Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
by Richard Brostrom
Training people for leadership roles in learning groups can be difficult, particularly when one consults
the often conflicting "how to" literature on the subject. The classic debate between behaviorists
(emphasizing control, shaping, prompting, reinforcing, token economy) and humanists (advocating
freedom, spontaneity, student-centering, individuality, feelings) is just one example of basic
differences.
A person new to training and teaching can be confused by these separate advocacies or feel obliged to
follow an unnatural "teaching" script simply because a text says it is the way.
develops on certain issues causes a healthy, even entertaining, "conflict" and facilitates the
discussion of the various theoretical positions.)
The Session
The following sequence is useful during the session itself.
1. The training experience is begun by asking participants to identify what is really being taught
in their groups and how that particular content would most effectively be taught. The responses
are displayed on newsprint or chalkboard, and the group is invited to go beyond a superficial
response to a level of genuine introspection, for example, on how one actually develops
attitudes.
2. The discussion is concluded by suggesting that the group look more closely at what the experts
have to say. The facilitator gives a brief orientation to the various theoretical approaches. He
suggests how the theories differ, in general terms, and how these differences are expressed in
training behaviors--the contrast between behaviorists and humanists, for example.
3. Participants then score the TSI and share their initial reactions. Clarity will develop with the
individual presentations and feedback, helping participants see the accuracy or inaccuracy of
the profiles for them.
4. Participants make their individual presentations, "teaching" the group about the learning
approach they have studied. It is suggested that the order of presentations start with the
behaviorist orientation and continue through the structuralist and functionalist, ending with the
humanist. Videotaping of individuals as they make their presentations can add the dimension of
personal feedback.
5. After each presentation, the group is asked to reflect on both the content of what was presented
and the process. The facilitator may elect to use a film featuring an expert describing that
particular orientation.
6. The group's process eventually emerges as an exciting dimension of learning experiences-about the time that the group moves into the content on the humanist orientation to learning.
People are usually ready for spontaneous experiencing and interacting at this point.
Richard Brostrom
Instructions: For each of the following 15 phrases printed in italics, rank the 4 statements given in the
order that completes the phrase to your best satisfaction. Give your most favored statement a rank of 4;
your next favored, 3; your next, 2; and your least favored statement, 1. Place your ranking for each
statement in the square to the right of that statement.
1. In planning to conduct training, I am most likely to
begin with a lesson plan--specify what I want to teach, when, and how.
pinpoint the results I want and construct a program that will almost run itself.
consider the areas of greatest concern to the participants--and plan to deal with them,
regardless of what they may be.
when conditions are right--and they have an opportunity for practice and repetition.
they have gained through a natural progression of self-discovery rather than some
"teaching" process.
should be made as the learning process goes along and the learners show their innate
interests and abilities.
are based on what learners now know and must know at the conclusion of the event.
by recognizing that learners are highly motivated and capable of directing their own
learning--if they have the opportunity.
by mastering the field themselves and becoming effective "models" for the learners.
by considering the end behaviors they are looking for and the most efficient ways of
producing them in learners.
where learners are passive, untalkative, and expect the trainer to do all the work.
the real world--problems and all--and develop capacities for dealing with it.
a stimulating environment that attracts and holds the learners and moves them
systematically toward the objective.
will propel the learner in many directions, which the trainer may follow and support.
of poor planning.
some will learn, but others may be better suited for another activity.
the best approach is to teach the basics well and put learners on their own after that.
with an effective training design, most tasks can be mastered by the majority of learners.
f
4
is done by learners, regardless of the instructor; the instructor should be a sounding board. d
should be built into the system, so that learners continually receive feedback and adjust
their performance accordingly.
is ultimately decided when the student encounters a problem and successfully resolves it.
should be based on pre-established learning objectives and done at the end of instruction to b
determine learning gains.
14. Learners seem to have the most regard for a trainer who
Sum all the numbers that you placed in the "a" and "e" boxes in the Training Style Inventory. Place this
total in the "a + e" box in the figure below. This is your behaviorist score. Doe the same for the
following totals: "b" and "f"; "c" and "g"; "d" and "h."
Questions for Self-Study
1. What type of learner learns most effectively in the behaviorist orientation? the structuralist? the
functionalist? the humanist?
2. What type of learning tasks should be undertaken with the techniques of the behaviorist? the
structuralist? the functionalist? the humanist? Give examples. What tasks should not be
undertaken by each? Consider such tasks as manual skills, information transfer, problem
solving, creativity, etc.
3. Is it possible to incorporate in a single learning situation a training role that prescribes
supportive, directive, assertive, and reflective emphases? Think of examples. What might make
this assignment difficult?
4. Consider how the qualities of the various training styles may be developed.
5. Examine the model that integrates the orientations to learning on two axes, a cognitive mode
axis (holistic to analytic) and a locus of control axis (external to internal).
a. Is this representation essentially correct? Why or why not?
b. Considering the stages of growth of people (for example, from infancy to maturity) and
assuming that the model is correct, what would it indicate as the most suitable learning
orientation in various stages?
c. Considering the stages of development of a training group, what would the model imply
that the trainer's role should be, both early in the process and later as the group
develops?
d. What are some other applications of the model?
