Andrew Rosen

Chapter 6 Electronic Structure of Atoms:

Wavelength ( ): Distance between 2 peaks (troughs).
Frequency ( ): Number of wavelength (cycles) that pass a point in a second
High Frequency = Shorter wavelength (inverse relationship)
Amplitude: Intensity of radiation (1/2 the height of the wave)

C=

C = speed of light = 3.00x108 m/s

Visible Light: 400nm (violet) to 700nm (red)

All light is a form of electromagnetic radiation (EM)
All EM moves at the speed of light
Wavelengths of radiation produce different properties

Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Gamma, X-ray, UV, V, IR (VIBGYOR), Micro, Radio (FM/AM), Long radio
Going to the right, energy decreases, frequency decreases and wavelength
increases
*1

= 1x10-10m

1nm = 1x10-9m

Example: The yellow light given off by a sodium vapor lamp used for public lighting has a wavelength of
589nm. What is the frequency of the radiation?

(3.00 x 1 08 m/s)(

1 x 10 9 nm
) =
(589
nm) )
1m

= 5.09x1014 Hz

Max Planck:
When objects are heated, they emit radiation.
Photoelectric Effect: Shining a light on a metal will cause electrons to be released
Incorrect Theory: Matter consists of particles and energy exists as light in the form
of a wave

Andrew Rosen

Energy absorbed or emitted is in whole-number multiples of

Energies are quantized: restricted to certain quantities

E=h

h = Planck's constant = 6.63x10-34J*s

Einstein:
EM radiation has properties of waves and particles

E=mc

De Broglie:

h
m

Combined:

hc
E

or

E=h

Example: Find the wavelength of an electron with a mass of 9.11x10 -31kg traveling at 1.0x107m/s .

6.63 x 1 034 Js
=7.28 x 1 011 m
31
7
( 9.11 x 1 0 kg ) (1.0 x 1 0 m)

Example: Blue light from fireworks has a wavelength of 450nm. What is its energy?

E=(6.63 x 1 034 Js)

3.00 x 1 08 m/ s
1.0 x 109 m
450 nm(
)
1 nm

= 4.42x10-19 J

Atomic Structure of Hydrogen:

Electrons travel in circular orbits
The principal quantum number increases as the energy of an orbit increases
The orbit of the lowest energy (n=1) is called the ground state while the others are
called excited states

Andrew Rosen

E=R H (

Z2
)
n2

RH = Rydberg constant = 2.178x10-18J Z = atomic number

n = quantum level
Example: Calculate the frequency when an electron falls back from the 6 th quantum level to the 1st

12
62

E=2.178 x 1 018 J

( )

E=2.178 x 1 018 J

( )

= -6.039x10-20J

1
2
1

= -2.178x10-18J

E=(2.178 x 1 018 J ) (6.039 x 1020 J ) =2.117 x 1 018 J

2.117 x 1 018 J =(6.63 x 1 034 Js)( )

Alternate equation: -RH

Z
Z
2
2
nf ni

=3.19 x 1 015 Hz

Heisenberg: Can't know momentum and position of an electron at the same time

x p

h
2

x is uncertainty and p is momentum

Schrdinger:
Wave equation for electron that has wave and particle properties ( )

Orbitals and Quantum Numbers:

n = 1st (principle) quantum number. Size of electron cloud. Represents quantum level. 1 to

. Energy

increases with increasing quantum number

l = 2nd quantum number. Shape of the orbital. 0 to n-1. Represents sublevel/subshell. S orbital Sphere. P
Orbital Dumbell. Px, Py, Pz

Andrew Rosen
m = 3rd quantum number. Direction in space. Represents electrons in sublevel. l to +l
s = 4th quantum number. Spin. +1/2 = clockwise. -1/2 = counterclockwise
Higher quantum levels and higher subshells have higher energies (eg: 3s vs. 2s) (eg: 2p vs. 2s)
Orbitals within a subshell have the same energy (eg: 2px and 2py)
Amount of values in each quantum number:
l=n
m = n2
s = 2n2

