Seminar

On
STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (STATCOM)

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

REQUIREMENT OF THE DEGREE OF
B.Tech BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Supervised by
Dr. G.K. Joshi
Head

Submitted by
Dimpal Soni
Enroll. No. : - 12/22526
Roll No. :B.Tech (Electrical Eng.)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

M.B.M. ENGINEERING COLLAGE
JAI NARAYAN VYAS UNIVERSITY
JODHPUR
2014

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
By the blessings of Lord Shiva, the academic outcome in the form of a
seminar

work

on

STATIC

SYNCHRONOUS

COMPENSATOR

(STATCOM) could take the shape of reality.

It is privilege for me to express my sincere gratitude towards my esteemed
guide without the support of whom, this would have been very difficult for me to
bring out this seminar in this form. I m grateful to Dr. G.K. Joshi (Head of
Department) for all the valuable guidance, constant moral encouragement
extended at his end.
I like to remember the motivation initiated by My Father Shree Brijesh
Soni and My Mother Smt. Meena Soni whose love and latent blessings are the
basis for me to bring out this seminar.
I am thankful to my friend Deepak Soni for his constant encouragement
and all those who helped me directly or indirectly in my endeavor. This
acknowledgement is intended to be a thanks giving gesture to all those people
involved directly or indirectly with my work.
Wednesday, November 13, 2013
Dimpal Soni
Enroll. No. : - 12/22526
Roll No.: B.Tech (Electrical Eng.)
Department of Electrical
Engineering
J.N.V. University Jodhpur

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Miss Dimpal Soni, B.tech. Scholar in Electrical
engineering bearing Roll no. 111103365 & Enroll. No. 12/22526 has carried out
her seminar on STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (STATCOM)
under my supervision.
The work presented in this seminar has not been submitted elsewhere for
award of any other degree or diploma.

Dr. G. K. Joshi
Supervisor
Head
Deptt. Of Electrical Eng.
J.N.V. University, Jodhpur
Counter Signed by
Prof. Manoj Kumar Bhaskar
Deptt. Of Electrical Engineering
J.N.V. University, Jodhpur

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LIST OF TABLES
Table No.

Particulars

Page No.

Partial derivatives of STATCOM model

33

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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No.

Particulars

Page No.

1.1

Operational Limits of Transmission lines

for different voltage levels

1.2

Overview of Major Facts Devices

1.3

SVC building blocks and voltage / current

Characteristic

1.4

SVC Outlook

1.5

SVC using a TCR and FC

1.6

Comparison of the loss characteristics of

TSCTCR, TCRFC compensators and
Synchronous condenser

1.7

SVC of combined TSC and TCR type

2.1

Reactive power generation by a STATCOM

10

2.2

STATCOM operating in inductive or

capacitive modes

11

2.3

Current controlled block diagram of STATCOM

11

2.4

Voltage controlled block diagram of STATCOM

12

2.5

Static Synchronous Compensator

14

2.6

Waveform for Operation of Statcom

15

2.7

Two machine system with STATCOM

15

2.8

Transmitted power versus transmission

angle characteristic of a STATCOM

17

2.9

V-I characteristic of a STATCOM

18

2.10

STATCOM structure and voltage /

current characteristic

19

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2.11

6 Pulses STATCOM

20

2.12

STATCOM Equivalent Circuit

21

2.13

Substation with a STATCOM

21

3.1

TCSC Circuit and Characteristics

23

3.2

Principal configuration of DFC

24

3.3

Operational diagram of a DFC

25

3.4

Principle configuration of an UPFC

26

3.5

UPFC functional scheme

27

4.1

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Diagram of

STATCOM: (a) STATCOM Schematic Diagram;
(b) STATCOM Equivalent Circuit

30

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1-8

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 FACTS DEVICES

1.2.1 Facts for Transmission System

1
2

1.3 MAJOR FACTS DEVICES

1.4 CONFIGURATION OF FACTS DEVICES

1.4.1 Shunt Devices
1.4.2 SVC

4
4
4

1.5 SVC USING A TCR AND AN FC

1.5.1 SVC of the FC/TCR type

6
7

1.6 SVC USING A TCR AND TSC

Chapter 2 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR

(STATCOM)

9-21

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 STRUCTURE OF STATCOM

2.3 CONTROL OF STATCOM

2.3.1 Two Modes of Operation
2.3.2 Current Controlled STATCOM
2.3.3 Voltage Controlled STATCOM

10
10
11
12

2.4 BASIC CONFIGURATION AND PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

13

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STATCOM

15

2.6 STATCOM V-I CHARACTERISTIC

18

2.7 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF STATCOM

18

Chapter 3 OTHER SERIES AND SHUNT DEVICES

22-28
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3.1 SERIES DEVICES

22

3.2 TCSC
3.2.1 Advantages

22
23

3.3 DYNAMIC POWER FLOW CONTROLLER

3.3.1 (TSC / TSR)

23
24

3.4 UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER

3.4.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF UPFC

26
26

Chapter 4 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR POWER

FLOW MODEL

29-33

4.1 STATCOM POWER FLOW MODEL

4.2 LINEARISED POWER EQUATION
4.3 NEWTON-RAPHSON-ALGORITHM

29
31
31

Chapter 5 APPLICATIONS, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 34-35