Functionalist
People teams best
by doing, and they
will do best what
they want to do.
People will learn
what is practical.
Humanist
Learning is selfdirected discovery.
People are natural
and unfold (like a
flower) if others do
not inhibit the
process.
Basic
Training designers select Content properly
The learner must be "Anything that can
Assumptions the desired behaviors and organized and fed bit- willing (or
be taught to another
proceed to engineer a
by-bit to learners will motivated) by the is relatively
reinforcement schedule be retained in
process or the
inconsequential"
that systematically
memory. Criterion
product; otherwise, (Rogers). Significant
encourages learners'
tests will verify the it is useless to try learning leads to
progress toward those
effectiveness of
teaching.
insight and
goals. Imaginative new teaching. The teacher Performance "on understanding of self
machinery has made
"keeps people
the job" is the true and others. Being a
learning fun and thinking awarke" while
test. Opportunity, better human being
unnecessary. Learners
simultaneously
self-direction,
is considered a valid
often control the speed. entering data--a
thinking, achieving learning goal. Can
much-envied skill.
results, and
be a very inefficient,
recognition are
time-consuming
important.
process.
Key Words
and
Processes
stimulus-response
practice
shaping
prompting
behavior
modification
pinpointing
habit formation
reward and
punishment
teaching
machines
environmental
design
successive
approximation
sensitizing
extinction
token economy
mastery
task analysis
lesson
planning
information
mapping
chaining
sequencing
memory
audiovisual
media
presentation
techniques
standards
association
evaluation
measuring
instruments
objectives
recitation.
problem
solving
simulation
"hands-on"
reasoning
learner
involvement
realitybased
consequence
s
achievement
failure
confidence
motivation
thinking
competence
discipline
recognition
feedback
working.
InterSupportive: emphasis on Directive: planning, Assertive: a
personal
controlling and
organization,
problem- focused,
Style
predicting the learner and presentation, and
conditonal,
learning outcomes-evaluation are
confrontational
cooperative, stimulusfeatured. Process is climate--striving,
response mentalities are teacher centered.
stretching,
valued. Process is
achieving. Process
product centered.
is task oriented and
learner centered.
Strengths
"The Doctor": clear,
"The Expert":
"The Coach":
precise, and deliberate; informative;
emphasizes
low risk; careful
thorough; certain;
purpose; challenges
preparation; emotionally systematic;
learners; realistic;
attentive; complete
stimulating; good
lets people perform
security for learners; a
audio-visual
and make mistakes;
trust builder; everything techniques; well
takes risks; gives
"arranged"; protective; rehearsed; strong
feedback; builds
patient; in control.
leader; powerful;
confidence;
expressive; dramatic; persuasive; gives
entertaining.
opportunity and
recognition.
Limitations "The Manipulator":
"The Elitist":
"Sink or Swim":
fosters dependence;
preoccupied with
ends justify means;
overprotective;
means, image, or
loses patience with
controlling; manipulative structure rather than slow learners;
"for their own good";
results; ignores
intimidating;
freedom
individuality
ambiguity
uncertainty
awareness
spontaneity
mutuality
equality
openness
interaction
experiential
learning
congruence
authenticity
listening
cooperation
feelings.
Reflective:
authenticity,
equality, and
acceptance mark
relationship. Process
is relationship
centered.
"The Counselor":
sensitive; emphatic;
open; spontaneous;
creative; a "mirror";
non-evaluative;
accepting;
responsive to
learners; facilitative;
interactive; helpful.
"The Fuzzy
Thinker": vague
directions; abstract,
esoteric, or personal
content; lacks
7
sugar-coating;
hypocritical agreeing;
deceptive assurances;
withholding data.
affective variables;
inflexible (must
follow lesson plan);
dichotomous (black
or white) thinking;
superior.
insensitive;
competitive; overly
task oriented;
opportunistic,
return-oninvestment
mortality
performance criteria;
unconcerned with
clock time; poor
control of group;
resists "teaching";
appears unprepared.
References
Mager, R.F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. Fearon: Belmont, CA: 1975.
McClelland, D.C., et al. The Achievement Motive. Halsted Press: New York: 1976.
Roger, C.R. Freedom To Learn. Charles E. Merrill: Columbus, OH, 1969.
Skinner, B.F. About Behaviorism. Knopf: New York, 1974.
Based on and adapted from Developing Effective Teaching Styles by Richard Brostrom. Copyright
COMCOR, 1975. This material may be freely reproduced for educational/ training/research activities
only. Permission for systematic or large-scale reproduction or distribution--or inclusion in other
publications--must be obtained from the copyright holder.
Richard Brostrom is president of COMCOR, Madison, Wisconsin, a training and development
consulting firm that publishes Seminars, the Directory of Continuing and Professional Education
Programs. He is an organization development practitioner, a business development consultant, and a
frequent workshop leader at the University of Wisconsin Management Institute.