for colors are gener
alities, and language cannot convey the immediacy of a particular
perceptual experience, the multifacetedness of even the simplest
shape. Truth is itself just another word, another approximation,
which we are perfectly able to use and understand in everyday sit
uations, but when we attempt a deeper analysis, it becomes increas
ingly murky and elusive. Let us take a relatively simple example:
holding a pen, and saying, "This is a pen." We use this as an in
stance of a true statement, rather trivial perhaps, but still meaning
ful, yet when we examine it a bit more carefully, what precisely is
going on? First we have "this", a word used to designate an object
which is usually in close proximity to the speaker We have stated
that the speaker is holding an object. "This"- the immediacy of a
unique pattern of shape and color, light and shadow, and perspec
tive, added to the physical sensation o f grasping the object, in this
case employing both the senses of sight and touch, is experientially
irreducible. The word "this", being uttered as it is at a particular
moment in time, with reference to a composite experience, the na
ture of which is both unique and evanescent, implies the totality of
these different factors, which can never reoccur in precisely the
same manner. Although primarily indicating both a visual and a
tactile object, the other senses are not absent, they too form a part of
the "this", the grammatical subject of the sentence, which is itself so
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distorts the nature of our own experience. Even the approach that
"This is just this" does not withstand analysis, since it posits a spe
cial reality to the experience which cannot be justified or even dis
covered when sought for. What is this? The easy way out is to say,
"I don't know" and leave it at that, yet that is no more true than any
other answer, since we do in fact know what this is. That is to say,
while we say "this", the word itself designates the content of our
consciousness, and if we do not know that, we should probably
eliminate the word "know" from our vocabulary. "Of course I know
what this is, but I cant tell you." Words tend to falsify the nature of
experience, and so one of the best ways for you to know what this is
would be for me to show you. "This!" Yet your experience and
mine will inevitably differ in certain details, so even the word "this"
becomes an abstraction. It should not be supposed that the account
we have given of the relationship between language and experience
implies any defect in our language or our use o f it. What is m is
taken is simply the model of language as a means of reporting our
experience.1 Language is the way we talk about our experiences,
and as such it exists wholly intersubjectively and socially, while our
experiences are just the reverse, logically private and accessible to
no one except the subject. We abandon the correspondence theory of
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states that one should cultivate the ability to visualize certain scenes
from the Pure Land of the Buddha Am itayus "clear and fixed just
as you see the palms of your hands."1 If perception is taken as
indicative of reality, then we will have a problem deciding between
G. E. Moore's hand and the jewelled paradise of Amitayus. Yet if
perception does not indicate reality, then it is difficult to determine
how else we may ascertain it. The Buddhist way out of this dilemma
is to affirm the reality of both, in order to loosen the grip of our
common sense on what we consider to be the only reality. Moore's
hand is just as real as Amitayus, but no more so. The visualization
exercises presented in the text consist of a method of training our
consciousness to experience another reality, which in itself is no
more preferable than the ordinary one we are familiar with, but acts
as a finger pointing away from the reflection towards the real moon.
Such a redirection of our consciousness is not easy, and it runs the
risk of degenerating into insanity, but to dismiss it as impossible is
to fail to appreciate the tremendous power of our own minds in
creating our experience of reality.
Furva-paksa
With regard to enlightenment, there are probably many people
who may think something like this: Neither I nor anyone I know of
1 ibid., p. 178.
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Having put forth the purva paksa above, we may now proceed
to criticize it, and set forth what we hope will be a more convincing
argument. This alternative argum ent comprises the bulk of the re
mainder of this dissertation. First, regarding the possibility of en
lightenment: "It were fruitless to maintain that nirvana does not ex
ist because it is not an object of knowledge. -Certainly, nirvana is
not known directly, as colors, sensation, etc., are known; it is not
known indirectly, through its activity, as the sense organs are
known. Yet its nature and its activity... are objects of knowledge....
The yogin enters into meditation... becomes conscious of nirvana,
of its nature, of its activity. When he emerges from contemplation,
he cries: 'Oh! nirvana, destruction, calm, excellent, escape!' Blind
men, because they do not see blue and yellow, have no right to say
that those who have sight do not see colors and that colors do not
exist."1 The lives of all the saints throughout history have a special
quality about them, something which is inspirational, mysterious,
and admirable in the highest degree. Those known as saints have
most often lived lives of service to others, enduring almost unbe
lievable hardships in their quest for the ultimate meaning of life.
And their testimony by example is unanimous that such meaning
does in fact exist, and can be realized by individuals whose motiva
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Yoga3
1 Whether or not other factors not dependent on the individual are involved in this
process, personal motivation is certainly a ke> factor.
2 Eliade says: "the extreme suppleness of Yoga... can adapt itself to all religious
experiences and satisfy all needs" (op. cit., p. 159).
3 King: 1980, pp.13-14 (quoting E.J. Thomas, The Life of Buddha. 184-85): "All
that we know of the Yoga system is later than Buddhism, and no direct
comparison can be made about the origins, but we find it assumed in Buddhist
works that the practice of concentration was not original in Buddhism. What was
claimed as original was the true method - right concentration. A more important
cause of the resemblance between Buddhist practice and Yoga is the fact that they
developed side by side. Not only would there be comparison and imitation, but a
member of one sect might pass over to the other and take his methods with him."
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1 Eliade: 1973, p. 46: "We referred above to the similarity between Yoga and psy
choanalysis. And in fact the comparison can be made with certain reservations- all
of them, by the way, in favor of Yoga....The psychological and parapsychological
experience of the East in general, and of Yoga in particular, being incontestably
more extensive and better organized than the experience upon which Western the
ories of the structure of the psyche have beep, built up, it is probable that, on this
point too, Yoga is right and that- paradoxical as it may seem- the subconscious
can be known, mastered, and conquered." Also Evans-Wentz: 1960, p. 21 In
"yoga may be regarded as a system of applied psychology far more highly devel
oped than any known to Western Science."
2 Eliade: 1973, p. 17In: "Physiologically, the fourth jhana is characterized by the
arrest of respiration".
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been generated, then one will put a stop to the following false
views: (the view) that rationality does not put a stop to all percep
tion (controlled) by the mental constructions (such as) 'this is it;
(the view) that all practices before the generation of the authentic
view, such as the cultivation of the will to enlightenment, are but
truth-habits, or sign-habits; and (the view) that after one lays claim
to having generated in mind the authentic view, there will be no intentionality in all one's acts."1 This dense little passage both requires
and rewards some detailed consideration. First we have the three
"perceptual habits", or three different ways of viewing reality.
These are not so much a matter of speculation as they are of direct
experience. The three are regarding phenomena as existing objec
tively, not existing objectively, and simply perceiving them without
thinking about whether or not they exist objectively. Tsongkhapa's
"generation of the authentic view" may be taken as a synonym for
enlightenment, or ultimate spiritual realization or liberation. Thus
the difference between the enlightened or liberated individual and
the ordinary person lies in the second perceptual habit, that of re
garding phenomena as "objectively inexistent".2 The cultivation of
this perceptual habit constitutes the path to enlightenment, and the
1 Thurman: 1984, pp. 342-343. Also see Thurman's comments on this passage on
pp. 168-172.
2 See Eliade: 1973, p. 173 (quoting the Siksa-samuccaya): "Venerable monks,
acquire the samilpatti that consists in the cessation of all conscious perception.
The bhikku who has acquired it has nothing more to do."
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1 Eliade: 1974.
2 Similarities between Buddhism and Yoga are so pronounced that H. Beckh de
clared that "Buddhism is through and through nothing but Yoga" (quoted in C. A.
F. Rhys-Davids: 1927, p. 698).
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1 see Cowell: 1981-4, p. 128n: "The Jstaka gives the Khattiyas, or Warriors,
precedence over the Brahmins." Also p. 191, listing the castes in order "Khattiya,
Brahmin, Vessa, Sudda".
2 Kosambi: 1970, p. 135.
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mouth is the
Brahmins, his shoulders are the ksatriyas, his belly is the vaisyas,
and his feet are the sudras. The organic unity and interdependence
of each separate unit is emphasized in this myth. In order to ensure
smooth functioning of the social m echanism , each part must
perform its own task in the proper manner.
Yet outside of this organic whole, ever since there are records
available in India, there is a diverse crowd of wandering holy men
or sramanas. 2 One of the most important cultural aspects in the de
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in the forest. Thus this "drop out" option was not merely available
to everyone, it was highly respected as a worthy undertaking. This
again is further evidence of the overwhelming value placed on spiri
tual practice by Indian culture. Yet these people were not simply
"life-denying", it was rather that they may simply have been in
tensely aware of the inherent dissatisfactions of worldly existence.
O f course, as in any culture at any time, there were many who were
not bothered by such things in the slightest, and enjoyed life to the
full. Hedonists in India generally had the resources at hand to make
their lives quite pleasurable. Such works as the Kama Sutra, the
carvings at Khajuraho, the poetry o f Kalidasa and many others, all
of this points to the fact that many (if not most) Indians were very
much enthralled by the joys of this life.
Buddhism has always been an international religion. It is not
bound to any particular geographical region, as the Western tradi
tions are, nor is it confined within any one culture, as are Hinduism,
Confucianism, or Shinto. It arose and flourished within a pluralistic
milieu, and one of its most striking features is the incredible variety
of teachings that it encompasses. Buddhist scriptures, the Word of
the Buddha, number in the hundreds, even without counting the
historically later Mahayana works. The sheer volume of texts at
tributed to the Buddha is many times the size of the Christian Bible.
Throughout his teaching career, Sakyamuni encountered thousands
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saying that some people are luckier than others. Those who receive
grace will succeed, while others fail.1 But this is not a very satisfy
ing answer for anyone who believes in a rational universe insofar as
it enshrines the principal of arbitrariness or capriciousness as being
fundamental to human existence.2 Such a principal is inimical to the
belief that human life has a comprehensible meaning and purpose,
which belief, following Peter Berger, we take to be just as essential
to human existence as food, water, or shelter. The problem for
Dante, as for traditional Christian theory, is that a finite cause of
one lifetime leads to an infinite result, either in Hell or Paradise
(including all those upwardly mobile souls in Purgatory), which is
quite simply unfair. Stated in a different way, this is the theodicy
problem: given that God is both all powerful and compassionate, a)
why does evil exist at all, and b) more specifically, why do virtuous
people suffer while vicious people prosper? Given the basic as
sumptions presented above, this problem is an extremely difficult
one, and it has spawned thousands if not millions of pages of analy
sis over the centuries. Traditional Indian philosophy has avoided
1 We may note within the mystical movement in Christianity a return to the idea,
officially regarded as heredcal, that the individual can attain salvadon by his own
effort. Humility seeking grace shades over into coercing grace, which negates an
essendal feature of grace as a pure gift from God. If you make yourself reccpdve
enough, the grace is bound to appear.
2 Boethius (in Watts: 1988, p. 50) has Philosophy ask this question: "Do you be
lieve that this life consists of haphazard and chance events, or do you think it is
governed by some rational principle?" Boethius opts for the latter alternative,
which in this argument as well is the only rational choice.
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1 Lafcadio Hearn refers to "the big question. Is the universe moral?" and replies
that "This is a question to which one has to believe hat the answer is Yes." And
Boethius (in Watts: 1988, p. 116) sets down the principle that "sin never goes un
punished or virtue unrewarded".