5.1 APPLICATIONS OF STATCOM

34

5.2 SCOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

5.3 CONCLUSION

34
35

References36

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CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION:Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) controllers are power electronics based controllers.
With the applications of FACTS technology, bus voltage magnitude and power flow along the
transmission lines can be more flexibly controlled. Among the FACTS controllers, the most
advanced type is the controller that employs Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) as synchronous
sources. Representative of the VSC type FACTS controllers are the Static Synchronous
Compensator (STATCOM), which is a shunt type controller, the Static Series Compensator
(SSSC), which is a series type controller and the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), a
combined series-shunt type controller. Of all the VSC the most widely used is the STATCOM. It
can provide bus voltage magnitude control. Computation and control of power flow for power
systems embedded with STATCOM appear to be fundamental for power system analysis and
planning purposes. Power flow studies incorporating STATCOM requires accurate model in
solution algorithms.
There are mainly two models of STATCOM which have well tested in power systems. There are
the Current Injection Model (CIM) and the Power Injection Model (PIM). The CIM STATCOM
has a current source connected in shunt the bus for voltage magnitude control. The PIM models
the STATCOM as shunt voltage source behind an equivalent reactance or impedance, which is
also referred to as voltage source model (VSM). This steady state power injection model of
STATCOM has proved reliable when incorporated in power systems and is well documented.
The use of this STATCOM in power system simulators has therefore increased over the last one
decade and is therefore adopted implementation in this work with the voltage expressed in
rectangular coordinate.

1.2 FACTS DEVICES:Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well known term
for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic devices. Several
FACTS-devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. A number of new
types of devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice.
In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or landscape
requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of substations
and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying operational conditions
and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic applications of FACTS-devices are:
Power flow control,
Increase of transmission capability,
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 Voltage control,
Reactive power compensation,
Stability improvement,
Power quality improvement,
Power conditioning,
Flicker mitigation,
Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.

1.2.1 FACTS FOR TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:Figure 1.1 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems. The usage of lines for
active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability
limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can be seen
that with growing line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and more
important.
The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt
compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as fast
current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short reaction
times down to far below one second.

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1.3 MAJOR FACTS DEVICES:The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of power
electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in converters
for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network elements
influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system. Figure 1.2
shows a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the FACTS-devices.
For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some explanation.
The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-devices provided by the
power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the conventional devices.
The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like mechanical switches to
perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the FACTS-devices can equally be
static and dynamic.

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The left column in Figure 1.2 contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or
mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with
transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional power
electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with switching
patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of FACTS-devices uses
Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or converters are well known since several years.
They have low losses because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the
converters or the usage of the Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.
The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source
converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Insulated Gate
Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free controllable voltage
in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs. High
modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate
disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching
frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are
required to compensate this.

1.4 CONFIGURATION OF FACTS DEVICES:

1.4.1 Shunt Devices:
The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source Converter called
STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power compensators. The main
applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks are:
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 Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses.
Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power.
Compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge demand
fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground train
systems.
Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines.
Improvement of static or transient stability.
Almost half of the SVC and more than half of the STATCOMs are used for industrial
applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require power
quality. Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of industrial processes
due to insufficient power quality. Railway or underground systems with huge load variations
require SVCs or STATCOMs.
1.4.2 SVC:
Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the transmitted load varies
considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as well. The
result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or even a voltage depression, at the
extreme a voltage collapse.
A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can continuously provide the reactive
power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various system conditions and
thereby improve the power system transmission and distribution stability.
Applications of the SVC systems in transmission systems:
a. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability margin
b. To damp power oscillations
c. To achieve effective voltage control
In addition, SVCs are also used
1. in transmission systems
a. To reduce temporary over voltages
b. To damp sub synchronous resonances
c. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems
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2. in traction systems
a. To balance loads
b. To improve power factor
c. To improve voltage regulation
3. In HVDC systems
a. To provide reactive power to acdc converters
4. In arc furnaces
a. To reduce voltage variations and associated light flicker
Installing an SVC at one or more suitable points in the network can increase transfer capability
and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different network
conditions. In addition an SVC can mitigate active power oscillations through voltage
amplitude modulation.
SVC installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important is the Thyristor
valve, i.e. stack assemblies of series connected anti-parallel Thyristors to provide
controllability. Air core reactors and high voltage AC capacitors are the reactive power
elements used together with the Thyristor valves. The step up connection of this equipment to
the transmission voltage is achieved through a power transformer.

Fig 1.3 SVC building blocks and voltage / current characteristic

In principle the SVC consists of Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) and Thyristor Switched
or Controlled Reactors (TSR / TCR). The coordinated control of a combination of these
branches varies the reactive power as shown in Figure. The first commercial SVC was installed
in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On transmission level the first SVC was used in 1979. Since
then it is widely used and the most accepted FACTS-device.

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Fig. 1.4 SVC Outlook

1.5 SVC USING A TCR AND AN FC:

In this arrangement, two or more FC (fixed capacitor) banks are connected to a TCR (thyristor
controlled reactor) through a step-down transformer. The rating of the reactor is chosen larger
than the rating of the capacitor by an amount to provide the maximum lagging vars that have to
be absorbed from the system. By changing the firing angle of the thyristor controlling the
reactor from 90 to 180, the reactive power can be varied over the entire range from maximum
lagging vars to leading vars that can be absorbed from the system by this compensator.

