Ibhm 509-527

18 Mathematical Induction
Abu Bekr ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn Al-Karaji was born on 13 April 953 in
Baghdad, Iraq and died in about 1029. His importance the field of mathematics is
debated by historians and mathematicians. Some consider that he only reworked
previous ideas, while others see him as the first person to use arithmetic style
operations with algebra as opposed to geometrical operations.
1 1 1
In his work, Al-Fakhri, Al-Karaji succeeded in defining x, x2, x3, p and , 2 , 3 , p
x x x
and gave rules for finding the products of any pair without reference to geometry. He
was close to giving the rule xnxm xmn for all integers n and m
but just failed because he did not define x0 1 .
In his discussion and demonstration of this work Al-Karaji used a form of

mathematical induction where he proved a result using the previous result and
noted that this process could continue indefinitely. As we will see in this chapter,
this is not a full proof by induction, but it does highlight one of the major
principles.
Al-Karaji used this form of induction in his work on the binomial theorem,
binomial coefficients and Pascals triangle. The table shown is one that Al-Karaji
used, and is actually Pascals triangle in its side.
He also worked on the sums of the first n natural numbers, the squares of the first
n natural numbers and the cubes of these
col 1 col 2 col 3 col 4 col 5
numbers, which we introduced in Chapter 6.
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
10
5
1
509
18.1 Introduction to mathematical

induction
Mathematical induction is a method of mathematical proof. Most proofs presented in
this book are direct proofs that is proofs where one step leads directly from another to
the required result. However, there are a number of methods of indirect proof including
proof by contradiction, proof by contrapositive and proof by mathematical induction. In
this curriculum, we only consider proof by induction for positive integers.
1 Prove the result is true for n 1.

It is important to show this very clearly (even though it is often obvious).
1
LHS a r
RHS
r1
1
1122
2
1
Since LHS RHS, the result is true for n 1.
Mathematical induction is based on the idea of proving the next step to be true if the
previous one is true. If the result is true for an initial value, then it is true for all values.
This is demonstrated by the following metaphor.
2 Assume the result is true for n k, k 7 1, k H ,

k
k 1k 12
i.e. a r
2
r1
Consider a ladder that is infinite in one direction. We want to prove that the ladder is
completely safe, that is each rung on the ladder is sound.
3 Now consider the result for n k 1. We want to show that

k1
1k 12 1k 1 12
1k 12 1k 22

ar
2
2
r1
4 For n k 1,
k1
r1
r1
Adding on the
1k 12th term.
a r a r 1k 12
k 1k 12
1k 12

2
k 1k 12
21k 1 2

2
2
k 1k 12 21k 12

2
1k 12 1k 22

2
which is the required form.
k+1
k
We are using the

assumption here.
3
2
1
First, test the bottom rung on the ladder and check that it is sound. Then assume that a
rung on the ladder, somewhere further up, is also sound. Call this the kth rung. Using
this assumption, show that the next rung up, the 1k 12th rung, is also sound if the
assumption is true. Since we know the first rung is sound, we can now say the second
one is sound. As the second one is sound, the third one is sound and so on. So the
whole ladder is safe.
Method for mathematical induction
5 So the result is true for n k 1 when true for n k. Since the result is
true for n 1, it is true n H by mathematical induction.
This communication is
identical for virtually all
induction proofs. It is
worth learning its form.
Example
n
Prove that
2

a 3r 5r n 1n 12 1n 22 n H
by mathematical
r1
induction.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Prove the result is true for an initial value (normally n 1 ).

Assume the result to be true for another value, n k, k 7 1, stating this result.
Consider the case for n k 1, writing down the goal the required form.
Using the assumption, show that the result is then true for n k 1.
Communicate why this proves the result using mathematical induction.
We cannot use the standard results for a r and a r2 here as we are being
r1
r1
asked to prove it by mathematical induction.