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1 See Speyer: 1982, p. 120: "How can happiness be expected for him who
commits a wicked action, though unwitnessed? As little as for him who has taken
poison unseen." Also p. 198: "in the strongholds of vice there dwells no bliss,"
and p. 325: "it is also an impossibility that good actions should have evil as their
result." Compare Benjamin Franklin in Lemisch: 1961, p. 331: "without Virtue
Man can have no Happiness in this world".
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1 as it has been defined (in the West) since the late 18th century. See Passmore:
1970, p. 163.
2 bodhi meaning "enlightenment and citta meaning "mind, a literal translation is
"mind of (or for) enlightenment," but perhaps "spirit of enlightenment" is better,
insofar as it implies the kind of continuing resolve that the word "mind" does not
3 The standard abbreviation for the Abhisamaydlamkara.
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Mahayana definition of this key concept,1 and it illustrates the twoway nature of Mahayana spirituality. Early Mahayana criticized the
Hinayana Abhidharm a practitioners for being overly concerned
with their own advancement, and insufficiently aware o f their con
nection to other beings. Thus the goal for the Mahayana becomes
the enlightenment o f all beings, and since one of the main defini
tions of enlightenment is the fulfillment of all desires, this may be
regarded as a supremely ethical goal. A bodhisattva dedicates him
self to achieve enlightenment, which is the fulfillment of all his de
sires, only in order to assist him in helping other beings achieve
their own enlightenment. Prior to enlightenment, people are af
flicted with ignorance, and thus no one short of a Buddha can know
what is the most ethical action to undertake in any particular cir
cumstance.2 When enlightenment is attained, one's own desires are
no longer a part of the picture, and one has not only the wisdom to
* Obermillenl931, p. 249: "The Cusmical Body, perfectly delivered, and its mani
festations Represent the fulfillment of one's own aim and of that of others."
Compare the description of King Alfred in Keynes: 1983, p. 44: "he continued his
quest for knowledge o f divine wisdom, both for his own sake and for the benefit
of others".
2 This is graphically illustrated in a tale from the Ch'an tradition, wherein the
Master Nan Ch'uan challenges his disciples to prove their enlightenment. This
challenge is greeted by silence (not to be confused with the silence of
Vimalakirti!), whereupon Nan Ch'uan kills a c a t I take the point of this story to be
that all actions short o f attaining enlightenment are tantamount to killing the cat,
insofar as they are performed without an accurate understanding o f their conse
quences. See Cleary: 1977, pp. 406-408. Also Jaini: 1979, p. 66, quoting a Jaina
text: "How can an ignorant person be compassionate, when he does not know
good from evil?"
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Summary
Taking Cantwell Smith seriously, we can regard the phe
nomenon of world religion as a global expression o f humanity's re
lation with the immanently transcendent (or transcendently imma
nent) which lies at core of human faith. We may also note that hu
man nature has reacted in certain patterns characteristic of religious
traditions around the world. It is no longer a set o f discrete separate
religious traditions, each conditioned by the time and location of
their genesis and subsequent development, but rather a broad spec
trum of religious experience and religious language which finds ex
pression through the media of the various traditions. There is the
importance of revealed scriptures, either directly from the source (as
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1 "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you." Chan: 1969, p.
39.
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Chapter Two
Buddhist Omniscience
Katz: 1982, p. 255:
Omniscience, at least for one who is not himself omniscient, is
merely an opinion.
*
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ated things, and none beside thee."1 With the development of the
Upanisads we are on firmer ground, for here the Sanskrit word for
"omniscience" does appear.2 The general tendency of the Upanisads
is to equate omniscience with knowledge of the dtman or soul,3
though there is still ascription of omniscience to the god Visnu, for
exam ple.4 The movement from the Vedas to the Upanisads thus
presents a change in the concept of omniscience. What used to be
reserved for the gods is now accessible to certain people as well,
those who seek the dtman. Yet knowledge of the dtman is not what
we normally take the word "omniscience" to mean. This indicates
that omniscience has several different meanings within Indian phi
losophy and religion, of which the literal or common meaning, of
knowing everything, is perhaps the least interesting. Thurm an5
compares "omniscience" to "omnivorous," pointing out that the lat
ter certainly does not mean that one has already eaten everything,
1 ibid., p. 567.
2 The word in Sanskrit is sarvajna, sarva meaning all, or everything and jna
the regular verbal root, cognate with our English "to know".
3 Hume: 1975, p. 100: "with the seeing of, with the hearkening to, with the
thinking of, and with the understanding of the Soul, this world-all is known."
Also p. 114: "he who knows that thread and the so-called Inner Controller knows
Brahma, he knows the worlds, he knows the gods, he knows the Vedas, he
knows created things, he knows the Soul, he knows everything." Finally, p. 146:
"in the Soul's being seen, hearkened to, thought on, understood, this world-all is
known."
4 ibid., p. 452: "Vishnu, the ultimate abode, endowed with true desires and with
omniscience".
3 in a private conversation.
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but rather that one is prepared to eat anything that is edible, which
excludes a large number of things. Analogously, omniscience may
be regarded as a potential rather than a fa it accompli, the ability to
know everything that is knowable, without having already known it
all. And the limitation of this kind of omniscience to that which is
knowable is an important distinction, since it would exclude all fu
ture events at least,1 as well as a large proportion of past events.
This kind of omniscience we muy call a figurative or metaphorical
omniscience, as opposed to the more common literal omniscience.
The kind of omniscience that is referred to in the Upanisads as syn
onymous with knowledge of the dtman may be designated a spiri
tual omniscience, since in knowing the dtman as identical with the
fundamental nature o f reality, one knows an underlying feature of
all seemingly separate phenomena. These various different kinds of
omniscience appear within the Buddhist tradition as well.
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*
for our purposes are Sakyamuni Budda and Mahavira, who founded
the religious traditions o f Buddhism and Jainism.1 Jaina religious
eschatology maintained that the soul had an innate capacity for
knowledge, which was obscured by layers of karma, or accumulated
sinful actions. Through religious practice, largely consisting of aus
terities, these layers could be burned off, and once they were all
gone, the soul would be liberated. Having removed all obstacles to
the soul's cognition, it would naturally follow that the soul would be
omniscient. The Jains called this knowledge of the liberated soul
kevala-jnana, 2 and their insistence upon the reality of this attain
ment forms one of the hallmarks of Jaina doctrine.3 This is consis
tent both with Jaina sources themselves and with reports of Jaina
doctrines in the Pali scriptures. We find Abhaya the Licchavi saying
in the Anguttara Nikaya : "Sir, Nathas son, the Unclothed, claims
eral meaning quite unrecognizable. In this respect, the Upanisads form the con
servative branch of the religious revolution that sweeps across India at this time.
1 Both Sakyamuni and Mahavira claimed to be simply reviving or passing along
older traditions, but for our purposes we may regard them as establishing new
ones. See Smart: 1964, p. 62: "Though the last great teacher, Vardhamana (often
entitled Mahavira) was a contemporary of the Buddha's and had a not dissimilar
career, there is reason to suppose that he was merely restoring and amplifying an
existing religion; while the Buddha... was (it seems) much more of an innovator".
2 Jaini: 1979b, p. 258.
3 ibid., p. 260: "absolute omniscience is in their tradition the fundamental criterion
for liberation". Also, Jayatilleke: 1980, p. 204, quoting Jacobi's Jaina Sutras, says
that omniscience was "one o f the fundamental dogmas of the Jains". Similarly for
Bhaskar: 1976, p. 243: "The whole Jaina literature seeks to establish the fact that
Jain Tirthankaras are omniscient while denying the omniscience of any other."
Also Solomon: 1962, p. 41 n: "It was the Jainas who were most concerned with
the question of omniscience." And again on p. 69: "The Jainas were the
staunchest supporters of the doctrine of omniscience."
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2 Finally, the C u la -
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There are other similar passages in the Pali suttas, 1 but to ensure
that the Buddhists are not misrepresenting this position of the Jainas,
we may turn to their own sources, where we find: "the Jaina view of
omniscience... may be now defined as an immediate and direct
knowledge of all the objects of the universe, past, present and fu
ture, subtle and remote, far and near, by a single ever-lasting act of
knowledge requiring no assistance from the senses and even mind."2
Jaini also discusses the nature of Jaina omniscience in this way:
"Such knowledge is compared to a mirror in which every one o f the
innumerable existents, in all its qualities and modes, is simultane
ously reflected. These 'knowables' are cognized without any volition
whatsoever on the part of the arhat. Furthermore, no activity of the
senses or mind is involved; there is only direct perception by the
soul."3 So this Jaina omniscience would seem to be a literal kind of
omniscience, which outside of the Jaina tradition is usually reserved
for deities. It is an automatic kind of knowledge, requiring "no vo
lition" and "no activity of the senses or mind". In fact, "omniscient
cognition and sensory cognition are held to be mutually antitheti
cal".4 This follows from the Jaina conception of the soul, which is
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cided to give his first teaching to the group of five monks with
whom he had previously engaged in various ascetic practices. While
on his way to meet them, he encounters an ascetic named Upaka.
Upaka notices that Sakyamuni doesn't look like an ordinary fellow,
so he asks him,
"who is your teacher, or whose dhamma do you profess?' When
this had been said, I, monks, addressed Upaka, the Naked
Ascetic, in verses:
'Victorious over all, omniscient am I'"1
That is to say, on the basis of the previously mentioned three kinds
0
very natural one to us, and the fact that it portrays Sakyamuni in
such an uncomplimentary way directly after his enlightenment is
probably good evidence for its authenticity. No later redactor would
be likely to make up such a story. Even though Upaka recognizes
1 Homer: 1954, p. 214. Also E. Thomas: 1975, p. 83.
2 Thomas: 1975, p. 83. Also Homer: 1954, p. 215.
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1 H om er 1957, p. 199.
2 Katz: 1982, p. 134, points out that, "religion based on such claims as omni
science is one of the four types which are not necessarily false, but yet unsatisfac
tory, as the Buddha found that, upon analysis, some claims of those said to be
omniscient were indeed valid, but not necessarily so. Furthermore, even in such
cases where the claims were tound to be valid, their basis was unsatisfactory be
cause it relied not on the effort and direct knowledge of the practitioner, but on his
possibly faulty memory.
J From H om er 1957, pp. 199-200; Chalmers: 1926, pp. 368-369.
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possess om niscience.1 At one point in the M aha-P arinibbanaSutta, 2 Sariputta3 addresses the Buddha thus: "Lord! such faith
have I in the Exalted One, that methinks there never has been, nor
will there be, nor is there now any other, whether wanderer or
brahmin, who is greater and wiser than the Exalted One, that is to
say, as regards the higher wisdom." This is quite a natural
+
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Transitional stages
1 Singh: 1974, pp. 57-58: "A religion whose prophet knows everything will be
very easily accepted to be higher than another whose prophet is not so. It was this
very desire of some Buddhists which motivated them to declare Buddha to be the
knowerof everything."
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1 Concerning the date of the Milinda-panha, see Homer: 1969, pp. xxi-xxiii.
2 commonly abbreviated as PP.
