U N I V E R S I T Y OF W A S H I N G T O N

AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY

Technical Guide
for the
Kirsten Wind Tunnel

February 2001

F. K. Kirsten Wind Tunnel

(206) 543-0439

Box 352400
http://www.uwal.org

Seattle WA 98195-2400
Facsimile (206) 616-2150

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................1
2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.............................................................................................................1
3. TYPES OF WIND TUNNEL TESTS...............................................................................................3
3.1 SIX COMPONENT FORCE TESTS........................................................................................................................... 3
3.2 PRESSURE TESTS................................................................................................................................................ 3
3.3 FLOW VISUALIZATION TESTS ............................................................................................................................. 3

4. THE FACILITY ...............................................................................................................................4

4.1 LOCATION ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
4.2 OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................................ 4
4.3 CONTROL ROOM ................................................................................................................................................ 5
4.4 COMPANY ROOM ............................................................................................................................................... 5
4.5 MODEL SHOP..................................................................................................................................................... 5
4.6 FANS ................................................................................................................................................................. 6
4.7 OBSERVATION DECK .......................................................................................................................................... 7
4.8 MODEL DECK .................................................................................................................................................... 7

5. TEST SECTION ...............................................................................................................................7

5.1 DIMENSIONS ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
5.2 CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. 8
5.3 TEST SECTION CONDITIONS ............................................................................................................................... 9

6. INSTRUMENTATION...................................................................................................................10
6.1 DYNAMIC PRESSURE TRANSDUCER ................................................................................................................... 10
6.2 EXTERNAL BALANCE ....................................................................................................................................... 10

7. PROBES..........................................................................................................................................11
7.1 FIVE-HOLE PROBE ........................................................................................................................................... 11
7.2 TOTAL & STATIC PROBES ................................................................................................................................ 11
7.3 20 WAKE RAKE PROBE................................................................................................................................... 12
7.4 BOUNDARY LAYER PROBES .............................................................................................................................. 12
7.5 OTHER PROBES................................................................................................................................................ 12

8. PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ...................................................................................................13

9. TRAVERSE RIG ............................................................................................................................13
10. FLOW VISUALIZATION............................................................................................................14
10.1 TUFTS ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
10.2 CHINA CLAY ................................................................................................................................................. 15
10.3 SMOKE .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
10.4 OIL ............................................................................................................................................................... 16
10.5 SUBLIMATION ................................................................................................................................................ 17

11. PHOTOGRAPHY.........................................................................................................................17

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11.1 35MM CAMERA .............................................................................................................................................. 17

11.2 DIGITAL CAMERA .......................................................................................................................................... 17
11.3 HI8 VIDEO CAMERAS ..................................................................................................................................... 18
11.4 DIGITAL VIDEO CAMERA................................................................................................................................ 18
11.5 NORMAL LIGHTING ........................................................................................................................................ 18
11.6 ULTRAVIOLET LIGHTING ................................................................................................................................ 18
11.7 IMAGE PROCESSING ....................................................................................................................................... 18

12. TWO DIMENSIONAL MODEL MOUNTING ..........................................................................19

13. THREE DIMENSIONAL MODEL MOUNTING ......................................................................21
13.1 MODEL INSTALLATION................................................................................................................................... 21
13.2 GENERAL MOUNTING INFORMATION............................................................................................................... 21
13.3 TWO-POINT ................................................................................................................................................... 26
13.4 ONE-POINT ................................................................................................................................................... 34
13.5 SPECIAL MOUNTING SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................ 34
13.6 GROUND PLANES ........................................................................................................................................... 34

14. MODEL SUPPORT EFFECTS....................................................................................................36

14.1 STANDARD FORK TARES ................................................................................................................................ 36
14.2 IMAGE STRUT/FORK....................................................................................................................................... 36

15. POWERED TESTING .................................................................................................................37

15.1 AUXILIARY MODEL POWER ............................................................................................................................ 37
15.2 ELECTRIC MOTOR.......................................................................................................................................... 38

16. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM ................................................................................................39

16.1 HARDWARE ................................................................................................................................................... 39
16.2 DATA PROCESSING......................................................................................................................................... 39
16.3 DAILY CALIBRATION PROCESS ....................................................................................................................... 39
16.4 MODEL POSITIONING ..................................................................................................................................... 39
16.5 AUXILIARY INSTRUMENTATION ...................................................................................................................... 40

17. DATA REDUCTION SYSTEM ...................................................................................................40

17.1 HARDWARE ................................................................................................................................................... 40
17.2 SOFTWARE .................................................................................................................................................... 40
17.3 STORAGE MEDIA ........................................................................................................................................... 40

18. DATA PLOTTING .......................................................................................................................41

18.1 ON-LINE PLOTS ............................................................................................................................................. 41
18.2 FINAL PLOTS ................................................................................................................................................. 41

19. AUXILIARY SERVICES.............................................................................................................42

19.1 MODEL DESIGN/CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................................................... 42
19.2 DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................ 42
19.3 COPY & DUPLICATION SERVICES .................................................................................................................... 42
19.4 INTERNET ACCESS ......................................................................................................................................... 42

20. MISCELLANEOUS .....................................................................................................................43

20.1 MODEL ACCLEROMETER MOUNT.................................................................................................................... 43
20.2 INCLINOMETER DRAWINGS & IMAGES ............................................................................................................ 44
20.3 SAMPLE RUN LOG .......................................................................................................................................... 46