Fig.1.5 SVC using a TCR and FC

1.5.1 SVC of the FC/TCR type:
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The main disadvantage of this configuration is the significant harmonics that will be generated
because of the partial conduction of the large reactor under normal sinusoidal steady-state
operating condition when the SVC is absorbing zero MVAr. These harmonics are filtered in the
following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled by arranging the TCR and the secondary
windings of the step-down transformer in delta connection. The capacitor banks with the help
of series reactors are tuned to filter fifth, seventh, and other higher-order harmonics as a highpass filter. Further losses are high due to the circulating current between the reactor and
capacitor banks.

Fig.1.6 Comparison of the loss characteristics of TSCTCR, TCRFC compensators and

synchronous condenser
These SVCs do not have a short-time overload capability because the reactors are usually of
theair-core type. In applications requiring overload capability, TCR must be designed for shorttime overloading, or separate thyristor-switched overload reactors must be employed.

1.6 SVC USING A TCR AND TSC:This compensator overcomes two major shortcomings of the earlier compensators by
reducing losses under operating conditions and better performance under large system
disturbances. In view of the smaller rating of each capacitor bank, the rating of the reactor bank
will be 1/n times the maximum output of the SVC, thus reducing the harmonics generated by
the reactor. In those situations where harmonics have to be reduced further, a small amount of
FCs tuned as filters may be connected in parallel with the TCR.

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Fig. 1.7 SVC of combined TSC and TCR type

When large disturbances occur in a power system due to load rejection, there is a
possibility for large voltage transients because of oscillatory interaction between system and the
SVC capacitor bank or the parallel. The LC circuit of the SVC in the FC compensator. In the
TSCTCR scheme, due to the flexibility of rapid switching of capacitor banks without
appreciable disturbance to the power system, oscillations can be avoided, and hence the
transients in the system can also be avoided. The capital cost of this SVC is higher than that of
the earlier one due to the increased number of capacitor switches and increased control
complexity.

CHAPTER: 2
STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (STATCOM)

2.1 INTRODUCTION:The STATCOM is a solid-state-based power converter version of the SVC. Operating as a
shunt-connected SVC, its capacitive or inductive output currents can be controlled
independently from its terminal AC bus voltage. Because of the fast-switching characteristic of
power converters, STATCOM provides much faster response as compared to the SVC. In
Page | 17

addition, in the event of a rapid change in system voltage, the capacitor voltage does not change
instantaneously; therefore, STATCOM effectively reacts for the desired responses. For
example, if the system voltage drops for any reason, there is a tendency for STATCOM to
inject capacitive power to support the dipped voltages.
STATCOM is capable of high dynamic performance and its compensation does not depend on
the common coupling voltage. Therefore, STATCOM is very effective during the power
system disturbances.
Moreover, much research confirms several advantages of STATCOM. These advantages
compared to other shunt compensators include:
Size, weight, and cost reduction
Equality of lagging and leading output
Precise and continuous reactive power control with fast response
Possible active harmonic filter capability
This chapter describes the structure, basic operating principle and characteristics of
STATCOM. In addition, the concept of voltage source converters and the corresponding
control techniques are illustrated.

2.2 STRUCTURE OF STATCOM:Basically, STATCOM is comprised of three main parts (as seen from Figure below): a voltage
source converter (VSC), a step-up coupling transformer, and a controller. In a very-highvoltage system, the leakage inductances of the step-up power transformers can function as
coupling reactors. The main purpose of the coupling inductors is to filter out the current
harmonic components that are generated mainly by the pulsating output voltage of the power
converters.

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Fig. 2.1 Reactive power generation by a STATCOM

2.3 CONTROL OF STATCOM

The controller of a STATCOM operates the converter in a particular way that the
phase angle between the converter voltage and the transmission line voltage is dynamically
adjusted and synchronized so that the STATCOM generates or absorbs desired VAR at the
point of coupling connection. Figure 3.4 shows a simplified diagram of the STATCOM
with a converter voltage source __1E and a tie reactance, connected to a system with a
voltage source, and a Thevenin reactance, XTIEX_THVTH.
2.3.1 Two Modes of Operation
There are two modes of operation for a STATCOM, inductive mode and the
capacitive mode. The STATCOM regards an inductive reactance connected at its terminal
when the converter voltage is higher than the transmission line voltage. Hence, from the
systems point of view, it regards the STATCOM as a capacitive reactance and the
STATCOM is considered to be operating in a capacitive mode. Similarly, when the system
voltage is higher than the converter voltage, the system regards an inductive reactance
connected at its terminal. Hence, the STATCOM regards the system as a capacitive
reactance and the STATCOM is considered to be operating in an inductive mode

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.
Fig. 2.2 STATCOM operating in inductive or capacitive modes
In other words, looking at the phasor diagrams on the right of Figure 3.4, when1I, the reactive
current component of the STATCOM, leads (THVE1) by 90, it is in inductive mode and
when it lags by 90, it is in capacitive mode.
This dual mode capability enables the STATCOM to provide inductive compensation as well
as capacitive compensation to a system. Inductive compensation of the STATCOM makes it
unique. This inductive compensation is to provide inductive reactance when overcompensation
due to capacitors banks occurs. This happens during the night, when a typical inductive load is
about 20% of the full load, and the capacitor banks along the transmission line provide with
excessive capacitive reactance due to the lower load. Basically the control system for a
STATCOM consists of a current control and a voltage control.
2.3.2 Current Controlled STATCOM