3 Conze: 1978, p. 1
4 Conze trans, p. 100
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stasy."1 Conze himself, who probably was more familiar than any
W esterner (and most Orientals) with this literature, says, "the
Prajnaparamita sutras in turn fascinate and exasperate the student, in
turn raise him to the very heights of elation, and then again reduce
him to a condition of baffled helplessness."2 However, we may
venture to make a few tentative observations, keeping in mind that
whoever wrote the P rajnaparam ita
never agree with anything we try to say about them. The first point
is linguistic, and is simply that the word here translated as "all
knowledge" is indeed sarvajnata, an abstract form o f the same
word used in the Pali literature for the omniscience o f Buddha and
Mahavira. The Buddha here retains his faculty of omniscience, but
both Buddha and omniscience are very different from what we
found in the Pali sources. Furthermore, this seems to be om ni
science in the secondary sense noted above, that is not a complete
permanent knowledge of everything, but a knowledge of perfect
wisdom, which is generally understood to imply a realization of
emptiness. This type of omniscience is thus not very different from
the spiritual or Upanisadic type, where it is regarded as the culmi
nation of intensive meditative analysis. The mere term perfect wis
dom, considered in isolation, is not a bad gloss of the literal mean
1 quoted in Joshi:1983, p. 7.
2 Conze: 1947, p. 63.
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1 Hikata: 1983, p. xx: 'This term 'Sarvajna' is frequently used in Rrajnaparamitasutras as a synonym of Buddha." Also Suzuki: 1968, p. 35n: "SarvajnatH = all
knowledge. When the Prajfia is perfected, this is attained. "All-knowledge" be
longs to Buddhahood, it is what constitutes the essential nature of the Buddha.
"All-knowledge" and "Enlightenment" (sambodhi) are interchangeable terms in
the Prajnaparamita Sutras, and also in the G andavyaha. Also p. 222:
"Supreme enlightenment is no other than all-knowiedge, sarvajnata, to which
reference is constantly made in all the Mahayana texts. All-knowledge is what
constitutes the essence of Buddhahood. It does not mean that the Buddha knows
every individual thing, but that he has grasped the fundamental principle of
existence and that he has penetrated deep down into the center of his own being."
2 for a traditional biography, see Wallesen 1923.
3 see Tucci:1934, p. 308: "Sarvadosavinirmuktam gunaih sarvair alamkrtam 1
pranamya sarvajnam aham sarvasattvaikabSndhavam II [translated as] Having paid
homage to the AU-knower, the only friend of all living beings, who is devoid of
every defect, but adorned with every good attribute". Hopkins: 1975 gives the
following translation of the same verse: "I bow down to the all-knowing, Freed
from all defects, Adorned with all virtues, The sole friend o f all beings." (Cbnze's
review of the Hopkins translation, JRAS No. 2, 1976, pp. 165-166, calls it "a
travesty of a precise and subtle original.")
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to mean within Mahayana. The word itself remains the same, but its
meaning is undergoing a transformation.
We should mention here that there is another work attributed to
N agarjuna and extant only in Chinese, the M a h a p r a jn a paramitdpadesa-sastra (MPPS). There is mention o f both sarvajha
and sarvdkdrajna in this work, but following Hikata we may pre
sume that the presence of the latter, as well as any distinction be
tween these two terms, is probably more properly attributed to
Kumarajiva rather than Nagarjuna. Yet even in this text, although
both terms are used, there is no clear distinction between them, with
Buddha acclaimed as omniscient (sarvajna and/or sarvdkarajna ),
while such an attainment is denied to Hinayana practitioners.1 This
text is probably earlier than the Prajnaparamita Sutra in 25,000
Lines mentioned above.
1 Powers, p. 23.
2 Anackcn 1984, pp. 16-17.
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standpoint.
and the
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that m ention sa rx a jn a
sarvakarajiia
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1 Thurman: 1979, pp. 22-23 [saj], 145 [sj], 193-194 [saj], 273 [saj], 365 [sj], and
367 [saj]. The first citation is not extant in the Sanskrit edition, but the rest corre
spond respectively to Bagchi: 1970, pp. 70,94, 132,178, and 179. This list has
been drawn up based on Nagao: 1958.
2 Again, based on Nagao: 1958.
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* The exact dates o f Kumarila are unclear, but whether or not he postdates
Dharmakirti, it is likely that similar arguments were current in Dhamtakini's day.
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to inform the content of his discourse, but also the compassion for
the suffering of others to provide his motivation. In this sense, then,
he is the perfect teacher, praised as omniscient. Liberation results
from the elimination of ignorance, so his teaching is accepted as
authoritative. In his capacity as the supreme teacher, Buddha must
also theoretically have access to mundane information as well, to be
used in the context of teaching as the situation demands. And while
it may not be possible to prove that such an omniscient person ac
tually exists, it is no more possible to prove that such an existence is
itself impossible. Dharmakirti held the traditional Buddhist opinion
that consciousness is luminous by nature, and that the various de
filements and impurities which diminish its capacity are not essen
tial but adventitious. Thus when consciousness is purified of all
defilements, its capacity for knowledge should become infinite.
Dharmakirti's position on this issue is recognizably similar to that of
the M ilin d a -p a fih a ,
Solom on,
M ookerjee,
entire
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Buddha's status as the perfect teacher is the main issue, and here we
find that the Buddhist doctrines are accepted as valid only after they
have been critically analyzed. In this context the goldsmith quote
occurs again.1 Thus Buddha's doctrines are said to withstand ra
tional criticism, and for this reason Buddha is hailed as omniscient.
It is otherwise in the case of teachers whose doctrines rely on their
alleged omniscience. The quality of omniscience being non-perceptible (at least to non-omniscient people), its non-apprehension is no
proof of its non-existence, it is at most an occasion for doubt.2 Yet
since Buddhist doctrines are said to be established by logical proofs,
omniscience is not regarded as the exclusive property of Sakyamuni.
if other teachers propound doctrines which agree with what has
been proven before, or can withstand logical analysis, Santaraksita
is willing to acknowledge their omniscience as well.3 Insofar as they
understand the true nature of reality, they are Buddhas. Omniscience
results from the elimination of all obscurations and hindrances to
cognition, as in Jainism. In this way omniscience is not caused as
much as it is revealed or uncovered.4 Santaraksita says that an om
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1 ibid., p. 1466.
2 ibid., p. 1504: "Through particular practices of Yoga, the mind o f the Mystics
and their Cognitions come to be o f superior order."
3 ibid., p. 1512.
4 ibid., p. 1521.
5 ibid., p. 1515.
6 ibid., p. 1516.
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Sum m ary
We Fmd that the concept of omniscience in Buddhist philosophy
gives us a way c f understanding the development of Buddhism
within India. From examining the issues connected with this term
we can easily discern a tendency within Buddhism to exalt the ab
stract at the expense of the concrete. To begin with, Sakyamuni was
noticeably uncomfortable with any claims for omniscience, made
about either him or others. His concern was much more matter-offact, dealing with ordinary experience and statements that could be
made on that basis alone. However, soon after his death, we find
that statements were attributed to him which begin to open the door
for claims by later Buddhists to be following an omniscient teacher.
This is the natural outcome of early Buddhists wishing to uphold the
superiority o f their own teacher and his doctrine in the face of rival
1 Hopkins: 1983, p. 120
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1i 1
Chapter Three
Haribhadra and his Sphutartha
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generations would put the AA somewhere near the late 6th century
at the earliest. This makes Bhadanta Vimuktisena Haribhadras
teacher and the pupil of Arya Vimuktisena, and this is in faci what
Mano says in his study as well.* However, one difficulty with this
view is that Arya Vimuktisena is traditionally taken to be a pupil of
Vasubandhu.^ Since Vasubandhu (and his brother Asanga) can be
fairly definitely placed in the 4th century ,3 this leaves rather a large
gap between Arya Vimuktisena and Haribhadra. Given the current
state of our knowledge of the development c f Mahayana in India, it
is impossible to resolve this issue with any certainty. My own
opinion is that Mano's view is probably correct, placing the AA at
the end of the 6th century. A close examination of the commentaries
of the Vimuktisenas might help to determine their dates, but that is
a task that must be left to another day. Ruegg^ gives a good account
of what little is known of the two Vimuktisenas. A contemporary
Tibetan account, showing a concern for historical detail which is
quite ncn-traditional, makes Bhadanta Vimuktisena the pupil of
Arya Vimuktisena, and then interposes three other masters between
Bhadanta Vimuktisena and Haribhadra, who kept tb? lineage going
1 Mano: 1972, pp. 4,12. Unfortunately he gives no references for his statements
on this issue.
2 One of the famous four pupils of Vasubandhu, who each surpassed their
teacher in one area. See Anacken 1984, p. 2, quoting Obermiller: 1964-2, pp. 147,
149, and 155. Also sec Chattopadhyaya: 1980, pp. 188-189.
3 Anacker: 1984, p. 10, gives Vasubandhu's dates as 316-396.
^ Ruegg: 1968, pp. 305-308.
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1 14
and
V a iro c a n a b h a d ra .^
He specialized in
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1 15
H aribhadra's patron
esp ecially
the
P r a jh a p a r a m ita s
and the
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1 16
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1 17
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1 18
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119
had
been
virtually
m onopolized
by
the
rival
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120
T he Sphutartha
It has been more than ten years since Edward Conze called for a
"m uch-needed
ed itio n
and
tran slatio n
of
H arib h ad ra's
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121
Sphutartha ".1 In that time Conze himself has died, leaving behind
him an impressive legacy of Prajnaparamita scholarship and vivid
memories o f a powerful personality. Professor Amano has pub
lished a series of articles consisting o f an edition o f a Sanskrit
manuscript of the Sphutartha which is complete except for the first
chapter,- and this combined with his previous edition of the Tibetan
text forms a solid basis for a translation. This Sanskrit text has been
the subject of some mystery, ever since Tucci announced its immi
nent publication in 1956.3 He died without fulfilling this promise,
and without Professor Amano's diligent scholarship it is extremely
doubtful if this text would ever have seen the light of day. The
Sphutartha is a valuable text for a number of reasons. For many
Tibetan scholars, Haribhadra is the central figure through whose
works Prajnaparamita and the Abhisam ayalamkara are studied.
The Sphutartha is otherwise known to the Tibetans as the "Short
Commentary," distinguished from Haribhadra's A loka or "Long
Commentary." The Sphutartha is compact enough to be manage
able, yet comprehensive enough to give a full picture of the con
tents of the Abhisamayalamkara, and it served as the basis for the
Tibetan commentary of rGyal Tshab Dar Ma Rin Chen, the disciple
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122
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123
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124
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* See Katz: 1982, pp. 279-280. Also Suzuki: 1968, p. 150, speaking of the rise of
MahSySna, says: "This development had run steadily toward exclusive rsceticism
on the one hand and toward the elaboration of philosophical subtleties on the
other. This meant that Buddhism, instead of being a practical, social, everyday re
ligion, had turned into a sort of mysticism which keeps its votaries on the giddy
height of unapproachable abstractions making them refuse to descend among
earthly entanglements. Such a religion may be all very well for the elite, for Arhats
and Pratyekabuddhas, but it lacks vitality and democratic usefulness when it is
kept from coming in contact with the concrete affairs of life." This same quote
could be applied to later Mahayana in India, and the Tantric reaction against it.
^ Compare Alfred North Whitehead (quoted in Howlett: 1980, p. 146): "Religion
will not regain its old power until it can face change in the same spirit as does
science. Its principles may be eternal, but the expression of those principles re
quires continual development."
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126
* Speyer: 1982, p. 218: "In this manner a false doctrine cannot bear strong argu
ments, because it has no suppon, and is to be avoided."
