1.

Design Considerations
Introduction
Types of Busbar
Choice of Busbar Material
Introduction
The word busbar, derived from the Latin word omnibus ('for all'), gives the idea of a universal system of
conveyance. In the electrical sense, the term bus is used to describe a junction of circuits, usually in the
form of a small number of inputs and many outputs. 'Busbar' describes the form the bus system usually
takes, a bar or bars of conducting material.
In any electrical circuit some electrical energy is lost as heat which, if not kept within safe limits, may
impair the performance of the system. This energy loss, which also represents a financial loss over a
period of time, is proportional to the effective resistance of the conductor and the square of the current
flowing through it. A low resistance therefore means a low loss; a factor of increasing importance as the
magnitude of the current increases.
The capacities of modern-day electrical plant and machinery are such that the power handled by their
control systems gives rise to very large forces. Busbars, like all the other equipment in the system, have to
be able to withstand these forces without damage. It is essential that the materials used in their
construction should have the best possible mechanical properties and are designed to operate within the
temperature limits laid down in BS 159, BS EN 60439-1:1994, or other national or international
standards.
A conductor material should therefore have the following properties if it is to be produced efficiently and
have low running costs from the point of view of energy consumption and maintenance:
a) Low electrical and thermal resistance
b) High mechanical strength in tension, compression and shear
c) High resistance to fatigue failure
d) Low electrical resistance of surface films
e) Ease of fabrication

f) High resistance to corrosion

g) Competitive first cost and high eventual recovery value
This combination of properties is met best by copper. Aluminium is the main alternative material, but a
comparison of the properties of the two metals shows that in nearly all respects copper is the superior
material.
Types of Busbar
Busbars can be sub-divided into the following categories, with individual busbar systems in many cases
being constructed from several different types:
a) Air insulated with open phase conductors
b) Air insulated with segregating barriers between conductors of different phases.
c) Totally enclosed but having the construction as those for (a) and (b)
d) Air insulated where each phase is fully isolated from its adjacent phase(s) by an earthed enclosure.
These are usually called 'Isolated Phase Busbars'.
e) Force-cooled busbar systems constructed as (a) to (d) but using air, water, etc. as the cooling medium
under forced conditions (fan, pump, etc.).
f) Gas insulated busbars. These are usually constructed as type (e) but use a gas other than air such as SF6,
(sulphur hexafluoride).
g) Totally enclosed busbars using compound or oil as the insulation medium.
The type of busbar system selected for a specific duty is determined by requirements of voltage, current,
frequency, electrical safety, reliability, short-circuit currents and environmental considerations. Table 1
outlines how these factors apply to the design of busbars in electricity generation and industrial processes.

Table 1 Comparison of typical design requirements for power generation and industrial process
systems

Feature

Generation

Industrial Processes

Voltage drop

Normally not important

Important

Temperature rise

Usually near to maximum

In many cases low due to

allowable. Capitalisation

optimisation of first cost

becoming important.

and running costs.

Zero to 40 k A a .c . with

Zero to 200 kA a.c. and

frequencies of zero to 400 Hz.

d.c.

Jointing and

Usually bolted but high current

Usually bolted. Joint

connections

applications are often fully

preparation very

welded. Joint preparation very

important.

Current range

important
5

Cross-sectional area

Usually minimum. Somewhat

Usually larger than

larger if optimisation is required.

minimum required due to

optimisation and voltage
drop considerations.

Kelvin's Law

Not applied. Other forms of

Applies. Also other forms

optimisation are often used.

of optimisation and
capitalisation used

Construction

Up to 36 k V. Individually

Usually low voltage.

engineered using basic designs and

Individually engineered.

concepts.

Standard products for low

current/voltage
applications.

Enclosures

Totally enclosed with or without

Usually open. Enclosed or

ventilation.

protected by screens when

using standard products.

Fault capacity

Usually large. Designed to meet

Usually similar to running

system requirement.

current. Standard products

to suit system short circuit.

10

Phase arrangement

Normally 3 phase flat though

Normally flat but

sometimes trefoil.

transposition used to
improve current
distribution on large
systems

11

Load factor

Usually high. Normally 1.0.

Usually high but many

have widely varying loads.

12

Cost

Low when compared with

Major consideration in

associated plant.

many cases. Particularly

when
optimisation/capitalisation
is used.

13

14

Effects of failure

Copper type

Very serious. High energies

Limited by low voltage

dissipated into fault.

and busbar size.

High conductivity.

High conductivity.

15 Copper shape Usually rectangular. Tubular used for high current force-cooled. Usually large cross
section rectangular. Tubular used for some low current high voltage applications and high current forcecooled.
Choice of Busbar Material
At the present time the only two commercially available materials suitable for conductor purposes are
copper and aluminium. The table below gives a comparison of some of their properties. It can be seen that
for conductivity and strength, high conductivity copper is superior to aluminium. The only disadvantage
of copper is its density; for a given current and temperature rise, an aluminium conductor would be
lighter, even though its cross-section would be larger. In enclosed systems however, space considerations
are of greater importance than weight. Even in open-air systems the weight of the busbars, which are
supported at intervals, is not necessarily the decisive factor.

Table 2 Typical relative properties of copper and aluminium

Copper(CW004A)

Aluminium (1350)

Units

101

61

% IACS

1.72

2.83

0.0039

0.004

/ C

397

230

W/mK

of

17 x 106

23 x 106

/ C

strength

200 250

50 60

N/mm2

strength

260 300

85 100

N/mm2

stress

50 55

20 30

N/mm2

stress

170 200

60 65

N/mm2

Elastic modulus

116 130

70

kN/mm2

Specific heat

385

900

J/kg K

Density

8.91

2.70

g/cm3

Melting point

1083

660

Electrical
conductivity
(annealed)
Electrical

resistivity

cm

(annealed)
Temperature
coefficient

of

resistance(annealed)
Thermal conductivity
at 20C
Coefficient
expansion
Tensile
(annealed)
Tensile
(halfhard)
0.2%

proof

(annealed)
0.2%

proof

(halfhard)

The electromagnetic stresses set up in the bar are usually more severe than the stress introduced by its
weight. In particular, heavy current-carrying equipment necessitates the use of large size conductors, and
space considerations may be important. It should be realised that the use of copper at higher operating
temperatures than would be permissible for aluminium allows smaller and lighter copper sections to be
used than would be required at lower temperatures.
The ability of copper to absorb the heavy electromagnetic and thermal stresses generated by overload
conditions also gives a considerable factor of safety. Other factors, such as the cost of frequent supports
for the relatively limp aluminium, and the greater cost of insulation of the larger surface area, must be
considered when evaluating the materials.
From published creep data, it can be seen that high conductivity aluminium exhibits evidence of
significant creep at ambient temperature if heavily stressed. At the same stress, a similar rate of creep is
only shown by high conductivity copper at a temperature of 150C, which is above the usual operating
temperature of busbars.
Table 3 Comparison of creep and fatigue properties of high conductivity copper and aluminium
a) Creep properties

Material

Testing Temp. C

Min. Creep Rate %

Stress N/mm2

per 1000 h
Al (1080) annealed

20

0.022

26 *

HC Cu annealed

150

0.022

26 *

Cu-0.086% Ag 50%

130

0.004

138

225

0.029

96.

c.w.
Cu-0.086% Ag 50%
c.w.

5
* Interpolated from fig.3

b) Fatigue properties

Material

Fatigue

strength

No. of cycles x 106

N/mm2
HC Al

HC Copper

annealed

20

50

half-hard (H8)

45

50

annealed

62

300

half-hard

115

300

If much higher stresses or temperatures are to be allowed for, copper containing small amounts (about
0.1%) of silver can be used successfully. The creep resistance and softening resistance of copper-silver
alloys increase with increasing silver content.
In the conditions in which high conductivity aluminium and copper are used, either annealed (or aswelded) or half-hard, the fatigue strength of copper is approximately double that of aluminium. This gives
a useful reserve of strength against failure initiated by mechanical or thermal cycling.
The greater hardness of copper compared with aluminium gives it better resistance to mechanical damage
both during erection and in service. It is also less likely to develop problems in clamped joints due to cold
metal flow under the prolonged application of a high contact pressure. Its higher modulus of elasticity
gives it greater beam stiffness compared with an aluminium conductor of the same dimensions. The
temperature variations encountered under service conditions require a certain amount of flexibility to be
allowed for in the design. The lower coefficient of linear expansion of copper reduces the degree of
flexibility required.
Because copper is less prone to the formation of high resistance surface oxide films than aluminium, good
quality mechanical joints are easier to produce in copper conductors. Welded joints are also readily made.
Switch contacts and similar parts are nearly always produced from copper or a copper alloy. The use of
copper for the busbars to which these parts are connected therefore avoids contacts between dissimilar
metals and the inherent jointing and corrosion problems associated with them.
The higher melting point and thermal conductivity of copper reduce the possibility of damage resulting
from hot spots or accidental flashovers in service. If arcing occurs, copper busbars are less likely to
support the arc than aluminium. Table 4 shows that copper can self-extinguish arcs across smaller

separations, and at higher busbar currents. This self-extinguishing behaviour is related to the much larger
heat input required to vaporise copper than aluminium.
Table 4 Self-extinguishing arcs in copper and aluminium busbars

Minimum

busbar

spacing,

Copper

Aluminium

50

100

4500

3220

mm
Maximum current per busbar,
A

Copper liberates considerably less heat during oxidation than aluminium and is therefore much less likely
to sustain combustion in the case of accidental ignition by an arc. The large amounts of heat liberated by
the oxidation of aluminium in this event are sufficient to vaporise more metal than was originally
oxidised. This vaporised aluminium can itself rapidly oxidise, thus sustaining the reaction. The excess
heat generated in this way heats nearby materials, including the busbar itself, the air and any supporting
fixtures. As the busbar and air temperatures rise, the rates of the vaporisation and oxidation increase, so
accelerating the whole process. As the air temperature is increased, the air expands and propels hot oxide
particles. The busbar may reach its melting point, further increasing the rate of oxidation and providing
hot liquid to be propelled, while other materials such as wood panels may be raised to their ignition
temperatures. These dangers are obviated by the use of copper busbars.
Finally, copper is an economical conductor material. It gives long and reliable service at minimum
maintenance costs, and when an installation is eventually replaced the copper will have a high recovery
value. Because of its many advantages, copper is still used worldwide as an electrical conductor material
despite attempts at substitution.

Properties of Wrought HC Copper

Mechanical
Electrical
Mechanical properties
The room temperature physical and mechanical properties of the high conductivity coppers in the
annealed condition do not differ significantly from one another.
Tensile strength
Proof stress
Hardness
Resistance to softening
Creep resistance
Fatigue resistance
Bending and forming
Tensile strength
In the as-cast condition, high conductivity copper has a tensile strength of 150-170 N/mm2. The changes
in structure brought about by hot working raise the tensile strength to the order of 200-220 N/mm2. Upon
further working the resulting mechanical properties of a particular form are influenced by the amount of
cold work given to the material which has the effect of raising its tensile strength, proof stress and
hardness but reducing its elongation. The effect on the mechanical properties of cold work (reduction in
area) by rolling is shown in Figure 2.
The maximum tensile strength obtainable in practice depends on the shape and cross-sectional area of the
conductor. The larger the cross-sectional area of a conductor the lower its tensile strength, since the
amount of cold work that can be applied is limited by the reduction in area which can be achieved.
For the usual sizes of busbar conductors in the hard condition, tensile strengths from 250 N/mm2 up to
340 N/mm2 can be obtained depending on the cross-sectional area.
Proof stress

The 'proof stress' required to produce a definite amount of permanent deformation in the metal is a
valuable guide to its physical properties. Proof stress is defined as the stress at which a non-proportional
elongation equal to a specified percentage (usually 0.2) of the original gauge length occurs.
As with the tensile strength, the proof stress varies with the amount of cold work put into the material (see
Figure 2).
Figure 2 - Effect of cold rolling on mechanical properties and hardness of high conductivity

Hardness
British Standards applicable to busbar conductors do not specify hardness measurement as part of the
testing requirements. It can however be more quickly and easily carried out than a tensile test and is
convenient therefore as a guide to the strength of a conductor. The results have to be used with discretion
for two reasons:

a) Unlike ferrous materials the relationship between hardness and tensile strength is not constant (see
Figure 2).
b) A hardness test is usually only a measurement of the outer skin of the material tested. If the conductor
is of large cross-sectional area and has received a minimum amount of cold work the skin will be harder
than the underlying metal. Consequently, variations in hardness may be obtained dependent on where the
measurement is made in relation to its cross-section.
As a guide, typical hardness figures of the temper range of conductors supplied are:
Annealed (O) 60 HV max
Half-hard (H) 70-95 HV
Hard (H) 90 HV min.
Resistance to softening
It is well known that the exposure of cold worked copper to elevated temperatures results in softening and
mechanical properties typical of those of annealed material. Softening is time and temperature dependent
and it is difficult to estimate precisely the time at which it starts and finishes. It is usual therefore to
consider the time to 'half-softening', i.e., the time taken for the hardness to fall by 50% of the original
increase in hardness caused by cold reduction.
In the case of HC copper this softening occurs at temperatures above 150C. It has been established
experimentally that such copper would operate successfully at a temperature of 105C for periods of 2025 years, and that it could withstand short circuit conditions as high as 250C for a few seconds without
any adverse effect.
If hard drawn conductors are required to retain strength under operating conditions higher than normal,
the addition of small amounts of silver at the melting and casting stage produces alloys with improved
resistance to softening. The addition of 0.06% silver raises the softening temperature by approximately
100C without any significant effect on its conductivity, at the same time appreciably increasing its creep
resistance.