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20.4 SAMPLE PLOT ................................................................................................................................................ 47

20.5 DRIVING INSTRUCTIONS TO UWAL ................................................................................................................ 48
20.6 AIR SPEED CONVERSION CHART ..................................................................................................................... 49

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FIGURE INDEX
FIGURE 1: 3-VIEW OF KIRSTEN WIND TUNNEL BUILDING ........................................................................2
FIGURE 2: CUTAWAY VIEW OF KIRSTEN WIND TUNNEL ..........................................................................4
FIGURE 3: AA DEPARTMENT MACHINE SHOP ..........................................................................................5
FIGURE 4: DAILY INSPECTION OF ONE OF THE FANS ................................................................................6
FIGURE 5: VIEW FROM DIFFUSER LOOKING INTO A CLEAN TEST SECTION ...............................................7
FIGURE 6: TEST SECTION FLOOR .............................................................................................................8
FIGURE 7: CUTAWAY VIEW OF THE TEST SECTION...................................................................................9
FIGURE 8: 6-COMPONENT EXTERNAL BALANCE ....................................................................................11
FIGURE 9: RAKE PROBE SPACING ..........................................................................................................12
FIGURE 10: CHINA CLAY ON A WING ....................................................................................................15
FIGURE 11: SMOKE FLOW VISUALIZATION WITH A WING......................................................................16
FIGURE 12: UV OIL ON WING SHOWING TRANSITION POINT .................................................................16
FIGURE 13: SUBLIMATING CHEMICALS SHOWING TRANSITION POINT ON A WING ..................................17
FIGURE 14: TOP AND SIDE VIEWS OF 2D INSERTS.................................................................................19
FIGURE 15: 2D TEST SECTION (TOP VIEW) ...........................................................................................20
FIGURE 16: FAIRING FOR MODEL SUPPORT STRUT .................................................................................22
FIGURE 17: FORK WITH PITCH ARM ......................................................................................................23
FIGURE 18: MODEL MOUNTING FORKS ..................................................................................................24
FIGURE 19: MODEL MOUNT FORK ATTACHMENTS .................................................................................25
FIGURE 20: SINGLE STRUT WITH PITCH ARM INSTALLED (2-POINT MOUNT) ...........................................27
FIGURE 21: SMALL TRUNNION BLOCK FOR SINGLE STRUT .....................................................................28
FIGURE 22: LARGE TRUNNION BLOCK FOR SINGLE STRUT .....................................................................29
FIGURE 23: OFFSET TRUNNION BLOCK FOR SINGLE STRUT ....................................................................30
FIGURE 24: SINGLE STRUT ....................................................................................................................31
FIGURE 25: ROUND STRUT NO. 1 ..........................................................................................................32
FIGURE 26: ROUND STRUT NO. 2 ..........................................................................................................33
FIGURE 27: BOEING 747-400 MODEL WITH STANDARD GROUND PLANE ...............................................35
FIGURE 28: CARGO CRANE WITH 8X 8GROUND PLANE .....................................................................35
FIGURE 29: IMAGE OF SINGLE STRUT & FAIRING WITH BOEING 757 MODEL ..........................................36
FIGURE 30: POWERED MODEL MOUNTED ON 14-H FORK, HOSE STRUT, AND PITCH ARM. .....................37
FIGURE 31: 52 HP TASK MOTOR DRAWING ...........................................................................................38

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Table Index
TABLE 1:
TABLE 2:
TABLE 3:
TABLE 4:
TABLE 5:
TABLE 6:
TABLE 7:
TABLE 8:

BALANCE RESOLUTION AND LIMITS .......................................................................................10

DIMENSIONS OF AVAILABLE FIVE-HOLE PROBES ....................................................................11
DIMENSIONS OF AVAILABLE TOTAL & STATIC PROBES ...........................................................12
FLOW VISUALIZATION COMPARISON ......................................................................................14
STANDARD GROUND PLANE POSITIONS..................................................................................34
AUXILIARY MODEL POWER SPECIFICATIONS ..........................................................................38
52 HP TASK MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS .....................................................................................38
CONVERSION TABLE FROM DYNAMIC PRESSURE TO AIR SPEED .............................................49

Photograph Credits
Special thanks to The Boeing Company, Raytheon Aircraft Company, and Sino Swearingen Aircraft
Company for use of their photographs in this document.

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1. Introduction
The University of Washington Aeronautical Laboratory (UWAL) is an aerodynamic testing organization
under the Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics. UWAL uses the facilities of the Department of
Aeronautics & Astronautics for aeronautical testing for companies, individuals, and governments.
Revenue generated by commercial testing helps fund undergraduate use of the facilities and research.
This document describes the technical aspects and capabilities of the primary facility, the Kirsten Wind
Tunnel.
Any further questions or requests for more information will be gladly handled by UWAL personnel.
UWAL is dedicated to meeting the customer's needs with professional service and quality data.

2. General Description
The primary aerodynamic testing facility is the F. K. Kirsten Wind Tunnel. Opened for testing in 1939,
the Kirsten Wind Tunnel is of concrete and brick construction. It is a double-return, closed circuit wind
tunnel. The test section has a rectangular cross-section eight feet high, twelve feet wide and ten feet
long, with fillets in the corners. The test section is vented to the atmosphere and can be viewed from all
sides. Two 500 hp dc motors drive two 14 feet 9 inches diameter, seven-blade fans to provide the test
section with airspeeds of 200 MPH for a typical-sized wind tunnel model. The tunnel is capable of
airspeeds of 250 MPH with a clean test section. See Figure 1.