Fig. 2.3 Current controlled block diagram of STATCOM

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Figure above shows the reactive current control block diagram of the STATCOM. An
instantaneous three-phase set of line voltages, vl, at BUS 1 is used to calculate the reference
angle, , which is phase-locked to the phase a of the line voltage, vla . An instantaneous threephase set of measured converter currents, il, is decomposed into its real or direct component,
I1d, and reactive or quadrature component, I1q, respectively. The quadrature component is
compared with the desired reference value, I1q* and the error is passed through an error
amplifier which produces a relative angle, , of the converter voltage with respect to the
transmission line voltage. The phase angle, 1, of the converter voltage is calculated by adding
the relative angle, , of the converter voltage and the phase lock-loop angle, . The reference
quadrature component, I1q*, of the converter current is defined to be either positive if the
STATCOM is emulating an inductive reactance or negative if it is emulating a capacitive
reactance. The DC capacitor voltage, vDC, is dynamically adjusted in relation with the converter
voltage. The control scheme described above shows the implementation of the inner current
control loop which regulates the reactive current flow through the STATCOM regardless of the
line voltage.
2.3.3 Voltage Controlled STATCOM
In regulating the line voltage, an outer voltage control loop must be implemented. The outer
voltage control loop would automatically determine the reference reactive current for the inner
current control loop which, in turn, will regulate the line voltage.

Fig. 2.4 Voltage controlled block diagram of STATCOM

Figure shows a voltage control block diagram of the STATCOM. An instantaneous three-phase
set of measured line voltages, v1, at BUS 1 is decomposed into its real or direct component,
V1d, and reactive or quadrature component, V1q, is compared with the desired reference value,
V1*, (adjusted by the droop factor, Kdroop) and the error is passed through an error amplifier
which produces the reference current, I1q*, for the inner current control loop. The droop factor,
Kdroop, is defined as the allowable voltage error at the rated reactive current flow through the
STATCOM.
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2.4 BASIC CONFIGURATION AND PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Basically, shunt connected FACTS device can be realized by either a VSC or a CSC. But the
VSC topology is preferred because CSC topology is more complex than VSC in both power and
control circuits. In CSC such as GTO (Gate Turn Off Thyristor) is used, a diode has to be placed
in series with each of the switches. This almost doubles the conduction losses compared with the
case of VSC. The DC link energy storage element in CSC topology is inductor where as that in
VSC topology is a capacitor. Thus, the efficiency of a CSC is expected to be lower than that of a
VSC. The modeled STATCOM using VSC topology is being used in the test system to supply
reactive power to increase the transmittable power and to make it more compatible with the
prevailing load demand.
Thus, the shunt connected FACTS device should be able to minimize the line over voltage under
light load condition and maintain voltage levels under heavy load condition. Two VSC
technologies can be used for the VSC. One of them, VSC is constructed with IGBT/GTO-based
SPWM inverters. This type of inverter uses sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM)
technique to synthesize a sinusoidal waveform from a DC voltage source with a typical chopping
frequency of a few kilohertz. Harmonic voltages are cancelled by connecting filters at the AC
side of the VSC.
This type of VSC uses a DC link voltage Vdc. Output voltage is varied by changing the
modulation index of the SPWM modulator. Thus modulation index has to be varied for
controlling the reactive power injection to the transmission line. In another type VSC is
constructed with GTO-based square-wave inverters and special interconnection transformers.
Typically four three-level inverters are used to build a 48-step voltage waveform. Special
interconnection transformers are used to neutralize harmonics contained in the square waves
generated by individual inverters. In this type of VSC, the fundamental component of output
voltage is proportional to the voltage Vdc. Therefore Vdc has to be varied for controlling the
reactive power.
The shunt controller is like a current source, which draws from or injects current into the system
at the point of connection. The shunt controller may be variable impedance, variable source or a
combination of these. Variable shunt impedance connected to the line voltage causes a variable
current flow and hence represents injection of current into the line. As long as the injected
current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt controller only supplies or
consumes reactive power. When system voltage is low, the STATCOM generates reactive power
(STATCOM capacitive). When system voltage is high, it absorbs reactive power (STATCOM
inductive).
The variation of reactive power is performed by means of a VSC connected on the secondary
side of a coupling transformer. The VSC uses forced-commutated power electronic devices
(GTOs, IGBTs or IGCTs) to synthesize a voltage V2 from a DC voltage source. Any other phase
relationship will involve handling of real power as well. So, the shunt controller is therefore a
good way to control the voltage at and around the point of connection through injection of
reactive current (leading or lagging) alone or a combination of active and reactive current for a
more effective voltage control and damping of voltage dynamics.
Page | 22

The real power (P) and reactive power (Q) are given by:

Fig. 2.5 Static Synchronous Compensator

E is the line voltage of transmission line. V is the generated voltage of VSC. X is the equivalent
reactance of interconnection transformer and filters and is the phase angle of E with respect to
V.
In steady state operation, the voltage V generated by the VSC is in phase with E (=0), so that
only reactive power is flowing (P=0). If V is lower than E, Q is flowing from E to V
(STATCOM is absorbing reactive power). On the reverse, if V is higher than E, Q is flowing
from V to E (STATCOM is generating reactive power).
Since we are using here a VSC based on SPWM inverters hence modulation index is varied for
controlling the reactive power injection to the transmission line. A capacitor is connected on the
DC side of the VSC acts as a DC voltage source. In steady state the voltage V has to be phase
shifted slightly behind E in order to compensate for transformer and VSC losses and to keep the
capacitor charged.