Creep resistance

Figure 3 - Typical creep properties of commercially pure copper and aluminium

Creep, another time and temperature dependent property, is the non-recoverable plastic deformation of a
metal under a prolonged stress. The ability of a metal to resist creep is of prime importance to design
engineers.
The creep resistance of oxygen-free HC copper is better than that of tough pitch HC copper. This is due to
the very small amounts of impurities which remain in solid solution in oxygen-free copper, but which are
absorbed in the oxide particles in tough pitch copper. Some typical observations are shown in Figure 3.
Tough pitch copper creeps relatively rapidly under low stress at 220C. The addition of silver to both
oxygen-free and tough pitch coppers results in a significant increase in creep resistance.
Fatigue resistance
Fatigue is the mechanism leading to fracture under repeated or fluctuating stresses. Fatigue fractures are
progressive, beginning as minute cracks which grow under the action of the stress. As the crack
propagates the load bearing area is reduced and failure occurs by ductile fracture before the crack
develops across the full area.
Conditions for such failures can be set up in a busbar system rigidly clamped for support and then
subjected to vibrating conditions. Support systems are discussed in detail in Section 8.
Bending and forming

The high conductivity coppers are ductile and in the correct temper will withstand severe bending and
forming operations. As a general guide to bending, copper in the half-hard or hard temper will bend
satisfactorily round formers of the following radii:
Table 6 HC copper minimum bend radius
Thickness

Minimum bend radius

Up to 10 mm 1t
11-25 mm

1.5t

26-50 mm

2t

where t = bar thickness

Material of thicknesses greater than 50 mm is not normally bent; however, it is possible to do so by
localised annealing prior to bending.
Electrical properties
International Annealed Copper Standard
Effect of cold work on conductivity
Effect of temperature on conductivity
Copper in electrical contacts

International Annealed Copper Standard

The electrical properties of HC copper were standardised in 1913 by the International Electrotechnical
Commission which defined the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) in terms of the following
properties at 20C:
Volume conductivity

v = 58 MS/m

Density d = 8890 kg/m3

Temperature coefficient of resistance

= 0.00393/C

It follows from the first two of these two values that:

Volume resistivity

v = 1/

Mass conductivity

m=

Mass resistivity

m = 1/

v = 1.7241 m cm
v /d = 6524 Sm2/kg
m = 153.28

kg/m2

These values correspond to 100% IACS. However, the lower oxygen and impurity levels of modern HC
coppers have led to higher typical values of density and conductivity, 101.5% of the IACS value being
typical of the conductivity of modern HC copper in the annealed condition.
Effect of cold work on conductivity
The conductivity of copper is decreased by cold working and may be 2 to 3% less in the hard drawn
condition than when annealed. Thus standards for hard drawn HC copper products should stipulate a
minimum conductivity requirement of 97% IACS compared with 100% IACS for annealed products.
An approximate relationship between tensile strength of cold worked copper and its increase in electrical
resistivity is:
P = T/160
Where P = % increase in electrical resistivity of cold worked copper over its resistivity when annealed.
T = tensile strength, N/mm2
Effect of temperature on conductivity
As temperature increases, the conductivity of all metallic materials decreases with the corresponding
increase in resistivity, according to the formula:

where T1 = resistivity at temperature T1,

T2 = resistivity at temperature T2,

cm

cm

T1T2 = the temperature coefficient of resistivity for the temperature range T1 to T2, perC

The value of

itself changes with temperature, but for small temperature ranges, the value of

and T1 is

usually taken as a constant over the range. Its value at any temperature above -200C is taken as

where T is expressed in degrees Celsius.

Hence the value of
20 = 0.003947 per C.
Resistance is related to resistivity by

where R = resistance, (
= volume resistivity, (

)
cm)

l = length of conductor, (cm)

A = cross-sectional area of conductor, (cm2)
It follows that the resistance of a metallic conductor also rises with temperature. Thermal changes of
resistance can be calculated in a similar way to thermal changes of resistivity, but a different coefficient,
, is used.
Hence

where RT1 = resistance at temperature T1,

RT2 = resistance at temperature T2,
T1T2 = temperature coefficient of resistance for the temperature range T1 to T2, per C

Like

itself changes with temperature but for small temperature ranges its value at T1 can be taken as

constant over the range. Its value at any temperature T (C) above -200C is taken as

Copper in electrical contacts

Copper and copper alloys have properties which make them ideal for many types of contacts from light
electronics applications to very heavy duties. The ranges of compositions and properties of the coppers,
copper alloys and copper-based sintered materials, and the duties for which they are suitable are described
in the CDA booklet Copper in Electrical Contacts (Available on CD-ROM 'Megabytes on Copper II').
Available forms
HC copper conductors are obtainable in bar, strip, rod or tube form. For busbar applications, the most
common forms supplied are bar, rod or tube and these are normally supplied in the hard condition. In this
condition they offer greater stiffness, strength and hardness and have a better surface finish. Because of
the practical difficulty of straightening uncoiled hard material it is normally supplied in straight lengths,
coiled material being limited to the smaller sizes.
The maximum length of material available with the advent of continuous casting methods is dependent on
a supplier's plant capabilities rather than the piece weight of a billet or wirebar. The following notes can
be used as a guide to what is available at the present time:
Drawn bars and rods
HC tubes
Special sections
Dimensional tolerances and preferred sizes

Drawn bars and rods

For the reason given above these are drawn straight in the final stages of manufacture. The maximum
length attainable is therefore limited by the length of the drawbenches on which they are produced. For
sizes up to 100 mm x 25 mm, lengths up to 9 m, and for 200 mm x 37.5 mm lengths up to 5 m can be
obtained. Rods up to 50 mm dia. can be supplied in lengths up to 9 m. Larger diameters are available but
because of the limited reductions to which they can be subjected with normal commercial equipment
hardness variations across the section will be obtained.
Because of the difficulty in producing long lengths free from surface blemishes and the handling problems
encountered as the bar or rod weight increases with size and lengths, it is normal practice for lengths
supplied to be around 3 - 4 m.
HC tubes
Seamless, high conductivity copper tubes, complying with the requirements of BS 1977 can be supplied in
a range of sizes covering outside diameters of 1 mm up to 610 mm in wall thicknesses of 0.3 mm to 27
mm. Clearly, all combinations of wall thickness and outside diameter are not available, because it is not
possible to produce the extremes of thickness in tubes at the extremes of the outside diameter range.
The maximum lengths available depend upon the tube dimensions specified. As a general rule, tubes in
the size range 108 mm o.d. to 610 mm o.d. are supplied in 6 m lengths. Sizes smaller than 108 mm o.d.
can be produced up to 10 m long.
It is usual practice to supply tubes in the as-drawn condition, M, or alternatively, in the annealed
condition, O. However, other tempers can be supplied by arrangement.
Mandrel or bar drawing of tube is virtually obsolete and all the sizes indicated above are manufactured by
plug drawing processes. Thus, bore and outer surface finishes are good and dimensional tolerances can be
maintained over the whole length.
Special sections
These generally take the form of hard drawn angle or channel sections produced by extrusion and
drawing. Larger sizes can be fabricated from large sheets or plate by shearing and bending.
Dimensional tolerances and preferred sizes
BS 159 for busbars requires the dimensions of flat and round bars to be within the tolerances in BS 1432,
BS 1433 and BS 1977.

If necessary, material can be supplied to closer tolerances than those quoted in the respective British
Standards. Obviously these involve a higher initial cost, but this may be offset by the savings accrued
from reduced or eliminated machining operations normally carried out to ensure a good contact surface
and fit.
The benefit to users of a range of preferred sizes is obvious and designers using copper should be aware of
this desirable and growing trend. BS 1432 and BS 1433 list the recommended sizes.
2.Copper for Busbar Purposes
Types of High Conductivity Copper available
Properties of Wrought HC Copper
In most countries, coppers of different types for specific applications have been given separate identities.
In the United Kingdom this takes the form of an alloy designation number which is used in all British
Standards relevant to copper and its alloys. Copper for electrical purposes is covered by the following
British Standards:
BS 1432 : 1987 (strip with drawn or rolled edges)
BS 1433 : 1970 (Rod and bar)
BS 1434 : 1985 (Commutator bars)
BS 1977 : 1976 (High conductivity tubes)
BS 4109 : 1970 (wire for general electrical purposes and for insulated and flexible cords)
BS 4608 : 1970 (Rolled sheet, strip and foil)
(Copies of these are obtainable from the BSI Sales Office. 398 Chiswick High Road, London WS4 4AL.)
To bring the UK in line with current European requirements BS EN standards are being introduced. The
European Standards relevant to electrical applications are expected to supersede the British Standards in
due course.
The current standards most relevant to busbar applications are BS 1432, BS 1433 and BS 1977 which
specify that the end products shall be manufactured from copper complying with the following
requirements:

Cu-ETP

Electrolytic tough pitch

Cu-FRHC
Cu-OF

high

conductivity copper CW004A (formerly C101)

Fire-refined tough pitch high conductivity copper CW005A (formerly C102)

Oxygen-free high conductivity copper CW008A (formerly C103)

European Standards EN1976 and EN1978 have replaced BS 6017:1981. Table 5 shows the European
material designations along with International Standards Organisation (ISO) and old British Standard
designations.
Table 5 EN, BS and ISO designations for refinery shapes and wrought coppers

Designation
Description

ISO

Electrolytic

tough

pitch

high-

cast

and

European

Former

wrought

Designation

Designations

Cu-ETP

CW004A

C101

Cu-FRHC

CW005A

C102

Cu-OF

CW008A

C103

UK

conductivity copper
Fire- refined tough
pitch

high-

conductivity copper
Oxygen-free

high-

conductivity copper

Copper to be used for electrical purposes is of high purity because impurities in copper, together with the
changes in micro-structure produced by working, materially affect the mechanical and electrical
properties. The degree to which the electrical conductivity is affected by an impurity depends largely on
the element present. For example, the presence of only 0.04% phosphorus reduces the conductivity of
high conductivity copper to around 80% IACS. (The approximate effect on conductivity of various
impurity elements is shown in Figure 1). The level of total impurities, including oxygen, should therefore
be less than 0.1% and copper of this type is known as high conductivity (HC) copper.
Microscopic and analytical controls are applied to ensure a consistent product and in the annealed
condition conductivities over 100% IACS are usual. This figure corresponds to the standard resistivity of
0.017241

m set some years ago by the International Electrotechnical Commission.