^ Eliade: 1973, p. 175: "All the truths revealed by the Buddha must be tested in
the Yogic fashion".
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127
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128
o f "transcendental
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129
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130
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131
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132
then
Paths an d Stages
* any more than there can be any guarantee that the sun will rise tomorrow.
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133
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134
most demanding ideal one could set for a religion. Yet even during
the ministry of Paul we can notice that perfection is not regarded as
a reasonable goal.* This became the focus of the controversy be
tween Augustine and Pelagius, the former holding that human effort
was ineffectual for spiritual attainment, and the latter taking the op
posite position. Augustine won this battle,2 but the war between the
different understandings of the role of human effort was not over
by any means.2 With the Reformation, expectations were lowered
yet again, since Luther and Calin both believed that human effort
was not equal to the task of obtaining Gods blessing/* Sketching
* Paul says "I do not the good that I want, but the evil that I do not want,"
(Romans 7:19) indicating that he feels himself powerless to prevent what he
knows is wrong.
2 Howlett: 1980, pp. 82-83, notes that Augustines influence led to "the collapse
of critical thought in the West". We may speculate in passing that Augustine's the
ory of dual predestination, where some are saved and others aren't, may have had
some connection with the political situation in his day, where some were Roman
citizens, entitling them to special privileges and superior status, while the rest, be
ing non-Romans, were in an inferior position.
2 Passmore: 1970, pp. 85-86: "Most fundamental of all, however, in forming
Christian attitudes to perfectibility is that feeling which underlies so much
Christian teaching, that man is by nature guilty, sinful, in such a way and to such a
degree that not even Christ's sacrifice, although it saved man from the worst con
sequences o f his sin, could wholly perfect him." Compare Altizen 1983, p. 359:
"A full and actual use of self-consciousness first historically appears in Paul's let
ters, and here it is a negative language, indeed, a self-negating language, as the 'I'
of self-consciousness knows itself as a sinful and guilty conscience and con
sciousness, a carnal or fleshly 'I' that is wholly and totally imprisoned by sin. For
the first time in history a full and total impotence of the will is now manifest and
actual at the center of consciousness, and that impotence is the site of the dawning
voice of self-consciousness, a lacerated and self-lacerating voice which can speak
only by speaking against itself."
4 Passmore: 1970, p. 14: "Luther vehemently rejects the view that, in their earthly
life, men can achieve perfection;" and p. 134: "for orthodox Protestantism... hu
man corruption is too profound to be entirely healed". This rather dim view of
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13 5
v ,
illlCulu uCw
lM
tllV IV
W wiTv
significant ex
human potential is shared by Aquinas, who held that "no man can achieve perfec
tion in this life, no matter how hard he tries and however much God helps him
(quoted in Passmore: 1970, p. 103).
1 This serves to emphasize the point made earlier, that instead of considering reli
gion under the usual classification into different traditions such as Buddhism,
Christianity, and so forth, we will do better to group similar types of religion from
different traditions together, leading to faith-oriented religion, path-oriented reli
gion, mysticism, and so forth. H. Nakamura: 1986, p. 470: "one needs to be criti
cal, as Paul Tillich has said, of any disposition to present any one religious tradi
tion in narrow, static terms of a particular type".
^ R, Brown: 1958, p. 191: "St. Francis... utterly transformed himself into Jesus
through love and compassion."
3 As noted in R. Brown: 1958, p. 281: 'There are seven degrees in contemplation:
fire- unction- ecstasy- contemplation- taste- rest- glory."
4 As indicated ir a saying of Brother Giles, a companion of St. Francis (quoted in
R. Brown: 1958, p. 271): "Men fail to attain perfection because of their own neg
ligence."
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136
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137
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13 8
for more than a millenium, and almost every technical term that oc
curs could be the topic for a dissertation in itself. It would be par
ticularly instructive to compare the account of the path given by
Haribhadra to that of the MSA, for example. Unfortunately my own
expertise in this field is still at a raiher low level, and so I have been
more concerned with the meaning of Haribhadra's text than with its
intellectual context. This issue also involves my own choice of
terminology in translating the various technical terms that come up.
In several cases I have taken the easy way out, and simply left them
in Sanskrit, adding plural endings as necessary. In others I have
used the same English word to translate different Sanskrit terms,
such as "nature" and "transcendence," which between them account
for at least half a dozen different Sanskrit originals. On the other
hand, I have also used different English terms to translate an identi
cal Sanskrit term in different places. This is partly due to the size of
the text itself, and the fact that it has undergone a number of revi
sions. Thus I consider this translation to be tentative at best, and in
consistent at times. However, particularly in the final revision, I
have attempted to express in fairly plain English what I take to be
the idea that Haribhadra expresses. This doubtless has resulted in
some passages that are wildly inaccurate, but I hope that my many
errors will at least stimulate others to improve on my effort.
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139
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140
1 Except for the various "parts" (measures of length) noted in rGyal Tshabs text,
retained in my translation as PART ONE, PART TWO, and so forth, concluding
with PART FIVE.
2 Conze: 1954b.
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141
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14 2
Chapter Four
Translation of Haribhadra's Splmtartha
an O rn a m e n t fo r
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143
In
nam a
Abhisamayas.]
IB Ancillaries
1B1 Enumeration of the parts
PART ONE
1B2 Translators homage
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144
3A2A Proving that (Haribhadra) has the outer condition: the oral instructions of
virtuous friends
2A2Ai How Arya Asanga explained thoroughly
'l
called
"Vimuktisena", seeing that what was done by him4 was not done
(properly), uncovered (the meaning) with a mind abiding in the
middle way.
2A2A4 The way the Reverend'* Vimuktisena explained
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145
Scholars illuminated it like that. Some7 could not find all these
treatises, so that (I) found them is, accordingly, amazing.
2A2C Thereby suitable to compose the commentary
6 i.e, the path of accumulation, thus not equalling the realization of Arya
Vimuktisena.
^ i.e., Reverend Vimuktisena.
^ Haribhadra here invites critical examination of his treatise.
9 Tib.
literally, joining the boundaries.
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14 6
AND
O M N IS C IE N C E ,
WHO
ENABLES
TH E
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14 7
2B1C Commentary
2B1C1 The text continues
Hearing that, some who follow faith quickly generate very lucid
(faith) without doubting these (mother-omnisciences).
2A1B The way people with sharp faculties produce faith
Those who follow Dharma also see no harm to the mother (omnisciences) with the characteristics described in the verse by
valid reasonings such as "being separate from the natures of one and
many" and so forth. Fully knowing that prajnaparamita which is
the essential nature of the three omnisciences begets the Buddhas
and so forth,12 being certain of their13 existence with the three
traditions, and realizing the non-generation of bases, paths, and
aspects,14 they produce very lucid (faith) in those (mother-omni
sciences).
12 the four kinds of Aryan persons: Buddhas, bodhisattvzs, pratyeka-buddhas,
and iravakas, divided into three classes in this case (see below).
13 the three classes of fravakas (including pratyeka-buddhas), bodhisattvas, and
Buddhas.
14 Tib.
nW , and
respectively
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148
16
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149
The full knowledge that all bases are not produced makes those
desiring nirvana, (i.e.,) the sravakas and also included in that cate
gory are the pratyeka-buddhas (whose) emancipation is slightly su
perior, (which is) indicated by one phrase, attain the two types of
nirvana characterized as having and lacking the skandhas.
4A2 Knowledge of paths
17
The realization that all paths are not produced causes the bene
factors of wanderers (in samsara ) - the bodhisattvas - to fulfill the
desires of every wanderer as long as samsara exists.
4A3 Overall omniscience
The Buddhas, keeping in mind that all aspects are not produced,
18
foremost of the lords of yoga with perfectly trained bodies, turn
the wheels o f Dharma without exception in all aspects to cure
(deluded) behavior.
4B Having summarized, to pay homage
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150
1A
Disputes
21
IB Responses
1B1 Actual response
It is not so. Since all abhisam ayas are included by the three
omnisciences, according to the order o f sravakas and pratyeka-bud
dhas, bodhisattvas and unexcelled Buddhas, then all three22 are
also included (and nothing is omitted).
1B2 Giving quotations which prove that
19 i.e, in the Abhidharma literature. That is to say, this treatise will merely repeat
what has been said before.
Since this treatise only includes the solutions without specifying which prob
lems they apply to.
21 Again, one cannot know which aspect apply to which bases.
22 all three: bases, remedies, and aspects
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151
25
). However,
they do not (attain liberation) by all (three) paths, nor are all aspects
(directly realized). Therefore, (the abhisam aya ) of the sravakas
and pratyeka-buddhas is said to be omniscience ."
2B
included by path-omniscience
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152
2B1 Question
Interpretation
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153
DO
DO
. The
11
The
28 T O . * * ' .
29 TO.
30 t o .
.
.
31 i.e., the 8000 verse Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra, tranlated in Conze: 1975a.
32 The realization of pudgala-nairUimya which characterizes Hinayana (at least
according to Mahayana).
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154
35
35 T i b . ^ ^ ' V * ^ ' .
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155
2B Root text
1-2.
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156
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157
3ab.
P R A JN A P A R A M IT A
IS WELL EXPLAINED IN
EIGHT CATEGORIES.
2A2 Enumerating the contents which explain that
2A2B Explaining the individual natures
2A2B1 The three omnisciences
1A Overall omniscience
IB Path-omniscience
1C Omniscience
2 The four applications
2A Application of all aspects
2B Peak realization
2C Gradual realization
2D Instantaneous realization
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158
3 Dharma-kaya
3cd-4
O M N ISCIEN C E;
D IRECT
Extensive explanation
^ T i b . l ^ 'W
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159
5-6.
R E F E R E N T S ,45
IN TEN T,
A RM OR,
A C TIV ITIES
OF
(C O M P R ISE )
THE
SA G E 'S
O V ER A LL
OMNISCIENCE.
2B2B2B1B Explaining the body of path-omniscience
2B1B 1 Indicating the eleven features of path-omniscience
1A Divisions of path-omniscience
IB Path-omniscience with its divisions
1B1 Knowledge of travaka student paths
1B2 Knowledge of pratyeka-buddha paths
1B3 Knowledge of bodhisattva paths
1B3A Mahayana path of vision
1B3B Mahayana path of meditation
1B3B1 Activity of the Mahayana path of meditation
2 Nature of the Mahayana path of meditation
2A Contaminated path of meditation
2A1 Path of meditation of faith
44 or the nirvedha-bhagiya, a synonym for the prayoga-nuirga. See Obermiller
1933a, p. 115.
45 Skt. alambana, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 4 gives "objective supports."
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160
7-9
THE
W IS E
B O D H IS A T T V A S '
PATH-
JU S T IF IC A T IO N ,
AND
C O M M E N D A T IO N ,
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161
10-11
47 i.e., nirjana.
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162
12-13.
FA U LTS,
AND
C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S ,
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16 3
14-16a.
16b.
TYPES.
2B2B2 Instantaneous realization
2A Features which indicate that
2B Joining the illustration and the explanation
16cd.
FOLD CHARACTER.
2B2B2B3 Explaining the body of Dharmakaya
2B3A Features which indicate that
2B3B Joining the illustration and the explanation
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164
17.
AND
EM A N ATION
CO M PLETE
EN JO Y M EN T,
(BODY) W HICH
AND
TH E
IS D IFFER EN T FROM
THEM.49
2B2B3 Having condensed, to explain
The first two verses are given in order to summarize the eight
categories. Having summarized, the following thirteen verses ex
plain extensively. Thus they make an excellent explanation, since
they (both) summarize and explain extensively.