Page | 23

Fig. 2.6 Waveform for Operation of Statcom

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STATCOM

The derivation of the formula for the transmitted active power employs considerable
calculations. Using the variables defined in Figure below and applying Kirchoffs laws the
following equations can be written;

Fig. 2.7 Two machine system with STATCOM

Page | 24

By equaling right-hand terms of the above formulas, a formula for the current I1 is obtained as

Where UR is the STATCOM terminal voltage if the STATCOM is out of operation, i.e. when Iq
= 0. The fact that Iq is shifted by 90 with regard to UR can be used to express Iq as

Applying the sine law to the diagram in Figure below the following two equations result

From which the formula for sin is derived as

Page | 25

The formula for the transmitted active power can be given as

To dispose of the term UR the cosine law is applied to the diagram in Figure above Therefore,

Fig. 2.8 Transmitted power versus transmission angle characteristic of a STATCOM

With these concepts of STATCOM, it is thus important to utilize these
principles in accommodating shunt compensation to any system. Since this thesis only reflects
on the voltage control and power increase, the requirements of the STATCOM would be
further elaborated.

Page | 26

2.6 STATCOM V-I CHARACTERISTIC:A V-I characteristic of a STATCOM is depicted in Fig.2.9 . As can be seen, the STATCOM can
supply both the capacitive and the inductive compensation and is able to independently control
its output current over the rated maximum capacitive or inductive range irrespective of the
amount of ac-system voltage. That is, the STATCOM
can provide full capacitive-reactive power at any system voltage even as low as 0.15 pu. The
characteristic of a STATCOM reveals strength of this technology: that it is capable of yielding
the full output of capacitive generation almost independently of the system voltage (constantcurrent output at lower voltages). This capability is particularly useful for situations in which the
STATCOM is needed to support the system voltage during and after faults where voltage
collapse would otherwise be a limiting factor.

Fig. 2.9 V-I characteristic of a STATCOM

2.7 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF STATCOM:The main functional requirements of the STATCOM in this thesis are to provide shunt
compensation, operating in capacitive mode only, in terms of the following;
Voltage stability control in a power system, as to compensate the loss voltage along
transmission. This compensation of voltage has to be in synchronism with the AC system
regardless of disturbances or change of load.
Transient stability during disturbances in a system or a change of load.

Page | 27

 Direct voltage support to maintain sufficient line voltage for facilitating increased reactive
power flow under heavy loads and for preventing voltage instability
Reactive power injection by STATCOM into the system
The design phase and implementation phase (as presented in the next chapter) would refer to
the theoretical background of STATCOM in providing the requirements
In 1999 the first SVC with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM (STATic
COMpensator) went into operation. The STATCOM has a characteristic similar to the
synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the
synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost and
lower operating and maintenance costs. A STATCOM is build with Thyristors with turn-off
capability like GTO or today IGCT or with more and more IGBTs. The static line between the
current limitations has a certain steepness determining the control characteristic for the voltage.
The advantage of a STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is independent from the
actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the maximum
currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the SVC. This means, that even
during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM keeps its full capability.
In the distributed energy sector the usage of Voltage Source Converters for grid interconnection
is common practice today. The next step in STATCOM development is the combination with
energy storages on the DC-side. The performance for power quality and balanced network
operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and reactive power.

Fig. 2.10 STATCOM structure and voltage / current characteristic

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STATCOMs are based on Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topology and utilize either GateTurn-off Thyristors (GTO) or Isolated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) devices.
The STATCOM is a very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser. If the
STATCOM voltage, Vs, (which is proportional to the dc bus voltage Vc) is larger than bus
voltage, Es, then leading or capacitive VARS are produced. If Vs is smaller then Es then
lagging or inductive VARS are produced.

Fig 2.11 6 Pulses STATCOM

The three phases STATCOM makes use of the fact that on a three phase, fundamental
frequency, steady state basis, and the instantaneous power entering a purely reactive device
must be zero.
The reactive power in each phase is supplied by circulating the instantaneous real power
between the phases. This is achieved by firing the GTO/diode switches in a manner that
maintains the phase difference between the ac bus voltage ES and the STATCOM generated
voltage VS. Ideally it is possible to construct a device based on circulating instantaneous power
which has no energy storage device (ie no dc capacitor).
A practical STATCOM requires some amount of energy storage to accommodate harmonic
power and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real power is non-zero. The
maximum energy storage required for the STATCOM is much less than for a TCR/TSC type of
SVC compensator of comparable rating.