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Figure 1: 3-View of Kirsten Wind Tunnel Building

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3. Types of Wind Tunnel Tests

3.1

Six Component Force Tests

In these tests a model is mounted near the center of the test section and aerodynamic forces
and moments are measured at various combinations of pitch and yaw angles at a constant
airspeed. These tests use the UWAL six-component external balance located beneath the test
section (Figures 1 and 8).

3.2

Pressure Tests
This test involves mounting a model that has pressure ports which are read by the UWAL data
system. The resulting data provides a detailed pressure distribution over the model surface.
These tests can use UWAL-provided electronic pressure scanning (EPS) modules or
individual pressure transducers. More details concerning pressure measurements are in
Section 8.

3.3

Flow Visualization Tests

This test is identical to a force test except forces may or may not be measured depending on
the type of flow visualization technique. In either case balance data is monitored. Flow
visualization tests use various methods to "show" the path of the air flow on and/or around
the model. Available techniques are described in Section 10.

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4. The Facility

Figure 2: Cutaway View of Kirsten Wind Tunnel

4.1

Location
The Kirsten Wind Tunnel building is located on the U.W. campus, which is in the northern
part of the city of Seattle, along the west shore of Lake Washington. The campus is
approximately twenty miles from Seattle-Tacoma (Sea-Tac) International Airport. The cool
climate of Washington provides for comfortable testing year-round (summer temperatures
rarely exceed 85 F, winter temperatures normally in the 40s to 50s F).

4.2

Overview
The Kirsten Wind Tunnel building houses the Kirsten Wind Tunnel and is constructed of brick
and concrete. The building has three main levels. Doors can be secured to restrict access to
the test section, model preparation area, balance deck, and all of the second and third levels, if
necessary.

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4.3

Control Room
Located on the third floor of the building, the control room is where the tunnel is operated,
data is acquired then reduced, and the test is monitored. The tunnel operator's console has
controls for operating the tunnel, changing speed, changing model attitude, and acquiring
data.

4.4

Company Room
A company room is located adjacent to the control room to provide a convenient office for
the customer while testing. The company room has five desks and can be closed for privacy.
The company room has an exclusive telephone line for customer use, 206-616-5981, and a PC
that is networked to the data system for either online plotting or post-processing.

4.5

Model Shop
Located on the first floor is a model shop with 470 square feet of floor space for model
preparation and alterations. The model shop is furnished with the standard hand tools,
machine tools, and a precision surface plate of 151 x 51.5 inches. In addition, two fully
equipped shops within the Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics can be called upon to
fill the needs of our customers.

Figure 3: AA Department Machine Shop

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4.6

Fans
The wind is generated by two variable speed, seven-blade fans. Each fan is powered by a 500
hp dc electric motor. The fans are synchronized by a connecting axle to ensure the same fan
RPM for each tunnel circuit. Each blade is made of Honduras mahogany. Each fan has a
diameter of 14 feet 9 inches with approximately a -inch clearance between the blade tip and
tunnel wall.

Figure 4: Daily Inspection of One of the Fans

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4.7

Observation Deck
An observation area is adjacent to the test section and provides an unobstructed view of the
model through a 44 x 87 window. The observation deck has 108 square feet of usable
floor space. The floor of the observation deck consists of three sections that can be raised to
provide an unobstructed path for hoisting the model from the ground floor into the test
section.

4.8

Model Deck
The model deck is adjacent to the test section and located opposite of the observation deck.
The test section is entered by opening two, 48 x 60 doors. The model deck is designed for
minor model work and assembly. It contains commonly used supplies (model fillers, various
tapes, screws, trip grit, etc.), hand tools, a drill press, a grinder, and 53 square feet of counter
space to accommodate model changes.

5. Test Section
5.1

Dimensions
The test section has a rectangular cross-section 8 feet high, 12 feet wide, and is 10 feet long with
1.5 feet high (45) fillets in all four corners. The actual cross-sectional area is 91.5 square feet
due to the fillets. See Figure 7 for a cutaway view.

Figure 5: View From Diffuser Looking Into a Clean Test Section

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5.2

Construction
The test section is on the second floor of the building, level with both the observation deck
and the model deck.
Models are installed by opening the test section ceiling. An overhead 1-ton hoist allows the
models to be lifted from the ground floor and lowered into the test section through the test
section ceiling. The motorized ceiling moves on tracks to create a 108 x 117 entrance to
the test section. The test section can be viewed from the top through a 28 x 40 window.
Additional ceiling windows are available to view more of the model.
The test section floor is fabricated of removable 7/16 thick aluminum plates. The fore and
aft center plates can be interchanged with viewing windows to allow for observing the
underside of the model.
CL
SYMMETRY

21.0 in.

MODEL SUPPORT STRUT

AND STRUT FAIRING

45 FILLET

CL

27.0 in.

45 FILLET

120.0 in.

27.0 in.

18.0 in.

144.0 in.

Figure 6: Test Section Floor

The left side of the test section is the observation deck. It provides a view of the model
through a 44 x 87 window. The model deck also provides a view of the test section
through two 28 x 45 windows located in the two access doors. Opening both doors
provides a 95 x 60 entrance to the test section.
The test section is vented to the atmosphere by two vents (5 feet long, 2 inches wide) located
on the walls at the trailing edge of the test section. The vents keep the test section static
pressure equal to approximately atmospheric pressure.