1 For n 1,
1
LHS a 3r2 5r
Example
r1
n 1n 12
Prove a r
n H by mathematical induction.
2
r1
n
Remembering the meaning of this notation, we know that n H means that

we need to prove it is true for all positive integers, i.e. n 1, n H .
510
RHS 111 12 11 22
3112 2 5112
1122 112
35
2
2
511
4 For n k 1,
2 Assume the result to be true for n k,
k1
1
a r 1r 12
r1
i.e. a 3r 5r k 1k 12 1k 22
2
Adding on the
1k 12th term.
r1
3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that
1
1
a

r
1r

12
1k

1
2
1k 22
r1
k1
2
a 3r 5r 1k 12 1k 1 12 1k 1 22 1k 12 1k 22 1k 12
r1
4 For n k 1,

k1
2
a 3r 5r
r1
Adding on the
1k 12th term.
a 13r2 5r2 31k 12 2 51k 12
r1
k 1k 12 1k 22 31k 12 2 51k 12
We are using the

assumption here.
1k 12 3k 1k 22 31k 12 54
1k 12 3k2 k 24

k
1

k1
1k 12 1k 22
We are using the

assumption here.
k 1k 22
1

1k 1 2 1k 22
1k 12 1k 2 2
k2 2k 1
1k 1 2 1k 22
1k 12 2
1k 1 2 1k 22
k1
k2
5 So the result is true for n k 1 when true for n k. Since the result
is true for n 1, it is true n H by mathematical induction.
1k 12 1k 22 1k 12
Example
n
3
Prove that a 3r 13n 12n H by mathematical induction.
2
r1
1 For n 1,
1
Example
3 1
13 12
2
3
122
2
3
LHS a 3r
RHS
r1
1
n

n H by mathematical induction.
Prove that a
n1
r1 r 1r 12
31
1 For n 1,
1
1
LHS a
r1 r 1r 12
RHS
1

1122
1
11
1

2
1
2

k
1
k

i.e. a
r
1r

12
k

1
r1
3

k
3
i.e. a 3r 13k 12
2
r1
k1
3
3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that a 3r 13k1 12
2
r1
4 For n k 1,
k1
r
a3
r1
a3 3
r

1
k1
k1
a r 1r 12 k 1 1 k 2
r1
k1
512
k1
r1
3 k
13 12 3k1
2
Adding on the
1k 12th term.
Using the
assumption.
513
3# k 3
3 3.3k
2
2
4 For n k 1,
k1
a r 1r 32
3
3
3k 3
2
2
r1
Adding on the
1k 12th term.
a r 1r 3 2 1k 12 1k 42
9
3
3k
2
2
r1
1
19.3k 32
2
3
13.3k 12
2
3
13k1 12
2
1
k 1k 12 1k 52 1k 12 1k 42
3
1
1k 12 3k 1k 52 31k 42 4
3
1
1k 12 3k2 8k 124
3
Using the
assumption.
1
1k 12 1k 22 1k 6 2
3

It can be seen from these examples that sigma notation is very useful when proving a
result by induction.
Exercise 1
Prove these results n H by mathematical induction.
Example
1
1
Prove that 1.4 2.5 3.6 p n 1n 32 n 1n 12 1n 52 n H .
3
r1
It is simpler to express the LHS using sigma notation. Hence the result becomes
n
1
a r 1r 32 3 n 1n 12 1n 52.
r1
1 For n 1,
2
ar
a 8 3r
r1
RHS
r1
4
1
112 11 12 11 52
3
2
2
a 6 2r r 6n 141 3n n 2
1
122 162
3
4
n
1 2
3
2
a r 4 n 1n 12
r1
10
r1
11
k
1
i.e. a r 1r 32 k 1k 12 1k 52
3
r1
n
4 n
r
a 4 3 14 12
r1
14
n 1n 32
1
a r 1r 1 2 1r 22 41n 12 1n 22
r1
1
1k 12 1k 22 1k 62
3
1
a r 1r 1 2 3 1n 12 1n 22
r1
13
1
a r 1r 32 3 1k 12 1k 1 12 1k 1 52
r1
k1
n
1
a r 1r 1 2 1r 22 4 n 1n 12 1n 22 1n 32
r1
2
2
a 12r2 3 n 1n 12 12n 12
r1
3
2
2
a 12r 12 n 12n 12
12
4
2
2
a 4r 3 3 n 14n 6n 92
r1
n
1
a 5r 2 2 n 15n 12
r1
r1
LHS a 112 11 32
1
n 11 3n2
2
2
a 2r 1 n
r1
n
11
a 3r 4 2 n 13n 12
r1
n
1
n 1n 12 12n 12
6
15
r
1 n