Figure 1 - Approximate effect of impurity elements on the electrical resistivity of

copper

Types of High Conductivity Copper available

Tough pitch copper,CW004A and CW005A (C101 and C102 )
Coppers of this type, produced by fire-refining or remelting of electrolytic cathode, contain a small,
deliberate addition of oxygen which scavenges impurities from the metal. It is present in the form of fine,
well-distributed cuprous oxide particles only visible by microscopic examination of a polished section of
the metal. Typical oxygen contents of these coppers fall in the range 0.02-0.05%. Between these limits the
presence of the oxygen in this form has only a slight effect on the mechanical and electrical properties of
the copper. It can, however, give rise to porosity and intergranular cracks or fissures if the copper is
heated in a reducing atmosphere, as can happen during welding or brazing. This is a result of the reaction
of the cuprous oxide particles with hydrogen and is known as 'hydrogen embrittlement'. Provided a
reducing atmosphere is avoided, good welds and brazes can be readily achieved. (See Jointing of Copper
Busbars.)
Oxygen-free high-conductivity copper, CW008A (C103)

In view of the above remarks, if welding and brazing operations under reducing conditions are
unavoidable, it is necessary to use a different (and more expensive) grade of high conductivity copper
which is specially produced for this purpose. This type of copper, known as 'oxygen-free high
conductivity copper', is normally produced by melting and casting under a protective atmosphere. To
obtain the high conductivity required it is necessary to select the best raw materials. The result is a high
purity product containing 99.95% copper. This enables a conductivity of 100% IACS to be specified even
in the absence of the scavenging oxygen.
Effects of hot and cold working on structures
In the as-cast form, HC copper is available in wirebar and billet form, although the advancement of
modern casting technology is leading to a decline in wirebar production. The cast shape is hot-worked by
rolling or extrusion to produce a form suitable for further processing by cold work into its final wrought
form, either by rolling or drawing through dies.
In the case of tough-pitch HC copper, the as-cast structure is coarse-grained with oxygen present as
copper-cuprous oxide eutectic in the grain boundaries. The hot working operation breaks up the coarse
grains and disperses the cuprous oxide to give a uniform distribution of oxide particles throughout a new
network of fine grains. In the case of oxygen-free HC copper, the hot working operation breaks up the
coarse grains into a new network of fine grains.
3. Current-carrying Capacity of Busbars
Design Requirements
Calculation of Current-carrying Capacity
Methods of Heat Loss
Heat Generated by a Conductor
Approximate dc Current Ratings for Flat and Round bars
Design Requirements
The current-carrying capacity of a busbar is usually determined by the maximum temperature at which the
bar is permitted to operate, as defined by national and international standards such as British Standard BS
159, American Standard ANSI C37.20, etc. These standards give maximum temperature rises as well as
maximum ambient temperatures.

BS 159 stipulates a maximum temperature rise of 50C above a 24 hour mean ambient temperature of up
to 35C, and a peak ambient temperature of 40C.
ANSI C37.20 alternatively permits a temperature rise of 65C above a maximum ambient of 40C,
provided that silver-plated (or acceptable alternative) bolted terminations are used. If not, a temperature
rise of 30C is allowed.
These upper temperature limits have been chosen because at higher maximum operating temperatures the
rate of surface oxidation in air of conductor materials increases rapidly and may give rise in the long term
to excessive local heating at joints and contacts. This temperature limit is much more important for
aluminium than copper because it oxidises very much more readily than copper. In practise these
limitations on temperature rise may be relaxed for copper busbars if suitable insulation materials are used.
A nominal rise of 60C or more above an ambient of 40C is allowed by BS EN 60439-1:1994 provided
that suitable precautions are taken. BS EN 60439-1:1994

(equivalent to IEC 439) states that the

temperature rise of busbars and conductors is limited by the mechanical strength of the busbar material,
the effect on adjacent equipment, the permissible temperature rise of insulating materials in contact with
the bars, and the effect on apparatus connected to the busbars.
The rating of a busbar must also take account of the mechanical stresses set up due to expansion, shortcircuit currents and associated inter-phase forces. In some busbar systems consideration must also be
given to the capitalised cost of the heat generated by the effective ohmic resistance and current (I2R)
which leads to an optimised design using Kelvin's Law of Maximum Economy. This law states that 'the
cost of lost energy plus that of interest and amortisation on initial cost of the busbars (less allowance for
scrap) should not be allowed to exceed a minimum value'. Where the interest, amortisation and scrap
values are not known, an alternative method is to minimise the total manufacturing costs plus the cost of
lost energy.
Calculation of Current-carrying Capacity
A very approximate method of estimating the current carrying capacity of a copper busbar is to assume a
current density of 2 A/mm2 (1250 A/in2) in still air. This method should only be used to estimate a likely
size of busbar, the final size being chosen after consideration has been given to the calculation methods
and experimental results given in the following sections.
Methods of Heat Loss

The current that will give rise to a particular equilibrium temperature rise in the conductor depends on the
balance between the rate at which heat is produced in the bar, and the rate at which heat is lost from the
bar. The heat generated in a busbar can only be dissipated in the following ways:
(a) Convection
(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
In most cases convection and radiation heat losses determine the current-carrying capacity of a busbar
system. Conduction can only be used where a known amount of heat can flow into a heat sink outside the
busbar system or where adjacent parts of the system have differing cooling capacities. The proportion of
heat loss by convection and radiation is dependent on the conductor size with the portion attributable to
convection being increased for a small conductor and decreased for larger conductors.
Convection
The heat dissipated per unit area by convection depends on the shape and size of the conductor and its
temperature rise. This value is usually calculated for still air conditions but can be increased greatly if
forced air cooling is permissible. Where outdoor busbar systems are concerned calculations should always
be treated as in still air unless specific information is given to the contrary.
The following formulae can be used to estimate the convection heat loss from a body in W/m2:

where

= temperature rise, C

L = height or width of bar, mm

d = diameter of tube, mm

The diagrams below indicate which formulae should be used for various conductor geometries:

It can be seen when diagrams (a) and (b) are compared and assuming a similar cross-sectional area the
heat loss from arrangement (b) is much larger, provided the gap between the laminations is not less than
the thickness of each bar.
Convection heat loss: forced air cooling
If the air velocity over the busbar surface is less than 0.5 m/s the above formulae for Wv, Wh and Wc
apply. For higher air velocities the following may be used:

where Wa = heat lost per unit length from bar, W/m

v = air velocity, m/s
A = surface area per unit length of bar, m2/m

Radiation
The rate at which heat is radiated from a body is proportional to the difference between the fourth power
of the temperatures of the body and its surroundings, and is proportional to the relative emissivity between
the body and its surroundings.
The following table lists typical absolute emissivities

for copper busbars in various conditions. Changes

in emissivity give rise to changes in current ratings, as shown in Table 7.

Bright metal 0.1
Partially oxidised 0.30
Heavily oxidised 0.70
Dull non-metallic paint 0.9

Table 7 Percentage increase in current rating when

is increased from 0.1 to 0.9 - three-phase

arrangement

Phase centres, mm
No.

of

bars

in

150

200

250

23

23

25

15

16

18

10

11

14

12

parallel

The figures given in Table 7 are approximate values applicable to 80 to 160 mm wide busbars for a 105C
operating temperature and 40C ambient. The relative emissivity is calculated as follows:

where e = relative emissivity

1 = absolute emissivity of body 1
2 = absolute emissivity of body 2
The rate of heat loss by radiation from a body (W/m2) is given by:

where e = relative emissivity

T1 = absolute temperature of body 1, K
T2 = absolute temperature of body 2, K (i.e., ambient temperature of the surroundings)
Radiation is considered to travel in straight lines and leave the body at right angles to its surface. The
diagrams above define the effective surface areas for radiation from conductors of common shapes.
Heat Generated by a Conductor

The rate at which heat is generated per unit length of a conductor carrying a direct current is the product
I2R watts, where I is the current flowing in the conductor and R its resistance per unit length. The value
for the resistance can in the case of d.c. busbar systems be calculated directly from the resistivity of the
copper or copper alloy. Where an a.c. busbar system is concerned, the resistance is increased due to the
tendency of the current to flow in the outer surface of the conductor. The ratio between the a.c. value of
resistance and its corresponding d.c. value is called the skin effect ratio (see Section 4). This value is unity
for a d.c. system but increases with the frequency and the physical size of the conductor for an a.c.
current.
Rate of Heat generated in a Conductor,
W/mm = I2 RoS
where I = current in conductor, A
Ro = d.c. resistance per unit length,

/mm

S = skin effect ratio

also

where Rf = effective a.c. resistance of conductor,

(see above)

Approximate dc Current Ratings for Flat and Round bars

The following equations can be used to obtain the approximate d.c. current rating for single flat and round
copper busbars carrying a direct current. The equations assume a naturally bright copper finish where
emissivity is 0.1 and where ratings can be improved substantially by coating with a matt black or similar
surface. The equations are also approximately true for a.c. current provided that the skin effect and
proximity ratios stay close to 1.0, as is true for many low current applications. Methods of calculation for
other configurations and conditions can be found in subsequent sections.
(a) Flat bars on edge:

(1
where I = current, A
A = cross-sectional area, mm2
p = perimeter of conductor, mm
= temperature difference between conductor and the ambient air, C
= resistance temperature coefficient of copper at the ambient temperature, per C
= resistivity of copper at the ambient temperature,

cm

(b) Hollow round bars:

(2
(c) Solid round bars:

(3
If the temperature rise of the conductor is 50C above an ambient of 40C and the resistivity of the copper
at 20C is 1.724

cm, then the above formulae become:

(i) Flat bars:

(4
(ii) Hollow round bars:

(5
(iii) Solid round bars:

(6
For high conductivity copper tubes where diameter and mass per unit length (see Table 14) are known,

(7
where m = mass per unit length of tube, kg/m
d = outside diameter of tube, mm
Re-rating for different current or temperature rise conditions
Where a busbar system is to be used under new current or temperature rise conditions, the following
formula can be used to find the corresponding new temperature rise or current:

(8
where
I1 = current 1, A
I2 = current 2, A
1 = temperature rise for current 1, C
2 = temperature rise for current 2, C
T1 = working temperature for current 1, C
T2 = working temperature for current 2, C
20 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 20C ( = 0.00393)

If the working temperature of the busbar system is the same in each case (i.e., T1 = T2), for example when
re-rating for a change in ambient temperature in a hotter climate, this formula becomes

Laminated bars
When a number of conductors are used in parallel, the total current capacity is less than the rating for a
single bar times the number of bars used. This is due to the obstruction to convection and radiation losses
from the inner conductors. To facilitate the making of interleaved joints, the spacing between laminated
bars is often made equal to the bar thickness. For 6.3 mm thick bars up to 150 mm wide, mounted on edge
with 6.3 mm spacings between laminations, the isolated bar d.c. rating may be multiplied by the following
factors to obtain the total rating.
No. of laminations Multiplying factor

No.

of

Multiplying

laminations

factor

1.8

2.5

3.2

3.9

4.4

5.5

10

6.5

4. Alternating Current Effects in Busbars

Skin Effect
Proximity Effect
Condition for Minimum Loss
Penetration Depth
Skin Effect
The apparent resistance of a conductor is always higher for a.c. than for d.c. The alternating magnetic flux
created by an alternating current interacts with the conductor, generating a back e.m.f. which tends to
reduce the current in the conductor. The centre portions of the conductor are affected by the greatest
number of lines of force, the number of line linkages decreasing as the edges are approached. The
electromotive force produced in this way by self-inductance varies both in magnitude and phase through
the cross-section of the conductor, being larger in the centre and smaller towards the outside. The current
therefore tends to crowd into those parts of the conductor in which the opposing e.m.f. is a minimum; that
is, into the skin of a circular conductor or the edges of a flat strip, producing what is known as 'skin' or
'edge' effect. The resulting non-uniform current density has the effect of increasing the apparent resistance
of the conductor and gives rise to increased losses.
The ratio of the apparent d.c. and a.c. resistances is known as the skin effect ratio:

where Rf = a.c. resistance of conductor

Ro = d.c. resistance of conductor
S = skin effect ratio
The magnitude and importance of the effect increases with the frequency, and the size, shape and
thickness of conductor, but is independent of the magnitude of the current flowing.
It should be noted that as the conductor temperature increases the skin effect decreases giving rise to a
lower than expected a.c. resistance at elevated temperatures. This effect is more marked for a copper

conductor than an aluminium conductor of equal cross-sectional area because of its lower resistivity. The
difference is particularly noticeable in large busbar sections.
Copper rods
The skin effect ratio of solid copper rods can be calculated from the formulae derived by Maxwell,
Rayleigh and others (Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, 1912):

where S = Skin effect ratio

d = diameter of rod, mm
f = frequency, Hz
= resistivity,

cm

= permeability of copper (=1)

For HC copper at 20C,

= 1.724

cm, hence

where A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, mm2

Figure 4 Skin effect in HC copper rods at 20C. Relation between diameter and x, and between
Rf/Ro and x where x = 1.207 x 102

(Af)

(Note: For values of x less than 2. use inset scale for Rf/Ro)

Copper tubes
Skin effect in tubular copper conductors is a function of the thickness of the wall of the tube and the ratio
of that thickness to the tube diameter, and for a given cross sectional area it can be reduced by increasing
the tube diameter and reducing the wall thickness.
Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7, which have been drawn from formulae derived by Dwight (1922) and
Arnold (1936), can be used to find the value of skin effect for various conductor sections. In the case of
tubes (Figure 5), it can be seen that to obtain low skin effect ratio values it is desirable to ensure, where
possible, low values of t/d and

(f/r). For a given cross-sectional area the skin effect ratio for a thin

copper tube is appreciably lower than that for any other form of conductor. Copper tubes, therefore, have
a maximum efficiency as conductors of alternating currents, particularly those of high magnitude or high
frequency.
The effect of wall thickness on skin effect for a 100 mm diameter tube carrying a 50Hz alternating current
is clearly shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Resistance of HC copper tubes, 100 mm outside diameter, d.c. and 50 Hz a.c.