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The upper-corner fillets have four 100-watt halogen lights on each side of the test section that
can be turned on/off in sets of two for obtaining the proper lighting conditions.

Figure 7: Cutaway View of the Test Section

5.3

Test Section Conditions

A detailed upflow and dynamic pressure calibration of the test section was conducted using a
five-hole probe and a NACA 0015 wing to determine the flow qualities. The upflow angle is 0.012 for normal tests. Testing with calibration and commercial models have shown a
negligible crossflow. A detailed survey of the test section using a hot-wire anemometer shows
a nominal turbulence intensity of 0.72%. The average year-round temperature is 52.0F with
an average pressure of 2090.2 psf (readings taken from SeaTac International Airport).

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6. Instrumentation
6.1

Dynamic Pressure Transducer

The dynamic pressure in the test section is measured by a precision differential pressure
transducer: Mensor model DPG II 1500. It has a full-scale range of 0.75 psi, with an
accuracy of 0.01% of full scale. The transducer is calibrated every six months using a
primary standard traceable to the National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST).

6.2

Test Section Static Pressure Transducer

The static pressure in the test section is measured by an absolute pressure transducer: Omega
model PX425-030AV. It has a full scale range of 0 to 30 psi with an accuracy of .05 % of
full scale.

6.3

Test Section Temperature RTD

The test section static temperature is measured by a Resistive Temperature Device (RTD),
manufactured by National Semiconductor. It has a full scale range of 5 to 300 degree
Fahrenheit with an accuracy of 1 degree Fahrenheit.

6.4

External Balance
The main balance is a six-component (three forces, three moments) external balance located
beneath the test section floor. The balance simultaneously measures all forces and moments
with respect to the wind axes at the virtual balance moment center located at the center of the
test section. These forces and moments are converted to voltages by electromagnetic
potentiometers. The output voltages are amplified and converted to digital numbers in
engineering units. The balance limits are:
Table 1: Balance Resolution and Limits

Balance Component
Lift
Drag
Side Force
Pitching Moment
Yawing Moment
Rolling Moment

Resolution
0.090 lbs
0.013 lbs
0.010 lbs
0.232 in.-lbs
0.205 in-lbs
0.169 in.-lbs

Full Scale Limit

2500 lbs
250 lbs
250 lbs
5000 in.-lbs
5000 in.-lbs
5000 in.-lbs

The external balance has passive damping for reducing vibrations induced by the model. All
signals from the external balance are sent through a 1 Hz low-pass filter before being sent to
the data acquisition computer.

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Figure 8: 6-Component External Balance

7. Probes
7.1

Five-Hole Probe
A five-hole probe can be used with the traverse rig to make flow velocity and angularity
measurements around a model or elsewhere in the test section. The probe pressures can be
reduced to give local velocity, cross-flow, and up-flow angles. The 7/8 probe is calibrated
and contains a static ring. Available probes include:
Table 2: Dimensions of Available Five-Hole Probes

Diameter (in.):
Length (in.):
7.2

7/8
10

3/8
4.75

1/4
3.75

0.19
4

Total & Static Probes

Several total, static, and pitot-static probes are available:

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Table 3: Dimensions of Available Total & Static Probes

Type:
Diameter (in.):
Length (in.):

7.3

Total
3/16
4.5

Precision Static
3/8
10

Pitot-Static
3/8
7/8
4 1/8
8.25, 9, 16.25,
22.5, 25.25

20 Wake Rake Probe

The UWAL survey rake can be used for studying the wakes of wings, tails, and/or nacelles:
20" span, 33 total heads, two static sources, and four claw-type yawheads. The following
figure gives a general layout.
Static Tube

8 totals at 1" spacing

17 totals at 1/4" spacing

8 totals at 1" spacing

Figure 9: Rake Probe Spacing

7.4

Boundary Layer Probes

The following boundary layer probes are designed for examining boundary layer profiles but
can also be used for examining a flow field in more detail by taking closely spaced pressures.
6" rake: 6" span, 41 total heads, and 4 evenly spaced static sources. The total head
spacing of 8 totals at 3/16" and 25 totals at 3/32".
5" L-shaped rake: 5" long leg, 1" short leg with 33 total heads and 3 evenly spaced static
sources. The short leg has 8 totals in increasing density, the long leg has 25 totals in
increasing density with a maximum density of 1 total per 1/16".
3" rake: 3" span, 19 total heads with the following spacing: 4 totals at 1/32", 4 totals at
1/16", 11 totals at 1/4".

7.5

Other Probes
Shielded total head tubes and a long static tube are also available for pressure measurements.

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8. Pressure Measurements
An electronic pressure scanning system (EPS) is the primary means for acquiring pressure data. It can
support customer-supplied EPS modules from Scanivalve or Pressure Systems Inc. UWAL has two
Scanivalve EPS modules: 1) 128-port, 5-psi range module using 64 transducers; 2) 32-port, 0.72-psi
range module. Both modules have an accuracy of 0.05% of the full scale range. The system can be
automatically calibrated in a matter of minutes. This system allows simultaneous recording of up to eight
modules. Quick disconnects can be sent to the customer for plumbing of model pressures prior to model
delivery.
UWAL also has an assortment of 1, 2.5, and 5 psi differential pressure transducers available for use. Each
transducer is calibrated on-site with a secondary pressure standard traceable to a primary standard.
In order to use the EPS modules, the model must use pressure tubing that has an outside diameter of
approximately 0.040 to 0.042-inches. Stainless steel tubing is normally used to make the pressure ports
in the model, then urethane tubing connects the pressure port tubing to the EPS module. Urethane and
bulged stainless steel tubing are available from the Scanivalve Corporation (800-935-5151). Urethane
tubing is stronger, more resilient to bending, and fits better that other types of flexible tubing.