2B2B4 The reason they are not extensively interpreted
IS FOR TH E
BEN EFIT O F
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165
Root text
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16 6
18ab.
If it is said: "Isn't the very desire and striving for perfect com
plete enlightenment a mental factor of craving for virtuous quali
ties, and isn't mind generation a primary mind which arises with the
appearance of an especially holy mental object? How can that
(mental factor) turn into mind generation?" J
2B Responses
2B1 "Desiring the benefit of others"
52 For the particular place of this verse within the Tibetan tradition, see Sparham:
1987. For a fuller discussion of the place of bodhicitta within Buddhism, see
Joshi: 1971.
53 This dispute depends upon the Abhidharma distinction between primary
minds and their constituent mental factors.
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167
In the other case, prayer is striving, since it is the very desire for
perfect complete enlightenment. Describing that striving in terms of
mind generation which cooperates with it teaches that "a prayerful
mind will arise in bodhisattvas."
2B2C1A2A2A2 The ways of ascertaining the referents
2A2A Questions
18cd.
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168
Thus, one should know that mind generation has the nature of
desiring perfect complete enlightenment for the benefit of others.
2C Reason for not citing other sources
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169
19-20.
(TH ERE
ARE)
TW ENTY
TW O
TYPES
(O F
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17 0
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171
<*kle*amijneyaavaram.
lit., those who are to be subdued.
65 lit accomplishing the benefit of..
66 first of the twelve deeds of a Buddha.
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172
The first three are included on the small, middling, and great of
the beginners ground.67 The next is included on the path which en
ters the first ground.68 The following ten are included on the ten
(bodhisattva) stages, Extremely Joyous69 and so forth, and com
prise70 the paths of vision and meditation. The next five are in71
eluded on the distinguished path. The final three bodhicittas are
included on Buddha grounds in terms of preparation, essential, and
culmination.
2B3B2 Showing that all paths are included
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173
21-22.
AND
SO
FO R T H ,
N O N -A T T A C H M E N T ,
F IV E
EYES,
THE
S IX
Q U A L IT IE S
OF
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17 4
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17 5
Since Buddha and enlightenment have just the same nature, the
non-perceiving overall omniscience (which is) the defining charac
teristic o f what makes a Buddha is described as: "knowing the
equality of the referent object and that (subject) which refers (to it)
without fixing on form and so forth," and
2A2 The Dharma jewel
As for the Sangha: except for arhats who are classified along
with the Buddha jewel, through particulars of experts
and neo
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17 6
Since timid people will become upset if they practice for a long
time without attaining their desires, the precept about lack of fa
tigue is taught as "non-attachment to (all phenomena from) form
and so forth through perfect complete enlightenment."
3A3 Not falling into the lesser vehicle
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17 7
7Q
78 Skt. abhisamskara
79 Das: 1983, p. 1108
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178
sation83) are simply identical, and one cannot see any difference
between them. Referring to (that which is) not different from what
was brought forth by the path of vision which was explained, (the
paths of) vision and meditation are not different, and the definition
of the path of meditation is not established.
3C2B Rejecting disputes
80 Tib.
, lit., dharma and subsequent patience of
knowledge. Each of the four truths has these four aspects: dharma-patience,
dharma-knowledge, subsequent patience, and subsequent knowledge, thus
making 16 in all
01 As a magician creates an illusion without becoming attached to it as real, so the
yogi can meditate on phenomena without believing in their reality.
82 the fourth truth
83 the third truth
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179
and
Root text
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180
23-24.
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181
who are said to attain nirvana (after dying in this realm) 10) in the
intermediate state, 11) upon rebirth (in the form realm), 12) with
effort, and 13) without effort (following rebirth in the form realm).
Next are three more who will reach the limit o f Akanistha by 14)
leaping, 15) half-leaping, and 16) transmigration through all states
(of existence). Next are two who will reach the limit of the peak of
existence, separated from attachment to the form (realm) by 17)
pacification of visual dharmas and 18) manifesting the body. 19)
Next are those who approach the fruit of being an arhat. 20) Last
are the pratyeka-buddhas. (These are) the twenty.
2B2C1A2B2 How to produce the wisdom arising from meditadon on empdness
by meditating on the subject of the precepts
2B The divisions
2B1 Demonstrating in brief
2B1A The text continues
25-26.
SO
FO R TH
OF
THE
B O D H IS A T T V A
AND
THE
86 Buddha.
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182
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183
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18 4
27-28ab.
.
.
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18 5
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186
2A2B Summary
?.8cd-30.
AND
SO
FO R T H
TH EY
A RE
Explanation
The referent of the slight is form and so forth which are devoid
of any self nature. Thus, one does not abide in form and so forth
due to emptiness of self nature. The aspect is that ultimately all
phenomena of form and so forth and emptiness are essentially the
same. Therefore "they do not abide in form and so forth as perma
nent, impermanent, and so forth since there is no impermanence and
94 Skt. nirvikalpa-jruina.
95
the practitioners.
96
dharmas and their emptiness.
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187
Thus the peak of variable roots of virtue has three types of ref
erents and aspects.
2C Tolerance
2C1 Root text
31-32ab.
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188
32cd-33.
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189
CO
98 This final phrase should be retroactively applied to the previous verses which
dealt with the four degrees of heat and so forth.
99 Tib.
, meaning something like "luck"
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190
100 Tib.
*01 Tib.
102 jib .
.
, Skt dharmin, lit, "that which possesses the dharma"
, Skt dharma
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191
ent and aspect are included only in the truths of suffering and so
forth. The later ones should also be known like that.
2B2C1A2B2B2B The characteristics of concepts
2B2B2 1 he divisions
2A Joining the generai boundaries
34.
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192
35.
SUBJECTS
(ARE)
ALSO TW O -FO LD , S U B
107 rib .
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193
3) d h a t u s ,
4) p r a t i t y a -
108 Skt. ayadvHra, Tib. ^ " S f , Conze: 1967a, p. 109; Edgerton: 1985, p. 101.
109
translated subsequently as "relativity."
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194
111
taught earlier and explaining '"that which was explained will become
distinguished by the force of that," there is another verse at the end.
2 Root text
36.
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195
As for actual accomplishment, giving rise to the nirvedhabhagiyas which were explained and the paths of vision and so forth
will provide a basis.
IB IB Root text
37-38.
OF
(T H E
FO L L O W IN G :)
TH E
SIX
DHARMAS
OF
OF
O T H E R S,
AND
A T TA IN IN G
G N O SIS
EFFORTLESSLY. It is said.
IB 1C Commentary
1B1C1 Explanation
1A Individual natures
(1, 2, 3, 4) At first for a short time, the ordinary nirvedhabhagiyas. (5, 6) Next, the extraordinary paths of vision and medi
tation. (7, 8) Next, by the force of producing those, remedies and
hostile states (respectively) arise and cease simultaneously, like
throwing out a thief and bolting the door. 9) Next, abandoning con
112
Conze: 1954b, p. 18 has "the state of being able to overlook the difference be
tween the two (i.e. between antidotes and harmful states)". Skt. tayoh paryupayogasya.
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19 6
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19 7
(Someone may) create doubts for foolish beings who think, "If
the Dharmadhatu, the cause for the realization of the Aryan dhar
mas, is the naturally abiding lineage of the dharmas of the supreme
Buddhas and bodhisattvas who have that as their self nature,"
IB Positing the consequence
39ab.
SEPA RA TE
LIN EA G ES
HAS NO DISTINCTIONS. It is
said.
2B2C1A2C1B2B Replies
1B2B1 The implied reply
IB Interpretation
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19 8
Although there is such an answer, to make it easy there is another reply in ordinary language.
2B
39cd.
11 ^
Root text
TH E
D IV IS IO N S
A RE
DECLARED
BY
Commentary
For example, bases such as jars which are made from the same
clay and baked in the same flames, differ as containers of honey,
sugar, and so forth. Likewise, the dharmas which are supported (the paths) to be realized included in the three vehicles - are de
scribed as different.
2B2C1A2C2 Referents
2A The text continues
40-41.
ARE
AND
SO
FORTH,
MUNDANE
.
, Conze: 1967a, p. 112: "objective supports".
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199
D H A R M A S,
DHARM A S
CO M PO UN D ED
SHARED
WITH
AND
U N CO M PO U N D ED ,
STU D EN TS
AND TH OSE
Explained individually
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200
42.
TH E
M OTIVATION
OF TH E SELF-A RISEN
TO
ELEVATE
S E N T IE N T
B E IN G S ,
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201
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202
43.
FORTH. Thus.
4B1C Commentary
4B1C1 Divisions
1)
combine with generosity and so forth, although with six sets of six
there are indeed thirty-six types, because of the resemblances of
generosity and so forth, accomplishment of armor is of six types.
PART TWO
4B2 The extensive application: accomplishment of setting out
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203
Since one will set out120 after wearing such armor, second (is)
the accomplishment of setting out.
4B2B
44-45.
Root text
PATH ,
LOVE
AND
SO
FO R TH ,
LACK IN G
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204
Since accumulations arise when one set outs like that, third (is)
accomplishment of accumulations.
4B3A2 Root text
46-47.
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205
of seeing and so forth, 15) dharanis of words and so forth, 16) the
(bodhisattva) stages, and 17) the remedies.
3B Why they are accumulations
124 See Obermillen 1933c for more information about these 20 varieties, and
their correladon to the stages of the path.
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206
ence, all dharmas, arisal o f dharmas and so forth, the past and so
forth, having and the nature o f the other, space and what is called
'empty' and the nature of other dharmas: since theyre all inherently
empty, emptiness is stated as twenty."
2 The accumulation of stages
2B The divisions
2B1 Joining the general boundaries
48-50.
IM PA RTIA L
TOW ARD
SEN T IEN T
B EIN G S,
OF TH E
TRU E
D H A R M A ,126
A LW A Y S
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207
51.
(FOR TH E
SECOND
E IG H T :)
M O R A L IT Y ,
STA G E, T H ER E
G R A T IT U D E ,
ARE
TOLERANCE,
127 Conze: 1954b, p. 23: "does not assume a basis with reference to the own-being .
_ ll
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208
52-53ab.
WHAT
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209
53cd-54.
TO
S T R IC T
A S C E T IC IS M ,129 N O T
R E L E A S E D ,130
P O S S E S S IO N S ,
R E N O U N C IN G
U N D ISC O U R A G E D ,
AND
ALL
W IT H O U T
EXPECTATIONS.131 Thus.
4B Commentary
One will ascend to the fourth stage with ten types of complete
trainings: the Radiant. They are: 1) dwelling in a wilderness, 2)
without strong desire for what one does not have, 3) without striv
!29 skt. dhuta. See Edgerton: 1985, p. 286.
130 Skt nirvrt, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 24: "disgust".
131 Skt. anapeksate. See Monier-Williams: 1982, p. 56.
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210
ing for m ore of what one does have, 4) self control (through)
ascetic qualities such as begging alms and so forth, 5) not abandon
ing the accepted trainings even (at the cost of) one's life and so
forth, 6) despising the qualities of sensual pleasure by regarding
(them) as miserable.132 7) having nirvana as ones goal, as is ap
propriate for trainees, 8) renouncing all possessions, 9) not discour
aged when performing virtuous actions, and 10) without regard for
any thing.