Figure 6 Skin effect for rods and tubes

Flat copper bars

The skin effect in flat copper bars is a function of its thickness and width. With the larger sizes of
conductor, for a given cross-sectional area of copper, the skin effect in a thin bar or strip is usually less
than in a circular copper rod but greater than in a thin tube. It is dependent on the ratio of the width to the
thickness of the bar and increases as the thickness of the bar increases. A thin copper strip, therefore, is
more efficient than a thick one as an alternating current conductor. Figure 7 can be used to find the skin
effect value for flat bars.
Figure 7 Skin effect for rectangular conductors

Square copper tubes

The skin effect ratio for square copper tubes can be obtained from Figure 8.
Figure 8 Skin effect ratio for hollow square conductors

Proximity Effect
n the foregoing consideration of skin effect it has been assumed that the conductor is isolated and at such
a distance from the return conductor that the effect of the current in it can be neglected. When conductors
are close together, particularly in low voltage equipment, a further distortion of current density results
from the interaction of the magnetic fields of other conductors.
In the same way as an e.m.f. may be induced in a conductor by its own magnetic flux, so may the
magnetic flux of one conductor produce an e.m.f. in any other conductor sufficiently near for the effect to
be significant.
If two such conductors carry currents in opposite directions, their electro-magnetic fields are opposed to
one another and tend to force one another apart. This results in a decrease of flux linkages around the
adjacent parts of the conductors and an increase in the more remote parts, which leads to a concentration

of current in the adjacent parts where the opposing e.m.f. is a minimum. If the currents in the conductors
are in the same direction the action is reversed and they tend to crowd into the more remote parts of the
conductors.
This effect, known as the 'proximity effect' (or 'shape effect'), tends usually to increase the apparent a.c.
resistance. In some cases, however, proximity effect may tend to neutralise the skin effect and produce a
better distribution of current as in the case of strip conductors arranged with their flat sides towards one
another.
If the conductors are arranged edgewise to one another the proximity effect increases. In most cases the
proximity effect also tends to increase the stresses set up under short-circuit conditions and this may
therefore have to be taken into account.
The currents in various parts of a conductor subjected to skin and proximity effects may vary considerably
in phase, and the resulting circulating current give rise to additional losses which can be minimised only
by the choice of suitable types of conductor and by their careful arrangement.
The magnitude of the proximity effect depends, amongst other things, on the frequency of the current and
the spacing and arrangement of the conductors. The graphs in Figure 14 (Section 6) can be used to obtain
values of proximity effect for various conductor configurations at 50 or 60 Hz. Methods of calculation for
other frequencies are available (Dwight 1946). The unbalancing of current due to the proximity effect can
be reduced by spacing the conductors of different phases as far apart as possible and sometimes by
modifying their shape in accordance with the spacing adopted. In the case of laminated bars a reduction
may be obtained by transposing the laminations at frequent intervals or by employing current balancers
using inductances.
Proximity effect may be completely overcome by adopting a concentric arrangement of conductors with
one inside the other as is used for isolated phase busbar systems.
The magnetic field round busbar conductors may be considerably modified and the current distortion
increased by the presence of magnetic materials and only metals such as copper or copper alloys should
be used for parts likely to come within the magnetic field of the bars.
Condition for Minimum Loss
Both skin and proximity effects are due to circulating or 'eddy' currents caused by the differences of
inductance which exist between different 'elements' of current-carrying conductors. The necessary
condition for avoidance of both these effects (and hence for minimum loss) is that the shapes of each of
the conductors in a single-phase system approximates to 'equi-inductance lines'. Arnold (1937) has shown

that for close spacing, rectangular section conductors most closely approach this ideal. Such an
arrangement is also convenient where space is limited and where inductive voltage drop due to busbar
reactance must be reduced to a minimum. In the case of heavy current single-phase busbars and where
space is slightly less restricted, the single channel arrangement gives the closest approximation to the
equi-inductance condition, the channels of 'go' and 'return' conductors being arranged back-to-back, while
for wider spacing a circular section is preferable.
Penetration Depth
In the case of special conductor arrangements, or where high frequencies are employed, the alternating
current resistance may be calculated using the earlier sections. It is often necessary to know the depth of
penetration of the current into a conductor, that is the depth at which the current density has been reduced
to 1/e, or 0.368 of its value at the conductor surface. This can be calculated using the following formula
when its resistivity and the frequency are known.
depth of penetration

where d = depth of penetration, mm

= resistivity of copper,

cm

f = frequency, Hz
5. Effect of Busbar Arrangements on Rating
Laminated copper bars

Channel and angle bars

Inter-leaving of conductors Comparison of conductor arrangements

Transposition of conductors Enclosed copper conductors
Hollow square arrangement Compound insulated conductors
Tubular bars

Plastic insulated conductors

Concentric conductors

Isolated phase busbars

The efficiency of all types of heavy current busbars depends upon careful design, the most important
factors being:
a) The provision of a maximum surface area for the dissipation of heat.
b) An arrangement of bars which cause a minimum of interference with the natural movements of air
currents.
c) An approximately uniform current density in all parts of the conductors. This is normally obtained by
having as much copper as possible equidistant from the magnetic centre of the busbar.
d) Low skin effect and proximity effect for a.c. busbar systems.
To meet these requirements there are many different arrangements of copper busbars using laminations, as
well as copper extrusions of various cross-sections.
Figure 9 Busbar arrangements

Laminated copper bars

To obtain the best and most efficient rating for rectangular strip copper conductors they should be
mounted whenever possible with their major cross-sectional axes vertical so giving maximum cooling
surfaces.
Laminations of 6 or 6.3 mm thickness, of varying widths and with 6 or 6.3 mm spacings are probably the
most common and are satisfactory in most a.c. low current cases and for all d.c. systems.
It is not possible to give any generally applicable factors for calculating the d.c. rating of laminated bars,
since this depends upon the size and proportions of the laminations and on their arrangement. A guide to
the expected relative ratings are given in Table 8 below for a 50 Hz system. The ratings for single bars can
be estimated using the methods given in Section 3 and Section 4.
Table 8 Multiplying factors for laminated bars

Table 13 (Appendix 2) gives a.c. ratings for various configurations of laminated bars based on test
measurements.
For all normal light and medium current purposes an arrangement such as that in Figure 9a is entirely
satisfactory, but for a.c. currents in excess of 3000 A where large numbers of laminations would be
required it is necessary to rearrange the laminations to give better utilisation of the copper bars.
The effect of using a large number of laminations mounted side by side is shown in Figure 10 for a.c.
currents. The current distribution is independent of the total current magnitude.
Figure 10 Alternating current distribution in a bar with ten laminations

This curve shows that due to skin effect there is a considerable variation in the current carried by each
lamination, the outer laminations carrying approximately four times the current in those at the centre. The
two centre laminations together carry only about one-tenth of the total current.
The currents in the different laminations may also vary appreciably in phase, with the result that their
numerical sum may be greater than their vectorial sum, which is equal to the line current. These
circulating currents give rise to additional losses and lower efficiency of the system. It should also be
noted that the curve is non-symmetrical due to the proximity effect of an adjacent phase.
For these reasons it is recommended that alternate arrangements, such as those discussed in the following
sections, are used for heavy current a.c. svstems.
Inter-leaving of conductors
Where long low-voltage a.c. bars are carrying heavy currents, particularly at a low power factor, inductive
volt drop may become a serious problem with laminated bars arranged as in Figure 9a. The voltage drop
for any given size of conductor is proportional to the current and the length of the bars, and increases as
the separation between conductors of different phases increases. In the case of laminated bars the
inductive volt drop can be reduced by splitting up the bars into an equivalent number of smaller circuits in
parallel, with the conductors of different phases interleaved as shown in Figure 9b. This reduces the
average spacing between conductors of different phases and so reduces the inductive volt drop.
Transposition of conductors

The unbalanced current distribution in a laminated bar carrying a.c. current due to skin and proximity
effects may be counteracted by transposing laminations or groups of laminations at intervals. Tappings
and other connections make transposition difficult, but it can be worthwhile where long sections of bars
are free from tappings. The arrangement is as shown in Figure 9e.
Hollow square arrangement
To obtain a maximum efficiency from the point of view of skin effect, as much as possible of the copper
should be equidistant from the magnetic centre of a bar, as in the case of a tubular conductor. This can
reduce the skin effect to little greater than unity whereas values of 2 or more are possible with other
arrangements having the same cross-sectional area.
With flat copper bars the nearest approach to a unity skin effect ratio is achieved using a hollow square
formation as shown in Figure 9c, though the current arrangement is still not as good as in a tubular
conductor. The heat dissipation is also not as good as the same number of bars arranged side by side as in
Figure 9b, due to the horizontally mounted bars at the top and bottom.
Modified hollow square
This arrangement (Figure 9d) does not have as good a value of skin effect ratio as the hollow square
arrangement, but it does have the advantage that the heat dissipation is much improved. This arrangement
can have a current-carrying capacity of up to twice that for bars mounted side by side, or alternatively the
total cross-sectional area can be reduced for similar current-carrying capacities.
Tubular bars
A tubular copper conductor is the most efficient possible as regards skin effect, as the maximum amount
of material is located at a uniform distance from the magnetic centre of the conductor. The skin effect
reduces as the diameter increases for a constant wall thickness, with values close to unity possible when
the ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness exceeds about 20.
The natural cooling is not as good as that for a laminated copper bar system of the same cross-sectional
area, but when the proximity effects are taken into account the one-piece tube ensures that the whole tube
attains an even temperature - a condition rarely obtained with laminated bar systems.
Tubular copper conductors also lend themselves to alternative methods of cooling by, for example, forced
air or liquid cooling where heat can be removed from the internal surface of the tubes. Current ratings of
several times the natural air cooled value are possible using forced cooling with the largest increases when
liquid cooling is employed.

A tubular bar also occupies less space than the more usual copper laminated bar and has a further
advantage that its strength and rigidity are greater and uniform in all deflection planes. These advantages
are, however, somewhat reduced by the difficulty of making joints and connections which are more
difficult than those for laminated bars. These problems have now been reduced by the introduction of
copper welding and exothermic copper forming methods. Copper tubes are particularly suitable for high
current applications, such as arc furnaces, where forced liquid cooling can be used to great advantage. The
tube can also be used in isolated phase busbar systems due to the ease with which it can be supported by
insulators.
Concentric conductors
This arrangement is not widely used due to difficulties of support but has the advantage of the optimum
combination of low reactance and eddy current losses and is well suited to furnace and weld set
applications. It should be noted that the isolated phase busbar systems are of this type with the current in
the external enclosure being almost equal to that in the conductor when the continuously bonded threephase enclosure system is used.
Channel and angle bars
Alternative arrangements to flat or tubular copper bars are the channel and angle bars which can have
advantages. The most important of these shapes are shown in the diagrams below.
These are easily supported and give great rigidity and strength while the making of joints and connections
presents no serious difficulty.
The permissible alternating current density in free air for a given temperature rise is usually greater in the
case of two angle-shaped conductors (diagram (a)) than in any other arrangement of conductor material.