9. Traverse Rig
The test section ceiling is on tracks and can be moved by an electric drive sideways across the tunnel. On
the ceiling is a carriage, likewise on tracks and motor driven, which may be moved fore and aft. The
carriage supports two struts which can be driven on vertical tracks. Probes can be mounted to the end of
the struts allowing accurate three-axes positioning anywhere in the test section within the physical limit
while the tunnel is operating. Traverse speed is two inches per second.

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10. Flow Visualization

Flow visualization can be used to show how the air moves over and around the model. The methods
below are readily available. Other methods can be accommodated by contacting UWAL. A summary of
flow visualization methods is included in the table below:
Table 4: Flow Visualization Comparison

Flow Vis.
Flow Vis.
Photos w/
Photos w/
Method
On Model Off Model Wind-On
Wind-Off
Smoke
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Oil*
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
China Clay
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Sublimation
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Minitufts*
Yes
No
Yes
No
Sewing thread*
Yes
No
Yes
No
Tuft Probe
No
Yes
Yes
No
* Ultraviolet light photography available for enhanced visibility.
10.1

Effect on
Data
Small
Small
Small
Small
Very Small
Small
Variable

Tufts
There are three types of tuft flow visualization techniques readily available at UWAL.
Fluorescent Minitufts: Small filaments of polyester monofilament thread soaked in a UV dye
are glued to the model surface. When the wind is turned on, the minitufts move in the
direction of the flow. A UV flash is used to cause the minitufts to fluoresce, making them
appear larger for better visibility. Still-photos are the only means for capturing the
minituft orientation.
Thread Tufts: Pieces of number 60 sewing thread are taped or glued to the model surface.
When the wind is turned on the tufts move in the direction of the flow. The sewing thread
can be further enhanced with UV lighting.
Tuft Probe: A probe with a single yarn tuft can be positioned anywhere in the test section
with the use of the traverse rig.
Advantages: Allows flow visualization at any model position. Yarn tufts are easy to install.
A tuft grid provides a view of the flow pattern over a large area. Minitufts have a
negligible effect on force data. Sewing thread makes a good tuft due to its clear visibility
in UV or normal light, it has smaller flow effects compared with yarn, and its ease of
application compared to minitufts.
Disadvantages: Does not provide a detailed flow pattern since they are constantly moving
with the air flow. Minitufts require a more time to install but can be left on the model.

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Figure 10: Fluorescent Minitufts on a Wing

10.2

China Clay
A mixture of kerosene, kaolin powder, and DayGlo pigment is applied to the model surface
with the wind off. When the wind is turned on it causes the kerosene to evaporate, leaving
streaks of clay powder in the form of the flow pattern.
Advantages: Easiest method to setup and apply. Provides lasting flow pattern on the model
for photos when the wind is off. Clearly shows flow pattern; shows flow separations well.
Disadvantages: Cannot vary model position during flow visualization. Model must be a dark
color, preferably flat black, for contrasting the powder against the model surface.
Pressure taps must be protected to prevent clogging.

Figure 11: China Clay On a Wing

10.3

Smoke

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Using a custom-made smoke generator and probe, a stream of white smoke can be inserted
anywhere in the test section by positioning the probe using the traverse rig or by hand.
Advantages: Easy setup and quick repositioning of the probe allows for viewing flow patterns
around any portion of the model.
Disadvantages: Extended use fills the tunnel with smoke. The tunnel must be vented to
remove the smoke before further flow visualization can be used. An oily residue is left on
whatever the smoke touches. Furthermore, pressure taps must be protected to prevent
clogging.

Figure 12: Smoke Flow Visualization Over a Wing

10.4

Oil
A mixture of oil or oil substitute and dye can be applied to the model surface. When the wind
is turned on, the oil and dye particles slowly move in the direction of the local flow. For
improved visibility of the oil flow, an ultraviolet dye can be used such that when illuminated
with an ultraviolet light the dye fluoresces to clearly show the flow pattern.
Advantages: Provides somewhat lasting air flow pattern on the model for photos when the
wind is off. Gravity will slowly change the oil pattern. Clearly shows flow pattern,
especially the transition between turbulent and laminar flow as well as separation. UV oil
is the most photogenic of the flow visualization methods.
Disadvantages: After time, all of the oil will run off the model. Model must be a dark color,
preferably flat black, for contrasting the oil mixture against the model surface. Pressure
taps must be protected to prevent clogging.

Figure 13: UV Oil On Wing Showing Transition Point

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10.5

Sublimation
A mixture of naphthalene and trichloroethane is applied to the model surface with the wind
off. When the wind is turned on, it causes the chemicals to sublimate. Turbulent areas cause
the chemicals to sublimate faster than laminar areas.
Advantages: Shows areas of turbulent and laminar flow.
Disadvantages: Cannot vary model position during flow visualization. Model must be a dark
color (preferably flat black) for contrasting the white chemicals against the model surface.
Pressure taps must be protected to prevent clogging. Flow pattern disappears with time.
Chemicals must be chosen properly for the tunnel speed and temperature to obtain a good
sublimation rate.