2
1n 22
a r
2
r1 2
16 4 5 6 p 1n 32
1
n 1n 72
2
17 5 3 1 p 17 2n2 n 16 n2
514
515
18 3 6 11 p 1n2 22
Proof of the binomial theorem for positive integer

powers
1
n 12n2 3n 132
6
19 1.2 2.3 3.4 p n 1n 12
1
n 1n 12 1n 22
3
n
n
Prove the binomial theorem, i.e. 1x y2 n a xnry r.
r0 r
1
20 4 0 6 p 1n 22 1n 32 n 1n2 3n 162
3
1 For n 1,
1
1
RHS a x1ry r
r0 r
LHS 1x y2 1
18.2 Proving some well-known results

So far we have concentrated on proving results that involve sigma notation. However,
mathematical induction can be used to prove results from a variety of mathematical
spheres. These include results from calculus, complex numbers and matrices as well as
algebra.
1
1
x1y 0 x0y1
1
0
xy
xy
In earlier chapters, it was stated that proofs would be provided using mathematical
induction for the binomial theorem and de Moivres theorem. In this syllabus,
knowledge of the proof of de Moivres theorem is expected but not for the binomial
theorem.

2 Assume the result to be true for n k, i.e.
1x y2 k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
a x kry r x ky 0 x k1y1 x k2y 2 p xkry r p x 0y k
r
0
1
2
r
k
r0
Proof of de Moivres theorem using mathematical

induction
This was proved in Chapter 17 using calculus, but this method must also be known.
k1
k 1 k1r r
3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that 1x y2 k1 a
x
y
r
r0
Prove de Moivres theorem for all positive integers, i.e.

1cos u i sin u2 n cos nu i sin nu
4 For n k 1,
k
k
1x y2 a xkry r
r0 r
1cos u i sin u2 k1 cos1k 12 u i sin1k 12u
Substituting 1k 12 for k in
the result.
We are multiplying the result for
1cos u i sin u2 k1
to get the result for n k 1.
1cos u i sin u 2 1cos u i sin u2 k

1cos u i sin u 2 1cos ku i sin ku2
Using the assumption.
k
k
xkryr p x0y kR
r
k
k
k
k
k
k
x k1y 0 xky1 x k1y 2 p
xkry r1 xk1ry r
0
1
2
r1
r
k
p x1y
k
cos u cos ku i sin ku cos u i sin u cos ku i2 sin u sin ku

cos u cos ku sin u sin ku i 1sin ku cos u sin u cos ku2
cos1u ku2 i 1sin1ku u2 2
cos1k 12u i sin1k 12 u
k
k
k
k
kr1 r1
y
1x y2 B xky 0 x k1y1 x k2y 2 p r 1x
0
1
2
n k by 1cos u i sin u2
4 For n k 1,
1x y2 1x y2 k
RHS cos11u2 i sin11u2

cos u i sin u
2 Assume the result to be true for n k, i.e. 1cos u i sin u2 k cos ku i sin ku
1x y2 k1
1 For n 1,
LHS 1cos u i sin u2 1