For low voltage heavy current single-phase bars with narrow phase centres, single copper channels with
the webs of the 'go' and 'return' conductors towards one another give an efficient arrangement. The
channel sizes can be chosen to reduce the skin and proximity effects to a minimum, give maximum
dissipation of heat and have considerable mechanical strength and rigidity. Where high voltage busbars
are concerned the phase spacing has to be much larger to give adequate electrical clearances between
adjacent phases with best arrangement being with the channel webs furthest apart. For high-capacity
generators which are connected to transformers and allied equipment by segregated or non-segregated
copper busbars, the double angle arrangement gives the best combination with the copper bar sizes still
being readily manufactured. The current ratings of these arrangements are given in Table 15 (Appendix
2). The ratings given are the maximum current ratings which do not take the cost of losses into account
and hence are not optimised.
Comparison of conductor arrangements
The extent to which the a.c. current rating for a given temperature rise of a conductor containing a given
cross-sectional area of copper depends on the cross-section shape. The approximate relative a.c. ratings
for a typical cross-sectional area of 10 000 mm2 are shown in Figure 11. For cross-sectional areas greater
than 10 000 mm2 the factors are greater than those shown, and are smaller for smaller cross-sections. In
the case of double-channel busbars, the ratio of web-to-flange lengths and also the web thickness have a
considerable effect on the current carrying capacity.
Figure 11 Comparative a.c. ratings of various conductor arrangements each having a cross sectional
area of 10,000 mm2 of HC copper

Enclosed copper conductors

In many cases busbars are surrounded by enclosures, normally metallic, which reduce the busbar heat
dissipation due to reduction in cooling air flow and radiation losses and therefore give current ratings
which may be considerably less than those for free air exposure. Ventilated enclosures, however, provide
mechanical protection and some cooling air flow with the least reduction in current rating.
The reduction in rating for a given temperature rise will vary considerably with the type and size of bar
and enclosure. The greatest decrease in current rating occurs with bars which depend mainly on free air
circulation and less on uniform current distribution such as the modified hollow square arrangement
(Figure 9d). In these cases the rating may be reduced to between 60 and 65% when the conductors are
enclosed in non-magnetic metal enclosures. In the case of tubular conductors or those of closely grouped
flat laminations, which are normally not so well cooled by air circulation, the ratings may be reduced to
about 75% of free air ratings for normal temperature rises.
Where the busbar system is enclosed in thick magnetic enclosures, such as in metal-clad switchgear, the
reduction is approximately a further 15%. The effect of thin sheet-steel enclosures is somewhat less.
These additional reductions are due to the heat generated by the alternating magnetic fields through
hysteresis and eddy current losses. Besides the derating caused by enclosure conditions, other limitations
on maximum working temperature are often present, such as when the outside of enclosures should not
exceed a given safety value. These deratings are affected by the electrical clearances involved and the
degree of ventilation in the enclosure. The above figures and the curves shown in Figure 12 should only
be taken as a rough guide to the required derating; an accurate figure can only be obtained by testing.
All parts such as conductor and switch fittings, enclosures and interphase barriers may be subject to
appreciable temperature rise due to circulating and eddy current losses when close to the heavy current
bars and connections. These losses can be reduced to a minimum by making these parts from high
conductivity non-magnetic material such as copper or copper alloy.
Figure 12 Comparison of approximate current ratings for busbars in different enclosures

Compound insulated conductors

The current rating of copper immersed in oil or compound depend upon a number of factors which may
vary widely with design, and can normally only be confirmed by carrying out temperature rise tests on the
complete assembly.
The ratings of enclosed bars are nearly always much lower than the free air ratings. The temperature rise
is dependent on the rate at which heat is conducted through the insulating media and dissipated from the
outside casing by radiation and convection. There is nearly always a closer phase spacing between
conductors giving high proximity effects and higher heat losses in the magnetic outer casings and so
giving rise to higher temperature rises.
Proximity effect is often more important for insulated bars than those in air. Laminated bars have fewer
advantages when immersed in oil or compound and circular copper conductors either solid or hollow
though are often preferred particularly for high-voltage gear and high current generators, transformers,
etc., where more effective cooling such as water cooling can be employed to improve conductor material
utilisation and hence reduce the overall size of plant.

Plastic insulated conductors

There is a widening use of plastic continuous insulation as the primary insulation for low current and
voltage busbars. This insulation is usually of the shrink-on P.V.C. type though wrap-on tape is sometimes
used. This method is used for voltages up to about 15 kV, though much higher levels can be attained when
specialised insulation systems such as epoxy resin or similar based tapes and powders are employed.
These systems are particularly useful where high atomic radiation levels, or high temperatures (up to
130C) are encountered, although account must be taken of the possibility of halogen gassing from P.V.C.
insulations at temperatures around 100C. Modified P.V.C. materials with improved high-temperature
performance are available.
Isolated phase busbars
solated phase busbars consist of a metallic enclosed conductor where each individual phase or pole is
surrounded by a separately earthed sheath which is connected at its ends by a full short-circuit current
rated bar. The sheath is intended primarily to prevent interphase short-circuit currents developing. They
have the further advantage that the high magnetic fields created by the conductor current are almost
completely cancelled by an equal and opposite current induced in the enclosure or sheath with reductions
of 95% or better in the external magnetic field being possible. An important result is that the likelihood of
steelwork overheating when adjacent to the busbar system is considerably reduced except where the
sheath short-circuit bars are located. This current flowing in the enclosure makes the method of estimating
the performance of the busbar system much more complicated and can only be resolved by obtaining a
heat balance between conductor and enclosure using an interactive calculation method.
These busbars are used normally for operating voltages of between 11 kV and 36 kV though equipment
using much lower voltages and higher voltages are increasingly changing to this system. Examples of
such equipment are exciter connections, switchgear interconnections, generator to transformer
connections, high voltage switchgear using SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) gas insulation (this gas having an
insulation level many times better than air). The current flowing in the conductor ranges from as little as
1000 A to in excess of 40 kA. To obtain the higher currents forced cooling is used, the most commonly
used cooling media being air and water though other cooling gases or liquids can be used. The use of
these cooling systems usually creates much increased heat losses and so their use must be justified by
benefits in other areas, e.g., reduced civil costs, reduced physical size where space is at a premium or
reduction in size to enable normal manufacturing methods be used both for the basic busbar material and
also the complete busbar system.
Another factor which influences the method chosen for forced cooling is the naturally cooled rating of the
busbar system and also its ability to sustain overload conditions. The busbars are usually manufactured in

single-phase units of transportable length and consist of a central conductor usually tubular of round,
square or channel cross-section, supported by porcelain or epoxy resin insulators. The insulators are
located by the external metallic sheath through which they are normally removed for servicing.
6. Short-Circuit Effects
Short-Circuit Heating of Bars
Electromagnetic Stresses
Corona Discharge

Short-Circuit Heating of Bars

Copper busbars are normally part of a larger generation or transmission system. The continuous rating of
the main components such as generators, transformers, rectifiers, etc., therefore determine the nominal
current carried by the busbars but in most power systems a one to four second short-circuit current has to
be accommodated. The value of these currents is calculated from the inductive reactances of the power
system components and gives rise to different maximum short-circuit currents in the various system
sections.
These currents are very often ten to twenty times the continuous current rating and therefore the transitory
heating effect must be taken into account. This effect can, in many cases, lead to dangerous overheating,
particularly where small conductors are part of a large heavy current system, and must be considered
when determining the conductor size. To calculate the temperature rise of the conductor during a short
circuit it is assumed that all the heat generated is absorbed by the conductor with none lost by convection
and radiation as for a continuous rated conductor. The temperature rise is dependent therefore only on the
specific heat of the copper conductor material and its mass. The specific heat of copper varies with
temperature, increasing as the temperature rises. At normal ambient temperatures it is about 385 J/kg K
and at 300C it is about 410 J/kg K.
Short-circuit heating characteristics are not easy to calculate accurately because of complex a.c. and d.c.
current effects, but for most purposes the formulae below will normally give sufficiently accurate results:

where t = maximum short-circuit time, s

A = conductor cross-section area, mm2
I = conductor current, kA
= conductor temperature rise, K
If

= 300C, then

The value of t obtained from the above equation should always be greater than the required short circuit
withstand time which is usually 1 to 4 seconds.
The temperature rise per second due to a current I is given by the following approximate formula:

(I/A) should be less than 0.25 for reasonable accuracy.

The maximum short-circuit temperature is very often chosen to be 300C for earth bar systems but the
upper limit for the phases is normally lower and is dependent on the mechanical properties required and
surface finish of the copper material.
Heating time constant
The previous section considered very short time effects but in many cases it may be necessary to calculate
the temperature rise of a conductor over an extended time, for example the time taken for a conductor to
reach normal operating temperature when carrying its rated continuous current. Under these conditions the
conductor is absorbing heat as its temperature rises. It is also dissipating heat by convection and radiation,
both of which increase with rising temperature difference between the conductor and the surroundings.
When maximum operating temperature is reached then the heat loss by convection and radiation is
constant and the heat absorbed by the conductor ceases.

The temperature rise after time t from the start of heating is given by the following formula where the
change of resistance with temperature can be assumed to be negligible:

where

= temperature rise, C

max = maximum temperature rise, C

e = exponential constant (=2.718)
t = time, s
= time constant, s
The time constant can be found using the following formula:

where w = rate of generation of heat at t=0, W

m = mass, kg
c = specific heat, J/kg K
The time constant gives the time taken to reach 0.636 of the maximum temperature rise,

max.

Electromagnetic Stresses
When a conductor carries a current it creates a magnetic field which interacts with any other magnetic
field present to produce a force. When the currents flowing in two adjacent conductors are in the same
direction the force is one of attraction, and when the currents are in opposite directions a repulsive force is
produced.

In most busbar systems the current-carrying conductors are usually straight and parallel to one another.
The force produced by the two conductors is proportional to the products of their currents. Normally in
most busbar systems the forces are very small and can be neglected, but under short-circuit conditions,
they become large and must be taken into account together with the conductor material fibre stresses when
designing the conductor insulator and its associated supports to ensure adequate safety factors.
The factors to be taken into account may be summarised as follows:
a) stresses due to direct lateral attractive and repulsive forces.
b) Vibrational stresses.
c) Longitudinal stresses resulting from lateral deflection.
d) Twisting moments due to lateral deflection.
In most cases the forces due to short-circuits are applied very suddenly. Direct currents give rise to
unidirectional forces while alternating currents produce vibrational forces.
Maximum stresses
When a busbar system is running normally the interphase forces are normally very small with the static
weight of the busbars being the dominant component. Under short-circuit conditions this is very often not
the case as the current rises to a peak of some thirty times its normal value, falling after a few cycles to ten
times its initial value. These high transitory currents create large mechanical forces not only in the busbars
themselves but also in their supporting system. This means that the support insulators and their associated
steelwork must be designed to withstand these high loads as well as their normal structural requirements
such as wind, ice, seismic and static loads.
The peak or fully asymmetrical short circuit current is dependent on the power factor (cos

) of the

busbar system and its associated connected electrical plant. The value is obtained by multiplying the r.m.s.
symmetrical current by the appropriate factor given in Balanced three-phase short-circuit stresses.
If the power factor of the system is not known then a factor of 2.55 will normally be close to the actual
system value especially where generation is concerned. Note that the theoretical maximum for this factor
is 2 2 or 2.828 where cos

= 0. These peak values reduce exponentially and after approximately 10

cycles the factor falls to 1.0, i.e., the symmetrical r.m.s. short circuit current. The peak forces therefore
normally occur in the first two cycles (0.04 s) as shown in Figure 13.