Figure 14: Sublimating Chemicals Showing Transition Point On a Wing

11. Photography
To assist the customer in matching photographs/images with test conditions, a detailed photo log is
created and updated by UWAL personnel throughout the test. Photographs and images taken by UWAL
are kept on file for future referral.
11.1

35mm Camera
A 35mm SLR camera with a zoom lens is available to provide the customer with photodocumentation of the test.

11.2

Digital Camera
A digital camera is used as the standard for all photo-documentation of tests. Digital images
are typically saved in JPEG format and provided to the customer on CD-ROM at the end of
the test. Typical image resolution is 2048x1536 pixels. Other digital formats can be
supported if necessary.

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11.3

Hi8 Video Cameras

Two Hi8-format video cameras are available for recording such things as active flow
visualization. It is capable of playback without needing a separate monitor. Both cameras can
be connected to the in-house video system for remote recording in the Control Room to a
VHS tape. Additional VHS video cameras are available if needed.

11.4

Digital Video Camera

A high-quality, 3-CCD digital video camera is available for recording such things as active
flow visualization, typical test sequence, promotional video, etc. The final product of the
digital video process is an MPEG-1 (352x240 pixels) format video file with an introduction
describing the video clip. MPEG-2 (760x480 pixels) format video is also available but may
not be viewable on some older machines. The digital video files are included on the final data
CD-ROM.

11.5

Normal Lighting
Four 500-watt halogen lamps and three studio-quality, 600-watt quartz lamps are available to
provide the optimal illumination for photography. The normal test section lights can easily be
replaced with photo-flood lights for better illumination. These four lamps combined with the
test section lights provide the customer with a versatile lighting system.

11.6

Ultraviolet Lighting
A Norman P2000D power unit with two LH2000 lamp heads are available as a normal light
source with settings ranging from 400 w-s to 2000 w-s. A special filter can be added so that
only ultraviolet light is emitted. For constant ultraviolet lighting, two black fluorescent lamps
can be set up. Each lamp unit has four 30-watt bulbs.

11.7

Image Processing
Color film can be developed off-campus within an hour. Black and white film can be
developed on-campus within 24 hours. A digital color scanner is available for digitizing
photos.

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12. Two Dimensional Model Mounting

2D-wall inserts can be mounted in the tunnel test section to obtain two-dimensional flow for testing
models. The model still uses the main UWAL external balance. The walls extend from the floor to the
ceiling of the test section with a span of 41.5-inches between them. Dynamic pressure is measured using
four manifolded total ports and four manifolded static ports located 46.5 inches ahead of the test section
centerline. A detailed upflow angle and dynamic pressure calibration of the 2D test section, using a fivehole probe, shows the upflow is -0.333. End plate drag effects can be determined during the test by
using the 20 wake rake to measure the wake deficit, from which a drag effects can be calculated.

41.5"

52.5"

144.0"

43.00"
35.75"

48.00 "

CL

96.00 "

CL

58.50 "

36.00 "

36.00 "

144.00 "

Figure 15: Top and Side Views of 2D Inserts

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A static pressure gradient of -0.0050 CP/ft exists in the 2D test section that is not present in the 3D test
section. The gradient is present because the 2D inserts prevent the test section from being directly vented
to the atmosphere, combined with the increase in boundary layer thickness on the 2D walls. The static
pressure gradient is accounted for in data reduction by applying a buoyancy correction to drag.

Figure 16: 2D Test Section (Top View)

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13. Three Dimensional Model Mounting

13.1

Model Installation
Upon delivery of the model, UWAL personnel will assist in the assembly and mounting of the
model. To help unload large models, a forklift is kept on-site. Once the model has been
partially assembled, a hoist is used to lift the model from the ground floor and into the test
section. UWAL has a set of lifting eyes that can be attached to the model if the model has
threaded holes at least deep for a 3/8-16 bolt.

13.2

General Mounting Information

The model mounting strut extends from the external balance through the floor. A two- or
three-point fork connects the mounting strut to the model by a set of pins. The strut and
fork yaws with the model allowing both pitch and yaw angles to be set. The strut is covered
by a streamlined fairing (see Figures 16 and 17). All fork attachments/fittings should be
recessed into the bottom of the model surface (e.g. wing or body) and closed off with cover
plates to reduce aerodynamic interference.
The pitch angle ranges for the two- and three-point mounting systems are provided in the
respective drawings (see Figures 18, 24, and 25). These ranges are based on two criteria:
1) The distance from center-to-center of the pitch arm pin and the model pivot point
is either 5.0 or 6.0 inches.
2) The model reference plane being parallel to the plane connecting all three model
mounting points at zero angle of attack.
Yaw angle ranges for all mounts are approximately 38. Actual pitch and yaw angle ranges
depend on the model geometry.
Since the measured pitching moment cannot exceed 5,000 in.-lb., the trunnion should be near
the aerodynamic center (25% MAC for an aircraft) to maximize the available range of the
pitching moment due to aerodynamic loads.

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BALANCE & TUNNEL CENTERLINES

28.50 "
13.00 "
21.00 " *

WIND

48.00 "

31.75 "
26.50 " *

* = Measurements for the truncated fairing only.

Figure 17: Fairing for Model Support Strut

Fairing cross-section is a modified NACA 66-018 airfoil.