cos u i sin u
k
k
k
k
k
xky1 xk1y2 xk2y3 p
xkr1y r xkry r1
0
1
2
r1
r
k
p x0yk1
k
k
k
k
k
k
xk1 B Rxky1 B Rxk1y2 p
0
1
0
2
1
5 So the result is true for n k 1 when true for n k. Since the result is true for
n 1, it is true n H by mathematical induction.
516
k
k
k
k
k
B
R1xk1ry r 2 p B
Rxy k y k1
r
r1
k
k1
k
This can be extended to negative integers by considering n m where m is a positive

integer.
517
n
n
n1
We can now use the result that

(which was proved in
r
r1
r
There are other algebraic results that we can prove using mathematical induction, as
exemplified below.
Chapter 6).
k
k
So the general term becomes B
R1xk1ry r 2
r
r1
Example
Prove that 2n 7 2n 1 for all n 3, n H using mathematical induction.
k 1 k1r r

x
y
r
1 Notice here that the initial value is not n 1.
The expansion is therefore

k 1 k1
k1 k 1
k 1 k1 2
k 1 k1r r
x

x y
x y p
1x
y 2 p
0
1
2
r
k 1 k1r r
x
y
r
r0
7
Since LHS 7 RHS, the result is true for n 3.
k1
a
RHS 213 2 1
LHS 23
8
k1
k 1 k1
xy k
y
k
k1
For n 3,
2 Assume the result to be true for n k, k 7 3, i.e. 2k 7 2k 1.
3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that 2k1 7 21k 12 1
5 So the result is true for n k 1 when true for n k. Since the result is true for
n 1, it is true n H by mathematical induction.
We also use mathematical induction to prove divisibility. This is demonstrated in the
example below.
1 2k1 7 2k 3
4 For n k 1,
2k1 2.2k
7 212k 12
2k 2k 2
Example
We know that 2k 2 7 3, k 3 and so 2k 2k 2 7 2k 3
Prove that 32n 7 is divisible by 8 for n H .
Hence 2k1 7 2k 3 which is the required form.

is true for n 3, it is true n 3, n H by mathematical induction.
This can be restated as 32n 7 8p, p H .

1 For n 1,
32n 7 32 7
16
As 8 is a factor of 16, or 16 8 2, the result is true for n 1.
Induction can also be used to prove results from other spheres of mathematics such as
calculus and matrices.
2 Assume the result to be true for n k, i.e. 32k 7 8p, p H .

3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that 321k12 7 8t, t H .
Example
4 For n k 1,
21k12
7 3
2k2
Prove that
7
3232k 7
913 7 72 7
This allows us to
use the assumption.
918p 72 7
9.8p 63 7
9.8p 56
819p 72
Since 19p 72 H , we can say that t 9 p 7 which is the required
form.
518
1 For n 1,
9.32k 7
2k
d n
1x 2 nxn1, n H .
dx
LHS
d 1
1x 2
dx
1
RHS 112x11
x0
1
We know the LHS is equal to 1 as the gradient of y x is 1. However, we
should prove this by differentiation by first principles as part of a proof.
Let f1x2 x
f1x h2 f1x2 x h x

h
h
h

h
1
519
f1x h2 f1x2
1
hS0
h
1

0
Hence lim
10

00
2 Assume the result to be true for n k, i.e.
1

0
d k
1x 2 kxk1
dx

4 For n k 1,
d k1
d
1x 2
1x.xk 2
dx
dx
1 1
1
0
d k1
1x 2 1k 12xk.
dx
k
k 1
01
1k 12
Using the product rule

and the assumption.
1.xk x.kxk1
xk kxk
xk 11 k2
Exercise 2

Prove these results using mathematical induction.

1 Prove that 23n 1 is divisible by 7, n H .
Example
4 Prove that 9n 8n 1 is divisible by 64, n H .

1 n
1

1
0
1
Prove that
0
n
n H using mathematical induction.
1
6 Prove that n 1n2 12 13n 22 is divisible by 24, n H .
7 Prove that n! 7 2n, for n 4, n H .
1 For n 1,
8 Prove that n! 7 n2, for n 4, n H .
1
LHS
0
1
1
0
1
1
RHS
0
1

1 1 k
1 k

i.e.
0
1
0
1
1 k1
1

1
0
1k 12
.
1
4 For n k 1,
1
0
1

0
520
10 Find the smallest integer t for which n! 7 3n.