The address of an electron is in the format: n, l, m, s

Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers in an atom. An
orbital can only hold 2 electrons, and they must have different spins
Kernal: Everything but the valence electrons
Hund's Rule: Electrons are added to the multi-orbital sublevels singly until all orbitals have one electron
in each. Then additional electrons are placed.
Atoms are stable with an octet (8 valence) except for Helium (2 valence)
When the amount of electrons in the furthest quantum level are equal in two atoms, the energies are equal,
and is called degenerate
Shielding/Screening Effect; When inner electrons shield the outer electrons from the full positive charge
of the nucleus
(Net) Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff): Strength of pull of electrons towards towards the positive nucleus.
Zeff = Z S

Z is the number of protons, and S is the average number of electrons that are between the
nucleus and the electron in question

Amount of protons: Direct Relationship

Amount Shielding Effect: I.R
Ionization Energy: D.R
Value of l: I.R
Energy of an orbital: I.R

Andrew Rosen

GI-GII and He: S-Block

Transitions: D-Block. Period-1
GXIII-XVIII: P-Block
Lanthanides and Actinides: F-Block. Period-2. More similar next to each other in contrast to groups
Chapter 7: Periodic Trends
Mendeleev: Grouped the elements by mass
Mosely: Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic number

Covalent Atomic Radii: internuclear distance between 2 adjacent atoms in the solid phase.
Increases down a group. Increase in quantum level, higher shielding, and less Z eff
Decreases across a row. Increase in protons, higher Z eff, less shielding

Bonding radii are smaller than non-bonding radii since the electron clouds overlap
When an atom loses electrons, the radius decreases and vice versa
The bond length of a compound is the sum of the individual elements' radii
Ionization Energy: Minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom
Energy is always added since an electron is being removed
Decreases down a group. More shielding, less Zeff, larger atomic radii.
Increases across a row. Increase in protons, higher Zeff, less shielding

Electron Affinity: Ease of gaining an electron. How much attraction it has in the gaseous phase
More negative across a row, but 0 (sometimes positive) at Noble Gases. Energy is usually released

Electronegativity: Ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself when in a molecule

Fluorine is the most electronegative while Francium is the least

Andrew Rosen
Decreases down a group. Decrease in ionization energy, and electron affinities don't change much
Increases across a row
Elements are more reactive down a group
Metallic properties increase down a group and decrease across a row

Metals: (Know basic properties)

Most metal oxides are basic oxides
Activity increases down a group and decreases across a row
Metal Oxide + Water Metal Hydroxide
Metal Oxide + Acid Salt + Water

Non-Metals: (Know basic properties)

Most non-metal oxides are acidic oxides
Metal + Non-metal Salt
Non-metal Oxide + Water Acid
Non-metal Oxide + Base Salt + Water
G1: Alkali Metals (M):
Most reactive elements. Found bonded in nature. React with water and generate heat (exothermic)
Hydrides of the alkali metals have a hydride ion (H-)
Li(s) + O2(g) Li2O(s)

Lithium reacts with oxygen to form a compound with the O-2, oxide, ion

Metal oxides dissolve in water to form hydroxide ions w/ a net ionic equation: O -2(aq) + H2O(l) 2OH-(aq)
Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2

Sodium reacts with oxygen to form a compound with the O 2-2, peroxide, ion

K/Rb/Cs + O2(g) KO2(s)

Potassium, rubidium, and cesium react with oxygen to form a compound

that has the O2-2 and are called superoxides

GII: Alkaline Earth Metals:

Magnesium does not react with liquid water

Andrew Rosen
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
All other GII metals react with water to produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas

Transition Metals;
Color in solution

Group XVI: Chalcogens:

Group XVIII: Halogens;

Have elements in all phases at STP
F2, Cl2 Gas
Br2 Liquid
I2 Solid

Group XVIII: Noble Gases/inert gases/monatomics/stable octet:

Allotrope: Different forms of the same element in the same state

O2 and O3
Carbon, diamond, and graphite
White, red, and black phosphorus