In the case of a completely asymmetrical current wave, the forces will be applied with a frequency equal
to that of the supply frequency and with a double frequency as the wave becomes symmetrical. Therefore
in the case of a 50 Hz supply these forces have frequencies of 50 or 100 Hz.
The maximum stresses to which a bus structure is likely to be subjected would occur during a short-circuit
on a single-phase busbar system in which the line short-circuit currents are displaced by 180.
In a three-phase system a short-circuit between two phases is almost identical to the single-phase case and
although the phase currents are normally displaced by 120, under short-circuit conditions the phase
currents of the two phases are almost 180 out of phase. The effect of the third phase can be neglected.
In a balanced three-phase short-circuit, the resultant forces on any one of the three phases is less than in
the single-phase case and is dependent on the relative physical positions of the three phases.
In the case of a single-phase short-circuit, the forces produced are unidirectional and are therefore more
severe than those due to a three-phase short-circuit, which alternate in direction.
The short-circuit forces have to be absorbed first by the conductor. The conductor therefore must have an
adequate proof strength to carry these forces without permanent distortion. Copper satisfies this
requirement as it has high strength compared with other conductor materials (Table 2). Because of the
high strength of copper, the insulators can be more widely spaced than is possible with lower-strength
materials.
Figure 13 Short-circuit current waveform

Single phase short circuit stresses

The electromagnetic force developed between two straight parallel conductors of circular cross-section
each carrying the same current is calculated from the following formula:

where Fmax = force on conductor, N/m

I = current in both phases, A
s = phase spacing, mm
The value of I is normally taken in the fully asymmetrical condition as 2.55 times the r.m.s. symmetrical
value or 1.8 times the peak r.m.s. value of the short-circuit current as discussed above. It is possible, in
certain circumstances, for the forces to be greater than this due to the effect of an impulse in the case of a
very rigid conductor, or due to resonance in the case of bars liable to mechanical vibration. It is therefore
usual to allow a safety factor of 2.5 in such cases.
Balanced three-phase short-circuit stresses
A three-phase system has its normal currents displaced by 120 and when a balanced three-phase shortcircuit occurs the displacement is maintained. As with all balanced three-phase currents, the instantaneous
current in one phase is balanced by the currents in the other two phases. The directions of the currents are
constantly changing and so therefore are the forces. The maximum forces are dependent on the point in
the cycle at which the fault or short-circuit occurs.
The maximum force appearing on any phase resulting from a fully offset asymmetrical peak current is
given by

(9

The condition when the maximum force appears on the outside phases (Red or Blue) is given by

(10
The condition when the maximum force is on the centre phase (Yellow) is given by

(11
where Fmax = maximum force on conductor, N/m
I = peak asymmetrical current, A
s = conductor spacing, mm
The peak current I attained during the short-circuit varies with the power factor of the circuit:

Power factor

I, x Irms (symmetrical)

2.828

0.07

2.55

0.2

2.2

0.25

2.1

0.3

0.5

1.7

0.7

1.5

1.0

1.414

Correction for end effect

It has been assumed so far that the conductors are of infinite length. This assumption does not generally
lead to great errors in the calculated short-circuit forces. This is not true, however, at the ends of bars
where there is a great change in flux compared with the uniform magnetic field over most of the long
straight conductor. Where the conductor is relatively short this effect can be considerable, the normal
formulae giving overestimates for the forces. To overcome this problem the preceding formulae can be
rewritten in the following form:

where Ftot = total force on the conductor, N

L = length of conductor, m
c = constant from relevant previous formula
The following substitution may then be made:

The formula will then be of the form

(12
If

is very large then

is almost equal to

and therefore the modified formula becomes almost identical with the standard formula. In many cases,
the following formula is sufficiently accurate:

(13
where Ftot is again the total force along the conductor in Newtons.
Formulae 9 to 11 may be used where

is greater than 20. For values between 20 and 4, is greater than 20. For values between 20 and 4, equation
13 above should be used. For values less than 4, equation 12 should be used.
Proximity factor
Figure 14 - Proximity factor for rectangular copper conductor

The formulae in the previous section used for calculating short-circuit forces do not take into account the
effect of conductors which are not round as they strictly only apply to round conductors. To overcome this
when considering rectangular conductors, a proximity factor K is introduced into the ordinary force
formulae, its value being found using the curves in Figure 14.
Except in cases where the conductors are very small or are spaced a considerable distance apart the
corrected general formula for force per unit length becomes:

The value of

is first calculated then K is read from the curve for the appropriate

ratio.
From the curves it can be seen that the effect of conductor shape decreases rapidly with increasing spacing
and is a maximum for strip conductors of small thickness. It is almost unity for square conductors and is
unity for a circular conductor.
Alternatively, the proximity factor can be calculated using the following formula, from which the curves
in Figure 14 were drawn (Dwight 1917). (See Figure 14 for explanation of symbols).

This formula gives the intermediate curves of Figure 14, for s>a, b>0, a>0
Vibrational stresses
Stresses will be induced in a conductor by natural or forced vibrations the amplitude of which determines
the value of the stress, which can be calculated from the formulae given in Section 8.

The conductor should be designed to have a natural frequency which is not within 30% of the vibrations
induced by the magnetic fields resulting from the currents flowing in adjacent conductors. This type of
vibration normally occurs during continuous running and does not occur when short-circuit currents are
flowing.
The stresses resulting from the short-circuit forces are calculated using the beam theory formulae for
simply supported beams for a single cantilever to multispan arrangements, the applied forces being
derived from the previous sections. The resulting deflections enable the conductor stress to be calculated
and so determine if it is likely to permanently damage the conductor because it has exceeded the proof
stress of the conductor material.
Methods of reducing conductor stresses
In cases where there is a likelihood of vibration at normal currents or when subjected to short-circuit
forces causing damage to the conductor, the following can he used to reduce or eliminate the effect:
a) Reduce the span between insulator supports.
This method can be used to reduce the effects of both continuous vibration and that due to short-circuit
forces.
b) Increase the span between insulator supports.
This method can only be used to reduce the effects of vibration resulting from a continuous current. It will
increase the stresses due to a short-circuit current.
c) Increase or decrease the flexibility of the conductor supports.
This method will reduce the effects of vibration due to continuous current but has very little effect on that
due to short-circuit forces.
d) Increase the conductor flexibility.
This can only be used to reduce the effects of vibration due to a continuous current. The short-circuit
effect is increased.
e) Decrease the conductor flexibility.
This method will reduce the effects of vibration due to either a continuous current or a short-circuit.

It will be noted that in carrying out the various suggestions above, changes can only be made within the
overall design requirements of the busbar system.
Corona Discharge
With very high voltage air-insulated busbars, particularly of the type usually installed out of doors, it is
necessary to ensure that with the spacing adopted between conductors of different phases, or between
conductors and earth, the electromagnetic stress in the air surrounding the conductors is low enough not to
cause a corona discharge. Corona discharge is to be avoided where possible as it creates ionised gas which
can lead to a large reduction in the air insulation surrounding the conductor and so can cause flash-over.
Should flash-over occur, this will in many cases lead to a short-circuit between either adjacent phases or
poles or the nearest earth point or plane. This will cause considerable burning of the conductors and
associated equipment together with mechanical damage. Corona discharge can also cause radio
interference which may be unacceptable.
To avoid these conditions the busbar system should be free from sharp edges or small radii on the
conductor system. If this is not possible then additional equipment will have to be incorporated in the
design such as corona rings and stress relieving cones mounted in the areas of high electric stress. The
smallest radii required for prevention of corona can be calculated from the formula:

where E = r.m.s. voltage to neutral, kV

r = conductor radius, mm
d = distance between conductor centres, mm
= air density factor
m = conductor surface condition factor
The values for the factors m and d are as follows:
m = 1 for a polished conductor surface, 0.98 to 0.93 for roughened or weathered surfaces, and 0.87 to 0.80
for stranded conductors.

d = 1 at 1 bar barometric pressure and 25C. At other pressures and temperatures the value is found as
follows:

where b = barometric pressure, bar

T = temperature, C
At locations above sea level the normal pressure is reduced by approximately 0.12 bar per 1000 m of
altitude.
The voltage Ev at which the corona discharge normally becomes visible is somewhat higher than given by
the above formula and can be determined as follows:

In bad weather conditions the discharge may appear at a voltage lower than that indicated by the formulae
and it is therefore advisable to make an allowance of about 20% as a safety factor.
7. Jointing of Copper Busbars
Busbar Jointing Methods
Joint Resistance
Bolting Arrangements
Clamps
Welded Joints

Busbar Jointing Methods

It is necessary that a conductor joint shall be mechanically strong and have a relatively low resistance
which must remain substantially constant throughout the life of the joint.
Efficient joints in copper busbar conductors can be made very simply by bolting, clamping, riveting,
soldering or welding, the first two being used extensively, though copper welding is now more generally
available through improvements in welding technology.
Welded joints in copper busbars have the advantage that the current carrying capacity is unimpaired, as
the joint is effectively a continuous copper conductor.
Bolted joints are compact, reliable and versatile but have the disadvantage that they necessitate the
drilling or punching of holes through the conductors with the bolt holes causing some distortion of the
lines of current flow. This joint type also has a somewhat more uneven contact pressure than one using
clamp plates.
Clamped joints are easy to make with the full cross-section being unimpaired. The extra mass at the joint
and hence cooling area helps to give a cooler running joint and with a well-designed clamp, gives a very
even contact pressure. The further added advantage is that of easy erection during installation. A
disadvantage is the much higher costs of the clamps and associated fixings.
Riveted joints are efficient if well made, but have the disadvantage that they cannot easily be undone or
tightened in service and that they are not so convenient to make from an installation point of view.
Soldered or brazed joints are rarely used for busbars unless they are reinforced with bolts or clamps
since heating under short-circuit conditions can make them both mechanically and electrically unsound.
Joint Resistance
The resistance of a joint is affected mainly by two factors:
a) Streamline effect or spreading resistance Rs, the diversion of the current flow through a joint.
b) The contact resistance or interface resistance of the joint Rj.
The total joint resistance Rj = Rs + Ri.
The above is specifically for a d.c. current. Where a.c. currents are flowing, the changes in resistance due
to skin and proximity effects in the joint zone must also be taken into account.

Before considering the effect of the above factors on the efficiency of a joint, it is important to realise the
nature of the two contact surfaces. No matter how well a contact surface is polished, the surface is really
made up of a large number of peaks and troughs which are readily visible under a microscope. When two
surfaces are brought together contact is only made at the peaks, which are subjected to much higher
contact pressures than the average joint contact pressure, and hence deform during the jointing process.
The actual contact area in the completed joint is much smaller than the total surface area of the joint. It
has been shown that in a typical busbar joint surface the effective contact area is confined to the region in
which the pressure is applied, i.e., near the bolts in the case of a lapped joint.
Streamline effect
The distortion of the lines of current flow at an overlapping joint between two conductors affects the
resistance of the joint. This effect must also occur when the current flows from peak to peak from surface
to surface though the overall effect is that through the joint.
In the case of an overlapping joint between two flat copper bars, the streamline effect is dependent only
on the ratio of the length of the overlap to the thickness of the bars and not on the width, provided that this
dimension is the same for both bars. It has been shown both mathematically and experimentally that even
in a perfectly made overlapping joint between two relatively thin flat conductors having a uniform contact
resistance, the distribution of current over the contact area is not uniform. Practically all of the current
flowing across the contact surfaces is concentrated towards the extremities of the joint and the current
density at the ends of the overlapping conductors may be many times that at the centre of the joint.
It is evident from the above that the efficiency of an overlapping joint does not increase as the length of
the overlap increases and that from a purely electrical point of view no advantage is to be gained by
employing an unduly long overlap.
The relation between the resistance due to streamline effect of an overlapping joint between two flat
copper conductors and the ratio of the length of the overlap to the thickness is shown in Figure 15. It has
also been found that the distortion effect in a T-joint is about the same as a straight joint.
The resistance ratio e in Figure 15 is the ratio of the resistance of a joint due to streamline effect RS, to the
resistance of an equal length of single conductor Rb, i.e.

where a = breadth of bar, mm

b = thickness of bar, mm
l = length of overlap, mm
= resistivity of the conductor,

mm

From the graph it can be seen then that the effect falls very rapidly for ratios up to two and then very
much more slowly for values up to seven. This means that in most cases the streamline effect has very
little effect as the overlap is of necessity much greater than seven.
Figure 15 Streamline effect in overlapping joints

Contact resistance
The contact interface between the two faces of a busbar joint consists of a large number of separate point
contacts, the area of which increases as more pressure is applied and the peaks are crushed.
There are two main factors which therefore affect the actual interface resistance of the surfaces.

a) The condition of the surfaces.

b) The total applied pressure.
The type of coating applied to the contact surfaces to prevent or delay the onset of oxidation when
operating at elevated temperatures or in a hostile environment is also important, particularly in the long
term.
Condition of contact surfaces
The condition of the contact surfaces of a joint has an important bearing on its efficiency. The surfaces of
the copper should be flat and clean but need not be polished. Machining is not usually required. Perfectly
flat joint faces are not necessary since very good results can in most cases be obtained merely by ensuring
that the joint is tight and clean. This is particularly the case where extruded copper bars are used. Where
cast copper bars are used, however, machining may be necessary if the joints are to obtain a sufficiently
flat contact surface.
Oxides, sulphides and other surface contaminants have, of course, a higher resistance than the base metal.
Copper, like all other common metals, readily develops a very thin surface oxide film even at ordinary
temperatures when freely exposed to air, although aluminium oxidises much more rapidly, and its oxide
has a much higher resistivity.
The negative temperature coefficient of resistance of copper oxide means that the joint conductivity tends
to increase with temperature. This does not, of course, mean that a joint can be made without cleaning just
prior to jointing to ensure that the oxide layer is thin enough to be easily broken as the contact surface
peaks deform when the contact pressure is applied.
Preparation of surfaces
Contact surfaces should be flattened by machining if necessary and thoroughly cleaned. A ground or sandroughened surface is preferable to a smooth one.
It is important to prevent the re-oxidation of the joint in service and it is therefore recommended that the
contact faces should be covered with a thin layer of petroleum jelly immediately after cleaning the contact
surfaces. The joint surfaces should then be bolted together, the excess petroleum jelly being pressed out as
the contact pressure is applied. The remaining jelly will help to protect the joint from deterioration.