Hence prove by induction that n! 7 3n for all n 7 t.
9 Prove that 2 7 n3, for n 10, n H .

n
12 Prove that
1 k
0
n H .
1
dn px
1e 2 pnepx, n H .
dxn
13 Prove that
1n 12p
dn
1sin 2x2 2n1 sin2x
, for all positive integer
dxn
2
values of n.
1
14 For M 0
0
1 k1
1
1 1
1
0
0
2n
, prove that An n
1
2 1
2
1
11 For A
2
p
0
211 pn 2
1p
pn
0
1
0
0, prove that Mn
0
3
0
0
0
3n

, n H .
4
15 For T
0
4n
t
, prove that T n
1
0
r1
a4
r1
, n H .
521
18.3 Forming and proving conjectures

For all of the examples met so far, the result to be proved was given in the question. This
is not always the case; sometimes, it is necessary to form a conjecture which can then be
proved using mathematical induction.

k 1k 22 1
1k 12 1k 22
k2 2k 1
1k 12 1k 22
1k 12 2
1k 12 1k 22
k1

k2
Example
Form a conjecture for the sum
1
1
1
1

p
.
12
23
34
n 1n 12
In order to form the conjecture, consider the results for the first few values of n.
n
sum
1
2
1
1
2

2
6
3
2
1
3

3
12
4
3
1
4

4
20
5
4
1
5

5
30
6
Looking at the pattern, we can make a conjecture that

1
1
1
n
1

p

12
23
34
n 1n 12
n1
5 So the conjecture is true for n k 1 when true for n k. Since it is

Example
Form a conjecture for the pentagonal numbers as shown below. Prove your
conjecture by mathematical nduction.
We now try to prove this conjecture using mathematical induction.

n
1
This can be expressed as a
.
r1 r 1r 12
12
22
So the sequence of pentagonal numbers begins 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, p
1 For n 1,
1
1
1
LHS a
RHS
11
r1 r 1r 12
1
1

12
2
1

2
Since LHS RHS, the conjecture is true for n 1.
Remembering that these are formed by adding a new layer each time, we
can consider this as a sum,
1 4 7 10 p 13n 22
We are trying to find a formula for this. This is an arithmetic progression and
so we can apply the formula for the sum to n terms with a 1, d 3.
Hence Sn

k
k
1
i.e. a

r
1r

12
k

1
r1
n
13n 12
2
3n2 n
2

k1
1
k1
a r 1r 12 k 1 1 k 2 .
r1
n
12 31n 12 2
2
k1
Again, our conjecture can be expressed using sigma notation:
4 For n k 1,
a 3r 2
r1
k1
1
a r 1r 12
r1
LHS a 3r 2
522
1 For n 1,
1
1
a

r
1r

12
1k

12
1k 22
r1
k
1

k1
1k 12 1k 22
k 1k 22
1

1k 12 1k 22
1k 12 1k 22
3n2 n
2
r1
32
1
3112 2 1
2
31

2
1
RHS
523
We can now prove this using mathematical induction.
3k k
2
i.e. a 3r 2
1 For n 1,
r1

k1
a 3r 2
r1
31k 12 2 1k 12
2
3k2 6k 3 k 1
2
3k2 5k 2
2
0 1
3
0
LHS
3

0
RHS
3
0

i.e.
3
0
0 k
3k

2
0
2k
3
0
a 3r 2
r1
3k1
0 k1
0
2
k1.
4 For n k 1,
a 3r 2 31k 12 2
r1
3
0
3k2 k
3k 1
2
3
0 k1

0
2
0 3
2 0
0 k
3
0
0 3k
2 0
2k
6k 2
3k k

2
2
2
3.3k 0
00
00
0 2.2k
3k 5k 2
2
2
k1
21
4 For n k 1,
31
0

5 So the conjecture is true for n k 1 when true for n k. Since it is
3k1
0
k1

5 So the conjecture is true for n k 1 when true for n k. Since the
conjecture is true for n 1, it is true n H by mathematical induction.
Example
3
For the matrix A
0
0
, form a conjecture for An, n H . Prove your
2
conjecture by mathematical induction.