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Fig. 2.12 STATCOM Equivalent Circuit

Several different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the STATCOM.
Fundamental switching of the GTO/diode once per cycle can be used. This approach will
minimize switching losses, but will generally utilize more complex transformer topologies. As
an alternative, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) techniques, which turn on and off the GTO or
IGBT switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This approach allows for simpler
transformer topologies at the expense of higher switching losses.
The 6 Pulse STATCOM using fundamental switching will of course produce the 6 Nth
harmonics. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics. These methods include
the basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta transformer connections, a complete
elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic current using series connection of star/star and star/delta
transformers and a quasi 12 pulse method with a single star-star transformer, and two
secondary windings, using control of firing angle to produce a 30 degree phase shift between
the two 6 pulse bridges. This method can be extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48 pulse
STATCOM, thus eliminating harmonics even further. Another possible approach for harmonic
cancellation is a multi-level configuration which allows for more than one switching element
per level and therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has
a staircase effect, dependent on the number of levels. This staircase voltage can be controlled to
eliminate harmonics.

Fig 2.13 Substation with a STATCOM

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CHAPTER: 3
OTHER SERIES AND SHUNT DEVICES

3.1 SERIES DEVICES:Series devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically switched
compensations to the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) or even Voltage
Source Converter based devices.
The main applications are:
Reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line,
Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power transmissions,
Improvement of system damping resp. damping of oscillations,
Limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations,
Avoidance of loop flows resp. power flow adjustments.

3.2 TCSC:Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) address specific dynamical problems in
transmission systems. Firstly it increases damping when large electrical systems are
interconnected. Secondly it can overcome the problem of Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR), a
phenomenon that involves an interaction between large thermal generating units and series
compensated transmission systems.
The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling line power
flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows for rapid
readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The TCSC also can
regulate steady-state power flow within its rating limits.
From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC resembles the conventional series
capacitor. All the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including the
Thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank. Likewise the
control and protection is located on ground potential together with other auxiliary systems.
Figure shows the principle setup of a TCSC and its operational diagram. The firing angle and
the thermal limits of the Thyristors determine the boundaries of the operational diagram.

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Fig. 3.1 TCSC Circuit and Characteristics

3.2.1 Advantages

Continuous control of desired compensation level

Direct smooth control of power flow within the network

Improved capacitor bank protection

Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR). This permits higher levels of
compensation in networks where interactions with turbine-generator torsional vibrations or
with other control or measuring systems are of concern.

Damping of electromechanical (0.5-2 Hz) power oscillations which often arise between
areas in a large interconnected power network. These oscillations are due to the dynamics of
inter area power transfer and often exhibit poor damping when the aggregate power tranfer over
a corridor is high relative to the transmission strength.

3.3 DYNAMIC POWER FLOW CONTROLLER:A new device in the area of power flow control is the Dynamic Power Flow Controller (DFC).
The DFC is a hybrid device between a Phase Shifting Transformer (PST) and switched series
compensation.
A functional single line diagram of the Dynamic Flow Controller is shown in Figure 3.2. The
Dynamic Flow Controller consists of the following components:
A standard phase shifting transformer with tap-changer (PST)
Series-connected Thyristor Switched Capacitors and Reactors

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3.3.1 (TSC / TSR)

A mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is optional depending on the system
reactive power requirements)

Fig.3.2 Principal configuration of DFC

Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series TSC or TSR.
The mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage support in case of
overload and other conditions. Normally the reactance of reactors and the capacitors are
selected based on a binary basis to result in a desired stepped reactance variation. If a higher
power flow resolution is needed, a reactance equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be
added.
The switching of series reactors occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics. However, in
general, the principle of phase-angle control used in TCSC can be applied for a continuous
control as well. The operation of a DFC is based on the following rules:
TSC / TSR are switched when a fast response is required.
The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC / TSR.
The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the currents
higher than normal loading.
The total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimized by the operation of the
MSC, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors.
In order to visualize the steady state operating range of the DFC, we assume an inductance in
parallel representing parallel transmission paths. The overall control objective in steady state
would be to control the distribution of power flow between the branch with the DFC and the
parallel path. This control is accomplished by control of the injected series voltage.
The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature with the node
voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature with the throughput
current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor close to one, the two parts of the series
voltage will be close to collinear. However, in terms of speed of control, influence on reactive
power balance and effectiveness at high/low loading the two parts of the series voltage has
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quite different characteristics. The steady state control range for loadings up to rated current is
illustrated in Figure 3.3 , where the x-axis corresponds to the throughput current and the y-axis
corresponds to the injected series voltage.

Fig3.3. Operational diagram of a DFC

Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power through the DFC,
whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds to increasing the power flow
through the DFC. The slope of the line passing through the origin (at which the tap is at zero
and TSC / TSR are bypassed) depends on the short circuit reactance of the PST.
Starting at rated current (2 kA) the short circuit reactance by itself provides an injected voltage
(approximately 20 kV in this case). If more inductance is switched in and/or the tap is
increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the DFC decreases (and the flow
on parallel branches increases). The operating point moves along lines parallel to the arrows in
the figure. The slope of these arrows depends on the size of the parallel reactance. The
maximum series voltage in the first quadrant is obtained when all inductive steps are switched
in and the tap is at its maximum.
Now, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases (due e.g. to
changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease. At zero current, it will not
matter whether the TSC / TSR steps are in or out, they will not contribute to the series voltage.
Consequently, the series voltage at zero current corresponds to rated PST series voltage.
Next, moving into the second quadrant, the operating range will be limited by the line
corresponding to maximum tap and the capacitive step being switched in (and the inductive
steps by-passed). In this case, the capacitive step is approximately as large as the short circuit
reactance of the PST, giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second quadrant.

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3.4 UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER:The UPFC is a combination of a static compensator and static series compensation. It acts as a
shunt compensating and a phase shifting device simultaneously.