It should be noted that in cases where joints have to perform reliably in higher than normal ambient
temperature conditions, it may be advisable to use a high melting point jelly to prevent it from flowing out
of the joint, leaving it liable to attack by oxidation and the environment.
The following sections describe the use of coatings on conductor contact surfaces. It should be noted that
recent tests carried out to investigate the performance of bolted joints under cyclic heating with wide
temperature variations indicate that joints without coatings give the most reliable long-term performance
(Jackson 1982). The reason for this is that most coatings are of soft materials which when subjected to
continuous pressures and raised temperatures tend to flow. This has the effect of reducing the number of
high pressure contact points formed when the joint is newly bolted together.
Tinning. The tinning of the contact surfaces of a bolted or clamped joint with pure tin or a lead-tin alloy
is normally unnecessary, although advantages can be gained in certain circumstances.
If the joint faces are very rough, tinning may result in some improvement in efficiency. In most cases,
however, its chief virtue lies in the fact that it tends to prevent oxidation and hence subsequent joint
deterioration. It may therefore be recommended in cases where the joints operate at unusually high
temperatures or current densities or when subjected to corrosive atmospheres.
For the best results the surfaces should be tinned or re-tinned immediately prior to the final joint
clamping. It should be noted that both the electrical conductivity and the oxidation protective action
decrease as the lead content of the solder increases. Lead also has the effect of reducing the surface
hardness of the coating and a high lead content in the tinning material should be avoided as this can cause
the plating to creep once the joint is bolted together resulting in premature failure due to overheating.
Silver or nickel plating. This type of plating is being used increasingly, particularly where equipment is
manufactured to American standards which require plated joints for high temperature operation. Nickelplating provides a harder surface than silver and may therefore be preferable. These platings are expensive
to apply and must be protected prior to the final jointing process as they are always very thin coatings and
can therefore be easily damaged. There is also some doubt as to the stability of these joints under
prolonged high temperature cycling. Very high contact resistances can be developed some time after
jointing. It is therefore suggested that natural metal joints are in most cases preferable.
Effect of pressure on contact resistance
It has been shown above that the contact resistance is dependent more on the total applied pressure than
on the area of contact. If the total applied pressure remains constant and the contact area is varied, as is the

case in a switch blade moving between spring loaded contacts, the total contact resistance remains
practically constant. This can be expressed by an equation of the form:

where Ri = resistance of the contact

p = total contact pressure
n = exponent between 0.4 and 1
C = a constant
The greater the applied total pressure the lower will be the joint resistance and therefore for high
efficiency joints high pressure is usually necessary. This has the advantage that the high pressure helps to
prevent deterioration of the joint. Figure 16 shows the effect of pressure on joint resistance.
Figure 16 The effect of pressure on the contact resistance of a joint between two copper conductors

Joint resistance falls rapidly with increasing pressure, but above a pressure of about 15 N/mm2 there is
little further improvement. Certain precautions must be observed to ensure that the contact pressure is not
unduly high, since it is important that the proof stress of the conductor material or its bolts and clamps is
not exceeded.

As a bar heats up under load the contact pressure in a joint made with steel bolts tends to increase because
of the difference in expansion coefficients between copper and the steel. It is therefore essential that the
initial contact pressure is kept to a such a level that the contact pressure is not excessive when at operating
temperature. If the elastic limit of the bar is exceeded the joint will have a reduced contact pressure when
it returns to its cold state due to the joint materials having deformed or stretched.
To avoid this, it is helpful to use disc spring washers whose spring rating is chosen to maintain a
substantially constant contact pressure under cold and hot working conditions. This type of joint
deterioration is very much more likely to happen with soft materials, such as E1E aluminium, where the
material elastic limit is low compared with that of high conductivity copper.
Joint efficiency
The efficiency of a joint may be measured in terms of the ratio of the resistance of the portion of the
conductor comprising the joint and that of an equal length of straight conductor.
The resistance of a joint, as already mentioned, is made up of two parts, one due to the distortion of lines
of current flow and the other to contact resistance. The resistance due to the streamline effect at an overlap
joint is given by:

where for a given joint a, b and l are the width, thickness and overlap length, these all being constant, and
contact resistance of the joint is:

where Y = contact resistance per unit area.

The total joint resistance is:

and the efficiency of the joint is:

The resistance of an equal length of straight conductor is given by:

The resistance ratio e is obtained from Figure 15.

In most cases it is inadvisable to use contact pressures of less than 7 N/mm2, 10 N/mm2 being preferred.
The contact pressure chosen is influenced by the size and number of bolts or clamps, the latter giving a
more even contact pressure. For the sake of symmetry the length of overlap is often made equal to the
width of the bar, though with thick and narrow bars the overlap can be increased to improve the overall
joint performance.
Owing to the larger surface area from which heat may be dissipated, efficient joints between single copper
conductors usually have a lower temperature rise than the conductors themselves. It is important, in
general, to ensure that all joints have a reasonable margin of safety. This is particularly so where multiconductors join at one joint and/or the conductors are normally running close to the specified maximum
temperature rises.
Bolting Arrangements
In deciding the number, size and distribution of bolts required to produce the necessary contact pressure to
give high joint efficiency, both electrical and mechanical considerations have to be taken into account.
The methods used to determine these requirements have been given in previous sections.
A joint normally decreases in resistance with an increase in the size and number of bolts used. Bolt sizes
usually vary from M6 to M20 with between four and six being used in each joint with a preference for
four bolts in narrow conductors and six in large conductors. The torque chosen for each bolt size is
dependent on the bolt material and the maximum operating temperature expected. Because of the strength
of copper, deformation of the conductor under the pressure of the joint is not normally a consideration.
Table 9 shows typical bolting arrangements for various busbar sizes. The recommended torque settings
are applicable to high-tensile steel (8.8) or aluminium bronze (CW307G, formerly Cy104) fasteners with

unlubricated threads of normal surface finish. In the case of stainless steel bolts, these torque settings may
be used, but the threads must be lubricated prior to use.
In addition to the proof or yield stress of the bolt material and the thread characteristics, the correct
tightening torque depends on the differential expansion between the bolt and conductor materials.
Galvanised steel bolts are normally used but brass or bronze bolts have been used because their
coefficients of expansion closely match the copper conductor and hence the contact pressure does not vary
widely with operating temperature. Copper alloy bolts also have the advantage that the possibility of
dissimilar metal corrosion is avoided. Because these alloys do not have an easily discernible yield stress,
however, care has to be taken not to exceed the correct tightening torque.
Because of their non-magnetic properties, copper alloys may also be preferred to mild or high-tensile steel
where high magnetic fields are expected. Alternatively, a non-magnetic stainless steel may be used. In
most cases however, high-tensile steel is used for its very high yield stress.
Table 9 Typical busbar bolting arrangements (single face overlap)

Bar

Joint

Joint

Number

Metric

Bolt

Hole

Washer

Washer

width

overlap

area

of

bolt

torque

size

diameter

thickness

mm

mm

mm2

bolts *

size

Nm

mm

mm

mm

(coarse
thread)
16

32

512

M6

7.2

14

1.8

20

40

800

M6

7.2

14

1.8

25

60

1500

M8

17

10

21

2.0

30

60

1800

M8

17

10

21

2.0

40

70

2800

M10

28

11.5

24

2.2

50

70

3500

M12

45

14

28

2.7

60

60

3600

M10

28

11.5

24

2.2

80

80

6400

M12

45

14

28

2.7

100

100

10000

M12

45

15

28

2.7

120

120

14400

M12

45

15

28

2.7

160

160

25600

M16

91

20

28

2.7

200

200

40000

M16

91

20

28

2.7

* high-tensile steel or aluminium bronze (CW307G, formerly C104)

Clamps
The choice of clamp material and method of manufacture depends on the a.c. or d.c. current requirements,
and on the number of clamps of a given size required. The manufacturing methods used include
machining from plate, sand or die casting, or stamping from plate. In the case of low current a.c. (less than
3000 A) and d.c. systems the clamps should be made from a high-strength material compatible with the
required contact pressure. They can therefore be made from steel in cast, forged or stamped form. Where
a.c. currents in excess of 3000 A are concerned, the choice of material is between the low or non-magnetic
steels or a brass or bronze. Steel clamps are generally unsuitable because of the hysteresis losses induced
in them.
Welded Joints
The inert gas shielded arc processes, tungsten inert gas (TIG) and metal inert gas (MIG) are the preferred
welding methods for high conductivity coppers and are capable of producing excellent busbar joints. The
welding data given in Table 10 are provided as a guide to good practice, but the actual welding conditions
that will give the best results for a particular joint must be determined from experience. Certain physical
and metallurgical properties of copper must, however, be taken account of when welding. The high
thermal diffusivity of copper - four or five times that of mild steel - opposes the formation of an adequate
weld pool necessary for good fusion and deoxidation which can give rise to lack of fusion defects and
porosity. The rapid heat sink effect, which is particularly pronounced in thicker sections, must therefore
be overcome. Preheating of the copper before welding is necessary for thickness above about 3 mm as
indicated in Table 10.
As explained in Section 2, the tough pitch grades of copper, CW004A and CW005A (formerly C101 and
C102), contain particles of cuprous oxide which are normally in a form which has a minimal effect on
electrical and mechanical properties. Prolonged heating of the copper however, allows the oxide particles
to diffuse to grain boundaries where they can seriously affect the properties. This diffusion effect is both
time and temperature dependent and is minimised by performing the welding operation as quickly as
possible and by restricting the overall heating of the component as far as possible consistent with adequate

fusion and a satisfactory weld profile. This consideration obviously does not apply to oxygen-free coppers
which do not contain the oxide particles.
Table 10 Welding data for HC copper
a) Recommended usage of BS 2901 filler alloys for TIG and MIG welding of high conductivity
copper.

TIG
Designation

MIG

Grade
Argon

or

Nitrogen

Argon

Helium
CW004A

Electrolytic
tough

C7, C21

pitch

or

Nitrogen

Helium
Not

C7, C8, C21

Not recommended

C7, C8, C21

Not recommended

C7, C21

Not recommended

recommended

high
conductivity
CW005A

Fire-refined
tough

C7, C21

pitch

Not
recommended

high
conductivity
CW008A

Oxygen-free

C7, C21

high

Not
recommended

conductivity

b) Typical operating data for TIG butt welds in high conductivity copper.
(Direct current; electrode negative; argon and helium shielding)

Shielding gas
Argon

Helium

Thickness

Preheat

Electrode

Filler

Gas

Weld

Gas

Weld

Gas

(mm)

temperature*(C)

diameter

rod

nozzle

current

flow

current

flow

(mm)

diameter

diameter

(A)

(l/min)

(A)

(l/min)

(mm)

(mm)

1.5

None

1.6-2.4

1.6

9.5

80-130

4-6

70-90

6-10

None

2.4-3.2

1.6

9.5-12

120-

4-6

180-

6-10

240
6

up to 400

3.2-4.8

3.2

12-18

220

220-

6-8

350
12

400-600

4.8

3.2-4.8

12-18

500-700

4.8

3.2-4.8

12-18

10-15

240

330-

8-10

420
>12

200-

260-

10-15

280

>400

8-10

280-

12-20

320

* May be reduced significantly in helium shielding

c) Typical operating data for MIG butt welds in high conductivity copper.
(1.6 mm diameter filler wire; argon shielding)

Thickness

Preheat

Welding

Arc voltage

Wire

feed

Gas

flow

(mm)

temperature

current (A)

(V)

rate (m/min)

rate (l/min)

(C)
6

None

240-320

25-28

6.5-8.0

10-15

12

up to 500

320-380

26-30

5.5-6.5

10-15

18

up to 500

340-400

28-32

5.5-6.5

12-17

24

up to 700

340-420

28-32

5.5-6.5

14-20

>24

up to 700

340-460

28-32

5.5-6.5

14-20

Thermal expansion should be allowed for during welding as this leads to the closing of root gaps as the
temperature of the metal rises. The root gaps indicated in Table 11 should therefore be allowed.