To form the conjecture, find the results for the first few values of n.
3
A
0
9
A2
0
27
A3
0
81
A
0
16
1
1 For the matrix D
0
1
, form a conjecture for Dn. Prove your conjecture
2
using mathematical induction.

2 Form a conjecture for the sum 5 8 11 14 p 13n 22. Prove
your conjecture using mathematical induction.
3 Form a conjecture for the series suggested by the initial values of
3 1 5 9 13 17 p . Prove your conjecture by mathematical
induction.
4 With an unlimited supply of 4p and 7p stamps, make a conjecture about
what values >17 of postage it is possible to create. Prove your conjecture
3n
From this we can make a conjecture that An
0
524
Exercise 3
0
.
2n
5 Make a conjecture about the sum of the first n odd numbers. Prove your
conjecture using mathematical induction.
525
6 Find an expression for the nth term of the sequence 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, p .
Prove this result to be true using mathematical induction.
7 For the sequence below where each new pattern is made by adding a new
layer, make a conjecture for the number of dots in the nth term of the
pattern. Prove this result to be true using mathematical induction.
12 Using mathematical induction, prove that

M
M+
CE
ON
X
a 1r 122
r1
r1
positive integers.
C
M+
CE
[IB May 05 P2 Q4]
13 The function f is defined by f1x2 e

M
n 12n 2 for all
ON
px
1x 12,
where p H .
a Show that f'1x2 epx 1p 1x 12 12.
b Let f 1n2 1x2 denote the result of differentiating f(x) with respect to x,
n times. Use mathematical induction to prove that

f 1n2 1x2 pn1epx 1p 1x 12 n2, n H .
13
20
29
M+
ON
CE
Review exercise
M+
CE
M
C
M+
CE
ON
X
M+
CE
ON
X
M+
CE
ON
X
n
1
1 Prove that a r 4
n 1n 12 12n 12 13n2 3n 12, n H .
30
r1
M
C
M+
CE
0
112 n
n
0, prove that T 0
s
0
3
2
0
ON
2n 11 2 n
2n
0
0
0 , n H
sn
[IB May 06 P2 Q5]
a2 1
and an1 an an1 for all integers n 2.
3 Prove that n H , 11n1 122n1 is divisible by 133.
1
1
Given the matrix, Q
4 Prove, using mathematical induction, that

dn
1xepx 2 pn1epx 1px 12, n H .
dxn
an1
to prove that Qn
an
1
14 For T 0
0
[IB May 05 P2 Q2]
15 Consider the sequence 5a 6, 51, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, p 6 where a
2 Prove that n5 n is divisible by 5, n H .
ON
1
use the principle of mathematical induction
0
an
for all integers n 2.

an1
M
C
M+
CE
ON
X
2
5 Prove, using mathematical induction, that for T
p
Tn
2n
p 12 12
n
M+
ON
CE
M+
CE
M
C
ON
X
M+
%
ON
X
M+
ON
CE
16 The matrix M is defined as M 12

M
C
M+
ON
CE
M+
%
ON
X
1
.
0
b i State a conjecture for Mn, i.e. express Mn in terms of n, where n H .

ii Prove this conjecture using mathematical induction.
[IB Nov 02 P2 Q1]
7 Prove that sin u sin 3u p sin12n 12u
sin2 nu
, n H .
sin u
8 Form a conjecture for the sum 1 1! 2 2! 3 3! p n n!.