Fig3.4. Principle configuration of an UPFC

The UPFC consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected via two voltage
source converters with a common DC-capacitor. The DC-circuit allows the active power
exchange between shunt and series transformer to control the phase shift of the series voltage.
This setup, as shown in Figure 1.21, provides the full controllability for voltage and power
flow. The series converter needs to be protected with a Thyristor bridge. Due to the high efforts
for the Voltage Source Converters and the protection, an UPFC is getting quite expensive,
which limits the practical applications where the voltage and power flow control is required
simultaneously.
3.4.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF UPFC
The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source inverters (VSIs) sharing a common
dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through coupling transformers. One
VSI is connected to in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt transformer, while the other
one is connected in series through a series transformer.
A basic UPFC functional scheme is shown in fig.3.5

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Fig.3.5. UPFC functional scheme

The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system (Vse), of
controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and reactive
power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter will exchange active and reactive power
with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series inverter, and the active
power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is operated in such a way as to
demand this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the line keeping the voltage across
the storage capacitor Vdc constant. So, the net real power absorbed from the line by the UPFC
is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their transformers. The remaining capacity of the
shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive power with the line so to provide a voltage
regulation at the connection point.
The two VSIs can work independently of each other by separating the dc side. So in that case,
the shunt inverter is operating as a STATCOM that generates or absorbs reactive power to
regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is operating
as SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and hence the
power low on the transmission line.
The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is operating in
such a way to inject a controllable current, ish into the transmission line. The shunt inverter can
be controlled in two different modes:
VAR Control Mode: The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request. The shunt
inverter control translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt current request and
adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. For this mode of control a
feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc, is also required.
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Automatic Voltage Control Mode: The shunt inverter reactive current is automatically
regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection to a reference
value. For this mode of control, voltage feedback signals are obtained from the sending end bus
feeding the shunt coupling transformer.
The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with the
line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage can be
obtained in several ways.
Direct Voltage Injection Mode: The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase
angle of the series voltage. Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode: The reference input is phase
displacement between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Line Impedance
Emulation mode: The reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line
impedance. Automatic Power Flow Control Mode: The reference inputs are values of P and Q
to maintain on the transmission line despite system changes.

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CHAPTER: 4
STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR POWER FLOW MODEL

4.1 STATCOM POWER FLOW MODEL

The STATCOM is a FACTS controller based on voltage sourced converter (VSC). A VSC
generate a synchronous voltage of fundamental frequency, controllable magnitude and phase
angle.
If a VSC is shunt-connected to a system via a coupling transformer as shown in Fig. 4.1, the
resulting STATCOM can inject or absorb reactive power to or from the bus to which it is
connected and thus regulate the bus voltage magnitude. This STATCOM model is known as
Power Injection Model (PIM) or Voltage Source Model (VSM). Steady state modeling of
STATCOM within the Newton-Raphson method in rectangular co-ordinates is carried out as
follows:
The Thevenin equivalent circuit representing the fundamental frequency operation of the
switched-mode voltage sourced converter and its transformer is shown in Figure 4.1
(1)
is expressed in Norton equivalent form
(2)

(2)

where
In these expressions, Vk represents bus k voltage and Vstc represents the voltage source inverter.
IN is the Nortons current while Istc is the inverters current. Also, Z SC and Y SC are the
transformers impedance and short-circuit admittance respectively.
The STATCOM voltage injection V STC bound constraints is as follows:
(3)
Where VSTC min and VSTC max are the STATCOMs minimum and maximum voltages.
The current expression in (2) is transformed into a power expression by the VSC and power
injected into bus k as shown in equations (4) and (5) respectively.
(4)

(5)

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Fig. 4.1 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Diagram of STATCOM: (a) STATCOM Schematic
Diagram; (b) STATCOM Equivalent Circuit
Using the rectangular coordinate representation,

Where V STC and STC are the STATCOM voltage magnitude and angle respectively. e k and f k
are the real and imaginary parts of the bus voltage respectively.
e STC and f STC are the real and imaginary parts of the STATCOM voltage respectively. The
active and reactive powers for the STATCOM and node k respectively are:
(6)
(7)
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And

(8)

(9)

4.2 LINEARISED POWER EQUATION

A single-phase power network with n-buses is described by 2(n-1) non-linear equations. The
inclusion of one STATCOM model augments the number of equations by two. The solution of
the combined system of non-linear equations is carried out by iteration using the full NewtonRaphson method.
The Jacobian used in conventional power flow is suitably extended to take account of the new
elements contributed by the STATCOM. The set of linearised power flow equations for the
complete system is

The Jacobian elements in equation (10) are given in table 4.1 ahead.

4.3 NEWTON-RAPHSON-ALGORITHM
1. We assume a suitable solution for all the buses except the slack bus. We assume a flat voltage
profile i.e. Vp=1.0+j0.0 for p=1,2,,n, ps, Vs=a+j0.0.
2. We then set a convergence criterion = i.e. if the largest of absolute of the residues exceeds ,
the process is repeated, or else its terminated.
3. Set the iteration count K=0.
4. Set the bus count p=1.
5. Check if a bus is a slack bus. If that is the case, skip to step 10.
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6. Calculate the real and reactive powers Pp and Qp respectively, using the equations derived for
the same earlier.
7. Evaluate
8. Check if the bus p is a generator bus. If that is the case, compare Qkp with the limits. If it
exceeds the limits, fix the reactive power generation to the corresponding limit and treat the bus
as a load bus for that iteration and go to the next step. If lower limit is violated, set Q sp=Qp min. If
the limit is not violated evaluate the voltage residue.