5 The fifth stage
5A Root text
55-56.
FIFTH
W ILL
BE
A T TA IN ED :
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21 1
57-58.
OF
EN vY
ABOUT
STU D E N TS
AND
EVEN
WHEN
ALL
PO SSESSIO N S
ARE
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212
59-61.
THE
SEVENTH
STAGE
IS
A TTA IN ED
BY
AT A
SELF,
SEN T IEN T
B E IN G S,
LIFE,
DHATUS, AYATANAS,
RESIDING IN AND
A R G U IN G
ABOUT
E M P T IN E SS
AND
t lit. unhappiness.
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213
In order to teach the dharmas which are implied 7B2 Root text
62-65.
COMPASSION, HUMILITY,
IN S IG H T ,
T R A IN IN G
THE
M IN D ,
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214
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215
8A Root text
66-67.
ACTIONS
STA G E) ARE
M IN D S ,
P L A Y IN G
W IT H
THE
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216
68-69.
(THE
NINTH
STA G E
CO N SISTS
O F TH E)
L A N G U A G E S 141 OF GODS
AND SO FORTH,
F A M IL Y ,
L IN E A G E ,
CLAN,
R E T IN U E ,
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217
70.
SH O U LD
BE
KNOW N
AS
THE
TE N T H
143
This sudden introduction of nine completely different stages at this point sug
gests an attempt to harmonize doctrines which were originally quite distinct. See
Dayal: 1975, pp. 270ff for a discussion of different systems of stages within
Indian MaMySna.
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218
71.
Root text
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219
72-73.
EFFO RTLESS,
EX TREM ES,
TR A N SC EN D EN CE
TRA N SCEND EN CE
C H A R A C T E R IS T IC
OF
BEYOND
W H IC H
A T T A IN M E N T ,
IS
OVERALL
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220
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221
CHAPTER TWO
PATH-OMNISCIENCE
2B2C1B Explaining path-omniscience which leads to overall omniscience
1B1 The text continues by giving the commentary
1.
(P A T H -O M N IS C IE N C E
C O N S IS T S
OF)
.
. See Edgerton: 1985, p. 287.
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222
14
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223
Having thus stated the basis and so forth, as all paths must be
completed under the heading of path-omniscience, (we start with)
the path of the sravakas.
2B1A2 Root text
2.
SHOULD BE
In order (from the beginning, the first is) the truth of suffering.
(The sravaka path) pacifies the characteristics of these four aspects:
1) impermanence, 2) suffering, 3) empty, and 4) selfless, and
3A1A2 Origin
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224
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225
bhagiya.
2B1B2 Root text
3-5.
REG A RD ING
THE
PATH
(O F) THE ARYA
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226
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227
6.
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228
IB Rejecting disputes
1B 1 The text continues
7.
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229
8.
Since the path which was explained arises when the nirvedhabhagiya is attained, (there is a verse on) the nirvedha-bhagiya.
2B3B Root text
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230
9-10.
(E X IS T E N C E )
AND
C O N T R A D IC T O R Y
IS
DH ARM AT A
ARE
T R A N SFO R M E D
TO
NON
HEAT.
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231
11.
aihikdmutrika, Tib.
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232
12-16.
SO
FO R TH ,
BUDDHAHOOD,
9)
11)
E M PTIN ESS,
A CQ U IR IN G
10)
ALL
A TTA IN IN G
(K IN D S
OF)
SEN T IEN T
BEINGS
(TO
T H A T ),
AND
16)
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233
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234
These are are the aspects of the truth of the path: 1) pacifying
craving for form and so forth and nirvana by meditating on the ab
sence of inherent nature, 2) the Buddhas will protect, guard, and
hide (one who is) engaged in wisdom and skillful technique, 3) by
strongly desiring Buddhahood oneself and abiding in (accordance
with) overall omniscience, such as abandoning killing and so forth,
establishing others in (such practices), and 4) desiring to make gen
erosity and so forth inexhaustible, one dedicates (them) to perfect
enlighteriment.
1B2C2 Summarized meaning
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235
Others say, "Because those (verses) did not teach the stages of
meditation and so forth, they did not teach the stages of abhisamaya
at all.166 Furthermore, how do you interpret the verses referent and
aspect'167 and so forth?"168
2B2C1B2B3B2 The path of meditation
3B2A Joining the general boundaries
Its activity is (stated) briefly for the progress of trainees who are
headed for the result and since there are (only) a few topics.
3B2B1B Root text
17.
B E IN G
A FFECTED
BY
I N J U R I E S ,1 6 9
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236
After the (six types of) activity is the path of meditation. It has
two aspects, specified as being and not being contaminated.
3B2B2B Their individual natures
3B2B2B1 The contaminated path of meditation
3B2B2B1A The text continues by dividing
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237
18-19.
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238
20.
21-23.
ITS
SUPREM E ACTIVITY
IS D ISTIN C TIV E
^ Conze:
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239
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240
24.
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241
25.
A N Y T H IN G ,173
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242
26-27.
BEREFT OF
FRIEND. It is said.
2B2A3 Commentary
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243
2B2B Objects
2B2B1 The text continues
28.
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244
29.
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245
30.
On the nine stages (i.e.,) the desire realm, the (four) dhyanas,
and the (four) formless absorptions, the natures of the remedies of
the nine types of the great of the great and so forth hostile states
(are) respectively the nine types of the slight of the slight and so
forth paths. Because they completely purify all types and the
other,175 they are called endless complete purity and the other.
2B2D2 Accomplishing the infinite complete purity of Buddha
2B2D2A The text continues
31.
175 This appears to refer to the other division of the uncontaminated path of medi
tation, that of attainment.
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246
The objection is that: "The great of the great and so forth reme
dies are suitable for the small of the small and so forth discordant
states."176 It is rejected with the example of a washerpersons effort
for a long time to clean a subtle stain in a cloth. What is taught
(about) the endless path of meditation is the same because not per
ceiving consciousness and the objects of knowledge with the aspects
of the three realms is the very nature of all remedies. Thus the
complete purity of the Buddha is presented as endless.
2B2C1B3 Finishing the chapter
17f%
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247
CHAPTER THREE
THE KNOWLEDGE OF BASES
2B2C1C Explaining the knower of bases
1C1 The text continues by giving the commentary
1.
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248
from
perfect
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249
2.
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250
3.
H OSTILE
STATES
(ARE):
TH E
IDEAS
OF
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251
2A1C1B Remedies
1C1B1 The text continues
4abc.
(THEIR
REM EDIES
ARE:)
NOT GRASPING
4d.
AND SO FORTH.)
1C2A2 Commentary
180
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252
5ab.
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253
5cd.
(O N E )
ABANDONS
ATTACHM ENT
BY
All dharmas (such as) form and so forth have only one essential
nature. That is, "(they) lack an inherent nature." One abandons at
tachment by fully understanding the unity and equality of knowl
edge and objects of knowledge.
1C2C Supplementary topics
1C2C1 Reasoning of the profound
1C2C1A Question
6ab.
IT
U N DERSTA ND
IS
E X PL A IN E D
AS
D IF F IC U L T
TO
SEEING AND SO
FORTH.181 It is said.
1C2C1B2 Commentary
181 Conze: 1954b, p. 45: "hand to understand because (its intuition is reached by)
the annulment of sight-objects (and of all other objects of empirical conscious
ness)".
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254
6cd.
Having thus expressed the hostile states and so forth, (there is) a
final summary.
1C3B Root text
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255
7.
8-10ab.
THE
R E G A R D IN G
A P P L IC A T IO N
FO R M
IM PE R M A N E N C E
AND
AND
SO
C E A SE S
SO
A C T IV IT Y
FORTH,
FORTH,
T H E IR
T H E IR
NON
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2 56
A T T A IN E D
A C C O R D IN G
TO
C IR C U M S T A N C E ,184
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257
lOcd.
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258
11.
12-15.
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259
LOW ER
NOT
CONNECTED
W ITH
S IG N S ,
AND
The aspects of the truth of suffering are that form and so forth
are: 1) neither permanent nor impermanent because (they) lack na
tures, 2) separate from the extremes of etemalism and nihilism by
being separate from suffering and non-suffering, 3) completely pure
by being separate from empty and non-empty, and 4) lacking both
full delusion and complete purity as the nature of self or selfless is
neither produced nor ceased, and so forth.
195 Conze: 1954b, p. 48: "non-genesis of the cognition of entities and their verbal
expressions as two separate items."
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260
3B2B1A2 The aspects of the tolerance and knowledge of (the truth of)
origin
(The aspects of) the truth of origin are: 1) like space because of
ate irrelevance196 of cause and non-cause, 2) without delusions and
im p u rities197 by lacking origin and non-origin, 3) free from ac
quisition since not related to production and non-production, and 4)
inexpressible by inherent nature due to complete freedom from con
ditions and non-conditions.
3B2B1 A3 The aspects of the tolerance and knowledge of (the truth of)
cessation
1QQ
the path
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261
(The aspects of) the truth of the path: 1) stop lower rebirths due
to separation from path and non-path, 2) do not conceptualize the
technique with the aim of manifesting the result by non-involve
ment with proper and improper, 3) do not contact the marks of any
dharma by freedom from accomplishment and non-accomplishment,
and 4) without the arisal of consciousness regarding either the ob
ject of knowledge or the word since neither transcendent nor non
transcendent characteristics of the natures of the topic and language
exist.
3B2B1B Summary
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262
16.
ES CONCLUDE THE
Abhisamayas.
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263
CHAPTER FOUR
COMPLETE REALIZATION OF THE ASPECTS
2B2C2 Extensive explanation of the four applications
2B2C2A The strengthening causes and effects
2B2C2A1 AH aspects of causes which strengthen
2A1A Joining the boundary by giving the relation
1.
The natures of the dharmas which cure hostile states (such as)
grasping (the skandhas ) as permanent and so forth are the varieties
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264
2.
(TH ER E ARE)
(E X C E PT
PA T H ).
FOR
FOUR
THE
FOR EACH
PATH
TRU TH
FIFT EE N
ARE
200
2fi0
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265
For the third, the six aspects o f 1) not fully deluded, 2) not
completely pure, 3) not covered, 4) without mental construction, 5)
without pride, and 6) unshakeable are respectively the remedies as
signed to the cognitive obscurations which conceptualize: 1) full
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266
Thus, (there are) fifteen aspects regarding the truth of the path
1A1B1C3 Summary of the enumeration
3.
It is implied that the truths of origin and path are causes depend
ing on full delusion and the other side,201 and the truths of suffer
ing and cessation are (their) results. One should bear in mind the
"eight aspects" and so forth regarding the truths of origin, path, suf
fering, and cessation, as they are counted (above).
1A1B2C2 Explained individually
201
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267
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3) the
203
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269
4-5.
ARE
THE
STU D EN TS,
TH R EE
O M N IS C IE N C E S ,
BO D H ISA TTV A S,
AND
TH E
FOR
TH E
BUDDHAS
RESPECTIVELY. It is said.
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270
1B3A3 Commentary
20S
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271
Since the path of seeing the truth arises (after) realizing the four
(degrees of) heat and so forth, there are seven aspects of subsidiaries
has already been produced, and produces virtue which has not already been pro
duced.
208 skt. rddhipoda. Edgerton: 1985, p. 151-2; Conze; 1967a, p. 137.