Prove your conjecture by mathematical induction.
9 Using mathematical induction, prove that
dn
np
, for all
n 1cos x2 cos x
dx
2
positive integer values of n.
M
CE
a Find M2, M3 and M4.

6 Prove, using mathematical induction, that
12n2!
2 # 6 # 10 # 14 # p # 14n 22
, n H .
n!
[IB Nov 01 P2 Q4]
0
, n H .
1
CE
0
,
1
[IB May 01 P2 Q4]
2 1 n
2n

10 a Prove using mathematical induction that
0 1
0
positive integer values of n.
b Determine whether or not this result is true for n 1.
2n 1
for all
1
[IB May 02 P2 Q3]
11 Prove, using mathematical induction, that for a positive integer n,

M
C
M+
CE
ON
X
1cos u i sin u2 n cos nu i sin nu where i2 1.
526
[IB May 03 P2 Q3]
527

Ibhm 509-527

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18 Mathematical Induction

but just failed because he did not define x0 1 .

In his discussion and demonstration of this work Al-Karaji used a form of

18.1 Introduction to mathematical

1 Prove the result is true for n 1.

Since LHS RHS, the result is true for n 1.

2 Assume the result is true for n k, k 7 1, k H ,

3 Now consider the result for n k 1. We want to show that

We are using the

Method for mathematical induction

Prove the result is true for an initial value (normally n 1 ).

asked to prove it by mathematical induction.

Remembering the meaning of this notation, we know that n H means that

2 Assume the result to be true for n k,

3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that

a 13r2 5r2 31k 12 2 51k 12

We are using the

We are using the

2 Assume the result to be true for n k,

Since LHS RHS, the result is true for n 1.

3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that

which is the required form.

3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that

2 Assume the result to be true for n k,

Since LHS RHS, the result is true for n 1.

Proof of the binomial theorem for positive integer

19 1.2 2.3 3.4 p n 1n 12

18.2 Proving some well-known results

Since LHS RHS, the result is true for n 1.

Proof of de Moivres theorem using mathematical

Prove de Moivres theorem for all positive integers, i.e.

Since LHS RHS, the result is true for n 1.

3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that

1cos u i sin u2 k1 cos1k 12 u i sin1k 12u

We are multiplying the result for

1cos u i sin u2 k1

to get the result for n k 1.

1cos u i sin u 2 1cos u i sin u2 k

Using the assumption.

cos u cos ku i sin ku cos u i sin u cos ku i2 sin u sin ku

RHS cos11u2 i sin11u2

LHS 1cos u i sin u2 1

This can be extended to negative integers by considering n m where m is a positive

Prove that 2n 7 2n 1 for all n  3, n H using mathematical induction.

1 Notice here that the initial value is not n 1.

The expansion is therefore

Since LHS 7 RHS, the result is true for n 3.

2 Assume the result to be true for n k, k 7 3, i.e. 2k 7 2k 1.

3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that 2k1 7 21k 12 1

Using the assumption.

We know that 2k 2 7 3, k  3 and so 2k 2k 2 7 2k 3

Prove that 32n 7 is divisible by 8 for n H .

Hence 2k1 7 2k 3 which is the required form.

This can be restated as 32n 7 8p, p H .

2 Assume the result to be true for n k, i.e. 32k 7 8p, p H .

Since LHS RHS, the result is true for n 1.

2 Assume the result to be true for n k, i.e.

3 Consider n k 1. We want to show that

Using the assumption.

which is the required form.

Using the product rule

which is the required form.

Prove these results using mathematical induction.

Prove that 2n 7 2n 1 for all n 3, n H using mathematical induction.

We know that 2k 2 7 3, k 3 and so 2k 2k 2 7 2k 3

7 Prove that n! 7 2n, for n 4, n H .

8 Prove that n! 7 n2, for n 4, n H .

9 Prove that 2 7 n3, for n 10, n H .

and an1 an an1 for all integers n 2.

for all integers n 2.

8 Form a conjecture for the sum 1 1! 2 2! 3 3! p n n!.