9. Evaluate
10. Increment the bus count by 1, i.e. p = p+1 and finally check if all the buses have been taken
into consideration. Or else, go back to step 5.
11. Determine the largest value among the absolute value of residue.
12. If the largest of the absolute value of the residue is less than , go to step 17.
13. Evaluate the Jacobian matrix elements.
14. Calculate the voltage increments
15. Calculate the new bus voltage
of all voltages.

Evaluate cos and sin

16. Advance iteration count K=K+1 and go back to step 4.

17. Evaluate bus and line powers and output the results.

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TABLE 1

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CHAPTER: 5
APPLICATIONS, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

5.1 APPLICATIONS OF STATCOM

Usually a STATCOM is installed to support electricity networks that have a poor power
factor and often poor voltage regulation. There are however, other uses, the most common use is
for voltage stability. A STATCOM is a voltage source converter (VSC)-based device, with the
voltage source behind a reactor. The voltage source is created from a DC capacitor and therefore
a STATCOM has very little active power capability. However, its active power capability can be
increased if a suitable energy storage device is connected across the DC capacitor. The reactive
power at the terminals of the STATCOM depends on the amplitude of the voltage source. For
example, if the terminal voltage of the VSC is higher than the AC voltage at the point of
connection, the STATCOM generates reactive current; on the other hand, when the amplitude of
the voltage source is lower than the AC voltage, it absorbs reactive power. The response time of
a STATCOM is shorter than that of an SVC, mainly due to the fast switching times provided by
the IGBTs of the voltage source converter. The STATCOM also provides better reactive power
support at low AC voltages than an SVC, since the reactive power from a STATCOM decreases
linearly with the AC voltage (as the current can be maintained at the rated value even down to
low AC voltage).
STATCOM has following applications in controlling power system dynamics.
Damping of power system oscillations.
Damping of subsynchronous oscillations.
Balanced loading of individual phases.
Reactive compensations of AC-DC converters and HVDC links.
Improvement of transient stability margin.
Improvement of steady-state power transfer capacity.
Reduction of temporary over-voltages.
Effective voltage regulation and control.
Reduction of rapid voltage fluctuations (flicker control).

5.2 SCOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Although this research has covered most of the interesting issues and challenges of the advanced
STATCOM and several aspects of the integration of ESS into STATCOM, there are certain
aspects that might be interesting for future investigations which are given below:

Due to the excessive number of semiconductor devices and passive components, a fault
protection scheme to enhance the ride-though capability in various faults scenarios remains as an
important challenge

In the investigation of the interface topology, the ES was assumed to be charged to a

voltage level that is not higher than the DC-side voltage of the VSC. It might be valuable to

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investigate the possibility of charging ES to a higher extent and the related issues such as
protection issues.

Research on the CMC based topology with ESS can be implemented for real and reactive
power compensation in wind farms with FSIGs or Double Fed Induction Generator

5.3 CONCLUSION
Among FACTS controllers, the shunt controller STATCOM have shown feasibility in terms of
cost effectiveness in a wide range of problem-solving abilities from transmission to distribution
levels. A comparison between the STATCOM and the SVC is made and based on several aspects
it is concluded that a STATCOM is more preferred when compared to SVC and other
compensation devices. Instead of directly deriving reactive power from the energy storage
components, the STATCOM basically circulates power with the connected network. Therefore,
the reactive components used in the STATCOM are much smaller than those in the SVC.
The location of the shunt FACTS device depends on the application for which it is installed.
Shunt compensation FACTS devices are installed at the end points of transmission lines (buses)
when used for applications, such as bus voltage regulation and improving HVDC link
performance, etc. However, from simulation results it is observed that for increasing the power
transfer capability of long transmission lines (tie lines connecting two major grids), midpoint of
the lines is the best location for shunt connected multi pulse STATCOM device. When
connected at the midpoint the real power is improved and the load ability margin. The midpoint
sitting of STATCOM also facilitates the independent control of reactive power at both the ends
of the transmission line. For a given voltage limit, the midpoint sitting controls a larger reactive
power because each side of the STATCOM device addresses only half the line impedance and
not the full line impedance as in the case of the transmission line receiving end sitting and
sending end sitting. The simulation study shows that a STATCOM with real power capability
can improve the real power and enhance load stability margin, damp the power system
oscillations ore effectively and stabilize the system faster if the STATCOM-SMES controller is
located at the midpoint. Various concepts regarding the FACTS technology and the important
features of some of the FACTS devices have been presented. The Newton raphson method has
been presented to solve the power flow problem in the power system with static synchronous
compensator (STATCOM).
The study of the basic principles of the STATCOM is carried out as well as the basics of reactive
power compensation using a STATCOM. A power flow model of the STATCOM is attempted
and it is seen that the modified load flow equations help the system in better performance. The
bus system shows improved plots and the thus we can conclude that the addition of a STATCOM
controls the output of a bus in a robust manner.
Hence our objective to maintain voltage stability has been successfully achieved with the
incorporation of Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM).

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