FAIRING CAP
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

THICKNESS
7/8
1-3/8
1-3/4
7/8
7/8
1-3/4

TRAILING EDGE
NON-TRUNCATED
NON-TRUNCATED
NON-TRUNCATED
TRUNCATED
TRUNCATED
TRUNCATED

To determine the total height from the test section floor, add the cap thickness to the fairing height
(31.75).
A strut base plug fouling ring can be used with fairing caps 4.3 and 4.6. It is only available for use with
the Single Strut. Fouling ring thickness is 7/8 with an outside diameter of 4-1/4. All other caps have
built-in fouling circuits.

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13.2. Three-Point
The standard model mount consists of a "V" shaped yaw fork and a pitch arm (see Figures 17
and 18). The model pitches about the upper end of the yaw fork and the whole assembly
rotates in yaw. Fitting Nos. 3 and 4 are usually used with the yaw forks and No. 2 for the
pitch arm when mounted in a wing.
The yaw forks designated by -H place the model trunnion at the balance moment center.
The -H yaw forks usually mount into the wing (for wing alone model build up). For large
models, yaw forks 10-H or 14-H are recommended since they are stiffer in yaw and roll.
The two yaw forks designated -L place the trunnion five inches below the balance moment
center. The -L forks can be used for a high wing model with a deep fuselage to keep the wing
near the tunnel centerline.

Figure 18: Fork With Pitch Arm

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Figure 19: Model Mounting Forks

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Figure 20: Model Mount Fork Attachments

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13.3

Two-Point
The two-point model mount consists of a strut and a pitch arm. There are several different
types of struts available (see Figures 20, 24, 25, and 26). A two-point mount is normally used
for testing since it reduces aerodynamic interference and tare effects compared to a threepoint mount.
The Single Strut is the usual mount for the majority of aircraft tests. It has a male clutch-face
(24-tooth, 60included angle) which attaches to a female trunnion block. A single bolt
threads down through the trunnion block and into the Single Strut. UWAL has several
trunnion blocks of various sizes for use by customers. If the customer needs a special set of
pins to be used with an existing trunnion block, it is recommended that the block be sent to
the customer for precise fitting. Please check with UWAL on availability of the trunnion
blocks and pins.
Three-dimensional models exist for the trunnion blocks shown on the following pages. The
parts were modeled using UniGraphics software. Electronic files containing the 3D model are
available in either UniGraphics or IGES (International Graphic Exchange Standard) formats
upon request.
The table below indicates the location of the trunnion with regard to the center of the test
section. These values are needed for transferring moments from the balance moment center
(BMC) to the desired model moment centers specified by the customer.
TRUNNION BLOCK
Small
Large
Offset

X (in.)
0.0
0.0
-1.318

Z (in.)
0.0
0.0
-0.137

The Single Strut has a 0.75 diameter internal tube for routing instrumentation cables. A tall
fairing cap can be installed on the fairing to cover the cables as they exit the single strut tube.
This further reduces aerodynamic effects caused by the cables since they are covered by the
cap.

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Figure 21: Single Strut With Pitch Arm Installed (2-point mount)

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Figure 22: Small Trunnion Block for Single Strut

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Figure 23: Large Trunnion Block for Single Strut

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Figure 24: Offset Trunnion Block for Single Strut

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Figure 25: Single Strut

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Figure 26: Round Strut No. 1

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Figure 27: Round Strut No. 2

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13.4

One-Point
Any of the single struts can be used to support a model from a single point. A one-point
mount should only be used with small models at low airspeed to minimize the chance of
structural failure.
Another possibility is to mount the model directly to a yaw turntable that lies flush with the 8
x 8ground plane. The turntable is three feet in diameter and sits 6.25 inches above the test
section floor. A yaw turntable allows for 30of yaw. By mounting the model to a second
plate that mounts to the first turntable, the orientation of the two plates can be changed to
allow for 180of yaw.

13.5

Special Mounting Systems

It is not unusual for a model to need a special mount created for a test since there are no
standards for the industry. If proper model drawings are provided, UWAL can help in
designing and manufacturing the appropriate model mount (see Auxiliary Services, Model
Design/Construction).

13.6

Ground Planes
To simulate ground effect for aircraft and other vehicles, a "ground plane" is placed in the test
section. Several ground planes are available. The standard ground plane is a -thick
plywood platform spanning the test section and extending 48 inches upstream from the center
of the test section and 96 inches downstream. A leading edge extension of 24 inches can be
added if needed. The vertical positions of the standard ground plane are listed below.
Table 5: Standard Ground Plane Positions

Positions
(in. from floor to top of G.P.)
25-5/8 to 40-1/8 by approx.
1/4"
40 5/8
40 7/8
41 1/8
41 7/8
43 1/8

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Figure 28: Boeing 747-400 Model With Standard Ground Plane

Additionally, a small ground plane is available for use with a yaw turntable. The small ground
plane measures 8x 8and has a fixed height of six inches above the test section floor.

Figure 29: Cargo Crane With 8 x 8 Ground Plane

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14. Model Support Effects

Model support equipment has an aerodynamic effect on the model. Several methods are available to
correct the data for model support interference. These methods involve determining a strut/fork tare.
14.1

Standard Fork Tares

UWAL has conducted tests with an image strut installed to determine the effects of all UWAL
forks on an NACA 0015 3D wing model. The tests produced standard tares based upon the
lift of the wing so that they can be applied to an aircraft model.