209 Skt, samskara.
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272
of perfect enlightenment:
ot n
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273
212
^ being 1)
not free from and 2) free from discrimination of form, one views
internal and external forms respectively 1) with form and 2) with
out form. These two liberations cure emanated obscurations, and
one abides with a body after manifesting and fulfilling the attractive
door of complete liberation, regarding the emanation of attractive
and unattractive form as remedies for the delusions of pleasure and
displeasure respectively. These are the three aspects of complete lib
eration.
1B3B2A3 Paths abiding in bliss in visual phenomena
The path which abides in bliss in visible dharmas has the inher
ent nature of a path which abides in accordance with liberation, and
it has four aspects of the four formless absorptions and one aspect
with the inherent nature of a path which abides in peace which
ceases thought and sensation. Thus (there are) five aspects.
1B3B2A4 Supramundane paths
The supramundane path has the aspects of the four dhyanas and
the formless and cessational absorptions, (making) nine.
212 Skt. nirmUna, Tib. fj0^ . Edgerton: 1985, p. 302; Conze: 1967a, p. 229.
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274
The path of Buddhahood has ten aspects (of) the param itas of
generosity and so forth.
1B3B2B Summary
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275
aspects of 13) bodily, 14) verbal, and 15) mental actions being pre
ceded and followed by gnosis, and three aspects of unimpeded,
unobstructed gnosis regarding the arisal of the 16) past, 17) future,
and 18) present. These are the eighteen aspects of special Buddha
dharmas.
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276
3B2 Nature
If the aspects are combined, there are one hundred and seventy
three.
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277
6-7.
BECAUSE TH EY
HAVE HONORED TH E
21 f%
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278
Having thus shown those who apply, (next are) the applications. 718
1A2B2 Root text
8-11.
D IFFIC U LTY
(O V E R )
LO N G
T IM E,
OF
, Conze: 1954b,
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279
FORTH
W HOSE
NATURES
ARE
NOT
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280
220
12ab.
(T H E R E
ARE)
FOURTEEN
TY PES
OF
Conze: 1954b, p. 52, says about this last point: "the Bodhisattva fixes a cer
tain time, such as a month, or a year, which he will devote to the study of the
Prajnaparamita .
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281
991
Next, since some things are also abandoned, if asked, "What are
some faults which interrupt the applications which apply the objects
of meditation?" The faults which will interrupt them are stated.
1B1B2B Root text
12cd.
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282
8)
The third set of ten is for those who are listeners and explainers,
former and latter, (who) respectively: 1) are harmed by aspiration
and indolence, 2) are harmed by difference of desired places, 3) are
harmed by small and non-small desires, 4) have and lack the quali
223 Skt. dauxthulya, Tib. I 3!**
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283
And those who are explainers and listeners, former and latter re
spectively (who): 17) delight in solitude and in company, 18) do
not give
few material possessions and do not wish to donate them, and 20)
go where there will and will not be an obstruction
to life. Also
three more, (who): 21) go and do not go where there is famine, 22)
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284
229
13.
229
that is to say, the teacher ("explainer") pays attention to lay disciples, which
makes his pupil (die "listener") jealous.
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285
14-17.
IN
TH E
CA SE
OF
O M N IS C IE N C E ,
TH E
SO
FORTH,
EXALTED,
BECOM E
GREAT,
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286
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287
18-19.
(IS) COMPLETELY
U N CO M PO U N D ED ,
NOT
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288
20-22.
K NOW LEDGE
IN
TH E
RANGE
OF
OVERALL
TH A T
VENERATED,
D H ARM A ,
IT
H O N O R ED ,
IS
TO
BE
R ESPEC TED ,
W O R SH IPPE D ,
A C T I V I T Y , 233
A LL
P E R V A S IV E
D EM O N STR A TES
TH E
U N SEEN ,
W ITH O U T
KNOW LEDGE,
THE
A SPE C T
OF
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289
23.
D ISTIN G U ISH ED
BY THE
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290
24-26.
TH E
D IST IN C TIO N S
(BY )
W HICH
(T H IS)
BE
KNOW N
IN C O N C E IV A B L E ,
AS
S IX T E E N
U N E Q U A LL E D ,
E SS E N C E S:
T R A N SC E N D IN G
(Q U A LITY ), TO
BE KNOWN
BY THE W ISE,
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291
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292
If asked, "What is the activity of those which are set apart by the
characteristics of variety?" the characteristics of activity (are taught)
with two additional verses.
2B2C2 Root text
27-28.
TH ESE
A C T IV IT Y :
ARE
BEN EFIT,
TH E
C H A R A C TE R IST IC S
H A PPIN E SS,
PR O TEC TIO N ,
OF
A
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293
If asked, "What are the natures which are taught by the charac
teristics o f activity?" the characteristics o f nature (are taught) with
three more verses.
2B2D2 Root text
29-31.
THE SIXTEEN
STA T E S
AND
R E M E D IE S ,
D IF F IC U L T ,
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294
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295
Since only those who have the roots of virtue of the aids to lib
eration241 will fully know the previously explained applications,
(next are) the aids to liberation.
1B2A1B Root text
32.
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296
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297
33-34.
A LL
W A Y S.
C O M PL E TE
EN LIG H TE N M E N T
IS
Although (they are) indeed like that, not all attain supreme en
lightenment, since the Dharmata is like this: supreme perfect en
lightenment is easy to realize by the sharp who have great faith and
so forth. It is difficult to realize for the dull.
2A2C3 Implied meaning
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298
sravakas.
2B How to produce the path which ripens the continuum
2B1 Actual meaning
2B1A The text continues
35-37.
THE
R E FER E N TS
OF
H EA T
A RE
HERE
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299
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300
2B1C2 Summary
precedes the
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301
38.
TH OSE
BODHISATTVAS W HO
ABIDE (ON
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302
39.
40-45.
T H O SE
TOLERANCE,
W HO
AND
A B ID E
SUPREM E
ON
HEAT,
PEA K ,
DHARMA
ARE
243
ksana, Tib. 5nr . Edgerton: 1985, p. 198. Conze: 1954b, p. 66:
"inauspicious rebirth".
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303
AND
SO
FORTH
BA SED
ON
O T H E R S,
W IT H O U T
M IND
T R A IN IN G S ,
NOT C R O O K E D ,246
NOT
M IS E R L Y
A CCEPTIN G
AND
SO
THE
FORTH,
SEEKING
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304
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305
dharma).
2B2C2A1B2C1B2B Signs of irreversibility of the path of vision
1B2B1 Shown briefly
1B2B1A The text continues
After the characteristics of irreversibility of the nirvedhabhagiya, the characteristics of irreversibility o f the path of vision
are stated with one additional verse.
1B2B1B Root text
46.
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47-51.
PURE,
PR EV EN TIN G
A T TA C H M EN T
AND
A D D IC T IO N 253
A B ID A N CE
IN
CO N C ER N IN G
251 Conze: 1954b, p. 68: "masteiy over the limbs of the (four) trances".
252 Skt. kama-sevabhyupdyiki, Tib.
t Conze: 1954b, p.
69: "circumspect in the use of pleasant things".
253 skt. yogdnuyoga, Tib.
. Conze: 1954b, p. 6S:
"occupied or preoccupied".
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307
SKANDHAS
AND
SO
FORTH,
H IN D R A N C E S ,
NOT
PER C E IV IN G
EV EN
AN
ATOM
OF
The four aspects of origin are: 5) light body and mind by sepa
ration from vice, 6) enjoying desire without attachment by the force
, Conze:
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308
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309
one's three stages as they are the essences of the three omnisciences
by attaining complete confidence, and 16) forsaking (ones) life for
the sake of the dharmas of overall omniscience and so forth by
heading in (only) one direction.
1B2B2C2 Eliminating qualms
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310
which varies,"256 (we) begin with the varieties of the path of medi
tation.
1B2C1A2 Root text
52.
IS
FREE
FROM
TH E
EXTREM ES
OF
Since form does not exist in emptiness and so forth, and form is
not other than emptiness and so forth, which are respectively free
from the extremes of superimposition and repudiation regarding
emptiness and so forth, that (freedom) is profound since it is empti
ness and so forth and, by having profundity, the path of meditation
is (also) profound.
1B2C1B The basis of variety of the path of meditation
1B2C1B1 The text continues
Having thus taught the variety, there is the basis of that variety.
1B2C1B2 Root text
53.
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311
54.
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312
OCQ
due to
the distinctions of each concept (as) great, medium, and slight with
particulars of great, medium, and slight, their remedies also are
each slight, medium, and great with particulars of slight, medium,
and great. These nine kinds arise as a continuity in the nine stages
of the desire realm and so forth from the divisions of the remedies
of concepts in order and are ultimately characterized by emptiness.
(They constitute) the path of meditation.
1B2C1C2 Rejecting disputes
1B2C1C2A About definite enumeration
1B2C1C2A1 Dispute
If asked, "Why are there (only) nine aspects and not many other
aspects, since here and there in the mother of the conquerors it says
that countless, incomprehensible and immeasurable merits o f all
kinds are produced?"
1B2C1C2A2 Reply
2A2A Root text
55.
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313
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314
56.
D ECREA SE
SU IT A B L E
FOR
AND
IN C R E A SE
IN E X P R E S S IB L E
A RE
T H IN G S .
NOT
WHAT
(To the objection) that, "The property of the path (of medita
tion) is said to be the inherent nature of Dharm ata, which is actu
ally inexpressible as itself, another, both, and neither, through naturelessness, and thus, since meditation cannot be perfected, the
hostile states and the remedies do not go away or arise respectively.
In that case, what nature of the hostile states is forsaken by the path
called meditation? What complete purity will be gained? Since it is
not made (clear) at all, it is doubtful."
2B1B Reply
2B1B1 The text continues
57.
EX A C TLY
LIK E
E N L IG H T E N M E N T ,
TH IS
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315
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316
Now to answer a qualm such as, "That may be, but purposeful
action
58ab.
M IN D
IS
NOT
CONNECTED
TO
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317
58cd.
Root text
(the
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318
and effect, what bums and what is burned, do not exist even con
ventionally.
2B2B3A1B Having relied, to bum
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319
If asked, "In what objects are those eight profound aspects the
characteristics of the irreversible bodhisattvas who abide on the path
of meditation?"
2C2B Root text
59.
(T H E R E
IS )
P R O FU N D IT Y
R E G A R D IN G
A C T IV IT Y ,267
N O N -D U A L ITY ,
AND
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320
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321
60.
NOT
E X IS T E N C E
C O N C E IV IN G
AND
PEA C E
ANY
DHARMA
B E C A U SE
TH EY
AS
ARE
There may be criticism (such as): "If they are just like dreams,
then the ten vices and generosity and so forth do not exist, so wont
being awake be like sleeping?"
2C2A3B2 Reply
3B2A Indefinite pervasion
3B2A1 Giving an example the indefinite pervasion which is ac
cepted by the iravakas themselves
3B2A1A They accept that the object to be killed and the killer are
not established for an ultimate mind
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322
The answer is: in the system of (those who) propound (the real
ity of) external objects, there is cr.useless destruction due to momen
tariness, due to the axiom that: "The various worlds arise from
karm a."269 Ultimately there is no killing, killer, or victim, nor is
there not killing; Lhere is no one who is robbed, no robbery, and no
robber, nor is there non-robbery.
3B2A1B Yet they accept their establishment as objects of a con
ventional mind
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323
61.