Oxy-acetylene and oxy-propane welding methods can be used with oxygen-free copper but they are not
recommended for welding tough pitch coppers as the reducing atmosphere produced in the flame can
react with the cuprous oxide particles to produce steam inside the metal. This gives rise to porosity and is
known as 'hydrogen embrittlement'.
Further details of the factors involved in the welding of copper can be found in the CDA publication No
98.
Table 11 Recommended edge preparations for TIG and MIG butt-welds.

8. Mechanical Strength Requirements

All busbar systems have to be designed to withstand the mechanical forces to which they may be
subjected, whether these be due to their own weight, wind and ice loads, or short-circuit forces. This force

becomes more onerous with increasing voltage and decreasing current due to respectively longer
insulators and smaller conductors.
The conductor itself should have sufficient material strength under all operational conditions. It must be
able to support itself without undue deflection under normal working conditions, and not suffer permanent
damage under abnormal conditions. The following section enables the mechanical strength requirement of
a conductor to be calculated using the short-circuit forces obtained from the formulae given previously.
Deflection
Natural Frequency
Wind and Ice Loadings
Maximum Permissible Stress
Thermal Expansion
Deflection
The maximum deflection of a beam carrying a uniformly distributed load and freely supported at each end
is given by the formula:

where

= maximum deflection, mm

w= weight per unit length of loaded beam, N/mm

L = beam length between supports, mm
E = modulus of elasticity (124 x 103N/mm2)
I = moment of inertia of beam section, mm
If one end of a beam is rigidly fixed in a horizontal position the deflection is 0.415 times that given by the
above formula and it follows that if a freely supported beam is also supported at its mid-point then its
maximum deflection is reduced to 0.025 of its former value. If both ends of a beam are rigidly fixed in a
horizontal position the deflection is 0.2 times that given by the above formula.

Thus with a continuous beam freely supported at four or more points the maximum deflection in the
centre spans may be assumed to be 0.2 times that given by the formula, while the deflection in the end
spans is 0.415 times. The deflection in the end spans, therefore, may be assumed to be twice that in the
centre spans, assuming equal span distances.
Moments of inertia
In the above formula the moment of inertia I for the section of the beam has to be calculated about the
neutral axis which runs parallel to the beam where the beam has zero tensile forces. In most cases this is
the same axis of the centre of cross-section.
For a rectangular section of depth D and breadth B

For a circular section of diameter D

For a tubular section of internal diameter d and external diameter D

It should be noted that the value of I for a given cross-section is dependent on the direction in which each
individual force is applied. Moments of inertia for a range of copper rods, bars, sections and tubes are
given in Tables 12 16 (Appendix 2).
Natural Frequency
The natural frequency of a beam simply supported at its end is

and for a beam with both ends fixed horizontally it is

where fn = natural frequency, Hz

= deflection, mm
As the deflection with fixed ends is 0.2 times the value with freely supported ends it follows that the
natural frequency is increased by 2.275 times by end-fixing; fixing one end only increases the natural
frequency by about 50%. Where equipment is to be mounted outside, natural frequencies of less than 2.75
Hz should be avoided to prevent vibration due to wind eddies.
Wind and Ice Loadings
In considering the loading of a conductor for outdoor service not only must the weight of the conductor
itself be taken into account but also the weight of a coating of ice which it may carry, together with the
wind pressure on the ice loaded conductor.
The maximum thickness of the ice and the maximum wind speed are normally specified by the purchaser
of the busbars but where these are not specified they are usually available from national standards bodies
within the country where the equipment is to be installed.
The wind and ice loading can be calculated using the following formulae:
Wind loading:
Ww = p(D+2t) x 105
Ice loading:

where ww = wind loading, N/m

wi = ice loading, N/m
p = wind pressure, N/mm2
D = diameter, mm

t = ice thickness, mm
It is assumed that the wind load is at right angles to the vertical load of the conductor weight, and that its
ice load and hence the resultant load on the conductor has to be added vertically. The resultant load is
given by:

where R = resultant load, N/m

w = conductor weight per unit length, N/m
and where R acts at an angle

to the vertical given by the formula

The vertical sag or deflection in the conductor span is given by

where i is the sag in mm in a plane inclined at an angle

to the vertical.

Maximum Permissible Stress

The maximum permissible stress in a conductor is the resultant of its own natural weight (w) and the
additional forces of wind (ww) and ice (wi) loadings (see above) and the magnetic forces resulting from a
short circuit. It should be noted that the direction of a short-circuit force (Ws) depends on the position of
adjacent phases and the direction of the currents in them.
In a general case the following method should be used for calculating the resultant force and its direction:

and

The maximum skin stress in the conductor can then be calculated using the following formula:

where f = maximum skin stress, N/mm2

M = maximum bending moment, N mm
Z = section modulus, mm3
For a single beam of length L (mm) uniformly loaded and freely supported at both ends or freely
supported at one end and fixed at the other,

where W = load, N/mm

L = span, mm
For a circular section of external diameter D or for a rectangular section of depth D,

where I = moment of inertia, mm

D = diameter, mm
Then the maximum stress

The maximum permissible stress is dependent on the conductor material, temper, etc., but must not
exceed the material proof stress or permanent deformation will occur. For a conductor manufactured from
hard drawn copper the value is approximately 245 N/mm2.
For a beam which is horizontally fixed at both ends the bending moment at the centre is reduced to one
third and that at its ends to two-thirds of those for a simple supported beam.
Thermal Expansion
If the changes in length that occur in a conductor as it expands and contracts with temperature variations
are not allowed for, undue forces will be set up in the conductor support system or in the equipment to
which the busbar is connected.
The coefficient of linear expansion for copper may be taken as 17 x 106 /C (for temperatures from
ambient up to 200C) compared with 23 x 106 /C for aluminium. The lower value for copper is of great
importance when allowing for thermal expansion under both normal and transitory conditions, as up to
25% less expansion need be accommodated for a particular length of busbar. If a length of copper bar

were to be kept from expanding or contracting, a force of nearly 2 N per mm2 of cross-sectional area
would be developed for a temperature change of 1C.
In most cases the supports expand far less due to much smaller temperature changes and lower thermal
expansion coefficients. It is therefore normal practice to allow for the full expansion using flexible
conductor connections at suitable points.
Types of expansion joints
In the case of short bars it is usually not necessary to make any special provision to accommodate
expansion. There will normally be one or two reasonably flexible bends capable of relieving any undue
stresses which may be set up.
Figure 17 Types of expansion joints in copper conductors

To relieve intermediate supports of stress, clamps which allow the conductor to move freely in the
longitudinal direction should be provided. These clamps must be designed and arranged with care to avoid
the danger of stresses building up at any point at which the bar may become wedged or prevented from
moving freely.
In the case of long straight runs it is advisable that expansion joints should be introduced. The joints may
use laminated thin copper strips or leaves and have the same total current rating as the busbar itself.

As an alternative to laminated flexible joints, copper braid may be used. This type of joint is usually more
expensive to manufacture but has the advantage that it can accommodate expansion in more than one
direction (in most cases three directions) and also tends to eliminate vibration forces being passed from
one piece of equipment to another. It is important that the ferrule into which the copper braid is clamped is
of sufficient thickness to ensure consistent high conductivity after manufacture and during its service life.
Where high resistances develop in the joint after manufacture, overheating and ultimately braid failure
due to oxidation of the braid material may result.
9. Busbar Impedance
VoltDrop
Inductance Formulae
Capacitance Formulae
Geometric Mean Distance Formulae
The busbar reactance is not normally sufficiently large to affect the total reactance of a power system and
hence is not included in the calculations when establishing the short-circuit currents and reactive volt
drops within a power system. The exception to this is when considering certain heavy current industrial
applications such as furnaces, welding sets, or roll heating equipment for steel mills. In these cases the
reactance may be required to be known for control purposes, or to obtain busbar arrangements to give
minimum or balanced reactance. This may be important because of its effect on both volt drop and power
factor, and hence on the generating plant kVA requirement per kW of load, or on the tariffs payable where
the power is purchased from outside.
The busbar impedance is made up of three components: resistance, inductance and capacitance. The
values of these components are given an ohmic value which in the case of inductance and capacitance is
dependent on the frequency of the system. They are defined as follows:
Resistance:

where Rf = resistance at frequency f (Hz),

Ro = d.c. resistance
S = skin effect ratio

K = proximity ratio
Inductance:

where XL = inductive reactance,

f = frequency, Hz
L = inductance, H
Capacitance:

where Xc = capacitive reactance,

f = frequency, Hz
C = capacitance, F
Impedance:

where X = XL - XC
The value of XC is usually very much smaller than XL, and XL is usually much larger than Rf. The value
of X is taken to be positive with the sign of XL - XC to indicate whether the system has a positive or
negative power factor.
Volt Drop
The volt drop in a busbar system is estimated as follows from the usual formula:
VB = I ZB

where VB = volt drop, V

I = current flowing in the conductor, A
ZB = busbar impedance,
However, to find the magnitude of the load voltage VL available, the busbar volt drop VB must be
subtracted vectorially from the supply voltage VS:

VS = supply voltage, V
VB = busbar volt drop, V

L = angle of load,
B = angle of busbar,

VL = load voltage, V RB = busbar resistance, W

I = current, A XB = busbar reactance, W

The apparent volt drop in the busbar trunking, phase to neutral, is given by:

Multiply by 3 for phase to phase volt drop.

The above formula gives a very close approximation as long as the busbar system volt drop remains small
in comparison to the system voltage.
Inductance Formulae
The development of inductance formulae is mathematically complex and is the subject of many electrical
engineering papers and books. To enable many of the normal busbar configuration inductances to be
calculated for self and mutual inductances, the following formulae have been included.
It should be noted that self inductance LS is the inductance due to a single conductor, assuming that it is
effectively outside the flux range of all other conductors. Mutual inductance M is the inductance resulting
from the flux from other conductors.
Rectangular strip
Circular section bars

Rectangular strip
Single Conductor

where
Ls = self inductance,

Ds = 0.2235 (a + b)
= g.m.d. (geometric mean distance from itself), cm
l = length of busbar, cm
Two Parallel Conductors

where
M = Mutual inductance,

Dm = g.m.d between bars

Obtain Dm from figure 18 or formulae at end of this Section)
l = length of busbar, cm
Go-and-Return Conductors
The inductance L per conductor includes both self and mutual components and therefore becomes equal to
LS - M, i.e.,

where the conductor spacing is small compared with the conductor length, or
where b is small compared with d.
Circular section bars
Single Conductor

Two Parallel Conductors

Go-and-return conductors
As before,
L = Ls - M

if the conductor spacing is small in comparison with its length and in comparison with d.
Capacitance Formulae
The capacitance of an a.c. system can be of great importance when designing the protection equipment for
the busbars and associated electrical plant. Capacitances for several configurations of busbars are as
follows, where
permittivity E = E0Er
where

Er = relative permittivity of the material.

Isolated twin line

Line above a conducting earth

Twin line above a conducting earth

Isolated three-phase line with transposition

Concentric cylinders

Geometric Mean Distance Formulae

Rectangular Bars

Ref. Dwight 'Electrical Coils and Conduits' 1946, p. 143

Three Phase conductors

Ref. Dwight ' Geometric Mean Distance for Rectangular Conductors' 1946

Figure 18 - Geometric Mean Distance - two rectangular bars (Apologies for quality of diagrams.
Please contact CDA UK if you need better quality)
a) Short edges facing
b) Long edges facing