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324
There are impurities of hunger and thirst, and stones and thorns
and so forth respectively in the world of sentient beings and the
inanimate world which are the two types of Buddha fields. Their
remedies produce the purity of the divine pleasures and sections of
the ground made of gold and so forth Such complete purity is the
completely pure Buddha field.
2C2C The cause of nimulna-kaya : the application of skillful technique
2C2C1 The text continues
62-63.
TH E
O B JE C T
AND
ITS
A P P L IC A T IO N S
POW ER,
UNCOM M ON
A TTACHM ENT,
NOT
C H A R A C TE R IST IC ,
NON
"
Conze: 1954b, p.
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325
Abhisamayas,
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326
CHAPTER FIVE
PEAK REALIZATION
2B2C2A2 Peak realization: the result which is strengthened
2A2A The text continues
1.
These twelve types are the special signs when one attains the
peak abhisamaya : 1) regarding all dharmas as like dreams and so
forth even while dreaming because of thorough familiarization, 2)
not producing thoughts of longing for the stages of the sravakas
275 m
g*.
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327
27fi
27R
279
virtu
ous friend with ones own superknowledge, 10) training in all kinds
of prajiiaparamita, 11) without any sort2**of attachment, and 12)
approaching the enlightenment of a Buddha.
1A2 Peak realization of peak
1A2A The text continues
2.
SIXTEEN
ESSENCES OF INCREASE
MAKE
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328
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329
3.
B E N E FIT
OF
SEN TIEN T
BEINGS
IS
CALLED
'STABILITY. It is said.
1A3C Commentary
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330
4.
SAMADHI
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3 31
There are four kinds of hostile states and remedies. Starting with
the hostile states, there are two concepts285 of objects:
2B1A1B Root text
5.
AS
A CC O R D IN G
W ITH
(T H E IR )
E SSE N T IA L
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332
6-7.
TO
TH E
NATURE
OF
S U B JE C T S ,
T H E IR
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333
each have nine types by dividing their scopes (and they are) hostile
states because (they) are impediments. When the things which are
their scope are objects to be grasped which do not exist in the way
in which they are grasped, then what are those subjects? Therefore
since the nature of those subjects is a mistaken appearance with a
separate nature, their inherent nature does not match their scope.
289
(In answer) to the question, "What are the nine kinds of the first
concept of objects based on participation?"
2B1B1A2 Root text
8-9.
P A R T IC IP A T IO N :
N A TU R E,
L IN E A G E ,
BASED ON
PER FEC TLY
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334
2) fixed in the
and so forth, 3)
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335
297
(In answer) to the question, "What are the nine types of the sec
ond concepts of objects based on withdrawal?"
1B2 Root text
10-12.
THESE
N IN E
CON CEPTS
B A SE D
ON
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336
OTHER
C O N D IT IO N S ,299
M ISTAKEN
M O TIV A TIO N ,
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337
am
of all sentient
(In answer) to the question, "What are the first nine kinds of
concepts of subjects based on ordinary peoples (idea of) substan
tially existing beings?"
1B2A2 Root text
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338
13-14.
BE KNOWN AS
, Conze:
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339
(In answer) to the question, "What are the nine types of the sec
ond concepts of subjects based on nominally existent beings?"
1B2B2 Root text
15-16.
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340
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341
one
Having thus taught the hostile states and remedies on the path of
vision, one more verse (teaches) that path of vision and the causes
of accomplishing great enlightenment.
2B2A2 Root text
17.
(T H E R E
ARE
T H R E E :)
S H O W IN G
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342
C A U SE ,
AND
TH E
U N IN TER R U PTED
CAU SE
FOR
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343
18.
P R O D U C T IO N
OF
S T A IN S
IS
CALLED
Therefore it is like that. (There are) some who say with regard
to elimination, thinking of the destruction of a thing, that the
307 MadhyHnta-Vibkdga V.19. Anacker: 1984, pp. 263,457.
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344
19.
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345
-51A
should be
accepted.
2B2B2B Refuting through contradiction with the acceptance
2B2B2B1 The text continues
20.
(THE
DHARM AS
FA C T)
IN D E E D
TH A T
E X IST ,
O THERS
Y ET
THE
SA Y
TH A T
TEACHER
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346
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347
2B3B1C Grounds of the yoga which realizes that all dharmas are
empty of truth
1C1 Reasoning
1C2 Yoga
1C3 The result of meditation
It is not so. (There is) always the memory of the nature of mere
insubstantial space, remembering an inherent nature which is neither
produced nor abandoned. If the natures of the knowledge of mo
mentary dharmas and the characteristics of what is known were to
ultimately exist, then meditating on the remedies would not do
anything at all, just like space.
2B3B2B Accepting that contradicts the ability to abandon the
seeds of cognitive obscurations
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348
21.
TH ERE
IS
N O TH ING
TO
BE
R EM O V ED ,
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349
Having thus stated the consequences (in verse), the real path of
vision (follows).
2B2C1B Root text
22.
TH OSE W HICH
ARE INCLUDED
IN EACH
Each of the six param itas of generosity and so forth are mutu
ally included as before, in each nature of generosity and so forth
(and they are all) included by the first instant o f tolerance of
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350
23.
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351
Later, with regard to relativity, he reflects upon the regular order thus: "(Karmic) formations
'i\'i
and the irregular order thus: "By removing birth, aging and death
are removed."
2B2C2A2B3 Peak realization of the path of meditation
2B3A The remedy: the path of meditation
2B3A1 The text continues
Having thus stated the path of vision, since abandoning the hos
tile states and so forth is easy to understand if the oasis has been ac
complished beforehand, that basis is the path o f meditation.
2B3A2 Root text
2B3A2B Interpretation
24-25.
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352
SEV EN ,
AND
E IG H T ,
S U R P A S S IN G
TH E
(In his meditation, the yogi) goes from the first dhyana to ces
sation, and then returns from cessation to the first dhyana, thus
going and coming back both forward and backward through the
nine absorptions characterized by the four dhyanas, the four form
less (realms), and (the absorption of) cessation.
2B3A3B Actual
Again (the yogi) enters the first dhyana and then rises to cessa
tion. Similarly, (starting) from the stage without discrimination or
non-discrimination, (he) enters cessation, then rises to support the
adjoining absorption. Then (he) enters the consciousness dwelling in
the desire realm with the nature of a limit and rises by the strength
of (his) skillful technique to unconcentrated consciousness. Having
actualized that, (he) next (enters) cessation. Then (he goes back to)
unconcentrated (consciousness). Then leaving behind a single cessa
tion, (he enters) the stage without discrimination or non-discrimina
tion. Then (he goes back to) unconcentrated (consciousness). Then
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353
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354
26-27ab.
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355
Having thus shown the first, (next are) the second concepts of
objects.
2A2B Root text
27cd-29.
TO
E N L IG H T E N M E N T ,
A T T E N T IO N
HiNAYANAS,
THE
E S S E N C E 317
TO
N O N -A T T E N T IO N
THE
TO
OF
(TW O )
PERFECT
TO TH E
MEANING.318 It is said.
2A2C Commentary
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356
Having thus shown the second, (next are) the first concepts of
subjects.
2B1B Root text
30-31.
ONE
SHO U LD
KNOW
TH A T
TH E
FIR ST
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357
2B1C Commentary
by not perceiving form and so forth, 8) gifts are impure since they
are not perfectly obtained,321 and 9) disturbed behavior by acting
while perceiving generosity and so forth.
PART FIVE
2B2 Concepts of nominal subjects
2B2A Shown briefly
2B2A1 The text continues
Having thus shown the first, (next are) the second concepts of
subjects.
2B2A2 Root text
320TripathI: 1977, p. 139 line 18; Amano: 1975, p. 239; Amano: 1985, p.
133.
321 Skt. pratipanna, Tib.
. Monier-Williams; 1982, p. 667.
Might also be translated as "offered."
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358
32.
N O M IN A L
SEN TIEN T
BEINGS
AND TH EIR
CAUSE.
33-34.
FIN A L
B EW IL D E R M E N T
C O N C EPTS
ARE
C O N CER N IN G :
R EG A R D ED
TH E
AS
T H R E E FO L D
OF
P A C IF IC A T IO N ,
C O N JU N C T IO N
AND
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359
As before, when the 108 concepts ate abandoned, the 108 delu
sions included by them are also abandoned. The fulfillment of all
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360
35-36.
TH E
C O N SU M M A TIO N
OF
E X C E L LE N C E
323
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361
2B2C2A2B4A Actual
2B2C2A2B4A1 Indicated by much merit
2B2C2A2B4A1A The text continues
37-38.
TH E
U N IN TERRU PTED
SAMADHI
WHICH
O F THE
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362
39.
ITS
REFEREN T
IS
N O N -E X ISTE N C E .
THE
TH E
A SPE C T
IS
P A C IFIC A T IO N .
TH E
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363
40-42.
TH E
A PPR O PR IA TE
R E F E R E N T 328 AND
U L T IM A T E
AND
S U P E R F IC IA L ,
R E M E D IE S
AND
H O S T IL E
STA TES,
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364
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365
Abhisamayas.
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366
CHAPTER SIX
GRADUAL REALIZATION
2B2C2B Stabilizing causes and results
2B1 Gradual realization to attain stability
2B1A The text continues by positing relation
One who has attained the peak abhisamaya develops the gradual meanings
which are realized singly and collectively in order to confirm them. The gradual
abhisamaya (follows).
2B1B Explaining the text of the chapter
2B1B1 Root text
1.
GRADUAL
A C T IV IT Y
(R A N G E S )
FROM
The realizations that are the gradual activity are: (1-6) accom
plishing the ten stages because the (final) four param itas are in
cluded within prajnaparam ita, by completely fulfilling the six
paramitas of generosity and so forth which are strengthened by the
complete purity of the three m andalas,
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367
Abhisamayas.
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368
CHAPTER SEVEN
INSTANTANEOUS REALIZATION
2B2C2B2 The instantaneous realization attains stability
2B2A The text continues by giving the commentary
In order to become thoroughly familiar with the gradual abhisamayas that have been developed, one meditates on them in an
instant. This is instantaneous realization. It has four kinds with
characteristics (to be explained as follows).
2B2B Explaining the text of the chapter
2B2S1 Instantaneous realization which is not ripened
2B2B1A Actual
2B2B1A1 The text continues
1.
THE
R E A L IZ A T IO N
OF
THE
SA G E
IS
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369
thing. Whoever sees the thusness of one thing sees the thusness of
all things."331 Not only do many include one but also an instant
which perceives the gnosis of generosity and so forth, with the na
ture of avoiding the mistake of grasping particular things, includes
all dharmas with characteristics from generosity and so forth,
through the eighty minor marks.
2.
W H EEL
PUM P
AT
ONCE
W ITH
SIN G LE
FOO T
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370
'I 'lA
an
3.
P R A J N A P A R A M IT A ,
THAT IS THE IN
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371
co n d itio n ,
(th is)
in stan ta n eo u s
re a liz a tio n
is
prajnaparamita.
2B2C2B2B3 Instantaneous realization without characteristics
3A The text continues
4.
THAT
A LL
DHARM AS
ARE
W IT H O U T
CHARACTERISTICS. It is said.
3C Commentary
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372
5.
instantaneous realization.
2B2C2B2C Finishing the chapter
337 Skt. dharmdno, Tib.
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373
Abhisamayas.
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374
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