14.2

Image Strut/Fork
UWAL can install an image strut/fork, fairing, and pitch arm to mimic the model support in
order to determine the actual aerodynamic effects (i.e. tare and interference) on the
customers model. The whole strut tare process is time consuming since it involves running
the model through two more sets of configurations, inverted and inverted with an image strut,
in order to evaluate the effects for the desired upright configurations.

Figure 30: Image of Single Strut & Fairing With Boeing 757 Model

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15. Powered Testing

The Kirsten Wind Tunnel is well suited for powered testing. A streamlined tube can be used with any of
the standard forks for housing cooling water hoses, power cables, control lines, etc. If a powered model
is mounted on the Single Strut, tubing can be routed through its 0.75 diameter internal tube.

Figure 31: Powered Model Mounted on 14-H Fork, Hose Strut, and Pitch Arm.

15.1

Auxiliary Model Power

UWAL has a three-phase variable frequency power supply for powering models equipped
with motors for turning propellers, rotors, etc. The power supply consists of two alternators
driven from an induction motor through magnetic clutches.
The power supply is remotely controlled with one control box for each alternator if run
independently, or using a single box if both alternators are used in parallel. These control
units can be placed in any location near the test section for convenient operation. The power
leads from the unit terminate in a junction box near the main balance. Special leads from this
junction box into the model are usually made for each test.

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Table 6: Auxiliary Model Power Specifications

Power Output:*
Maximum Current:
Voltage Range:
Frequency Range:

Each Alternator
125 KVA (~165 Hp)
130 amps
0.5 to 1.50 volts per cycle
0 to 450 Hz

Both Alternators in Parallel

250 KVA (~330 Hp)
260 amps
0.50 to 1.50 volts per cycle
0 to 450 Hz
* At a power factor of 0.8

15.2

Electric Motor
UWAL has a Task Corporation, 52 hp electric motor (Model 17060) for use in powered
models. The specifications are listed below:
Table 7: 52 hp Task Motor Specifications

RPM
Phase
Frequency
Current
Volts
Water required

11,500
3
400 Hz
65 amps
440
1.6 gal./min.

TACHOMETER LEADS

4 COOLANT INLETS
3/8" O.D. TUBING
1.75"

4.00" dia

0.75" dia

0.88"

0.65"
16.450"

1/2 - 20 UNF-3A, 0.75" LONG

3 POWER LEADS
#12 AWG X 18.0 LONG
2 PAIR IRON & CONSTANTAN
THERMOCOUPLE LEADS

Figure 32: 52 hp Task Motor Drawing

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16. Data Acquisition System

16.1

Hardware
The data system consists of a dual-processor 150-MHz Pentium Pro PC with a 16-bit analogto-digital converter. It is networked with all other computers in the computer room using a
Microsoft Windows NT network. To avoid network interference, a serial cable is used to
transfer data between the on-line plotting PC and the data acquisition PC immediately after it
has been recorded.

16.2

Data Processing
The data system nominally has 30 channels with two additional channels for model
positioning. Each channel of the data acquisition system has an associated signal conditioner
and amplifier. For a normal force test only seven of the twenty available channels are used.
Data are taken at a sampling rate of 100 samples per second. Data are only taken if the
dynamic pressure is on condition, that is if the dynamic pressure is within 1% of the target
value. Each test point consists of five seconds of on-condition data. The on-condition criteria
can be changed to meet individual test requirements, for example, on-condition only if the
velocity is within 1 ft/sec.

16.3

Daily Calibration Process

In order to maintain the integrity of the data, a balance calibration is conducted twice a day by
hanging check weights at half-scale for each component. The calibration (BALCAL) includes
a system calibration (SYSCAL). The system calibration automatically checks and corrects the
amplifier outputs and analog-to-digital converter (ADC) using a programmable voltage
standard (PVS). The operator is notified if any portions of the data acquisition system
provide outputs that are out of pre-established tolerances.

16.4

Model Positioning
The data acquisition system moves the model through a preprogrammed set of angles. The
list of desired angles can be a series of subsets. An example for pitching the model: -10to 2by 2, -2to +2by 1,+2to 32by 4. Furthermore, if the actual angle of the model is
not within 0.02of the target angle, the system can be setup to retry until the actual angle is
within tolerance. The tolerance is also defined by the operator.
A model position calibration is conducted for each model. Angles of yaw are measured after
determining the yaw = 0 point. Angles of attack are measured by an internal model
accelerometer. Each model should be built with a cavity for housing the UWAL model
accelerometer. See Section 20: Miscellaneous for more details.

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If the model cannot accommodate the internal model accelerometer, the angles of attack are
determined by an encoder that measures the position of the pitch arm. The encoder reading is
correlated to the model angle of attack using a precision inclinometer (0.01 resolution).
The calibration provides angles of attack to within 0.02. A detailed drawing of the UWAL
inclinometer is in the Section 20, to be used in creating a mounting block for the customers
model. The customer is responsible for providing a reference surface for placement of the
inclinometer.
16.5

Auxiliary Instrumentation
Inputs to the system may be either full or half bridge resistive transducers or dc voltages.
Transducer excitation is normally 5 or 12 volts. The amplifiers are gain switchable in ten
steps to give a full scale input from 8 to 245 millivolts. In addition, the amplifiers have a tenstep low pass filter with cutoffs from 1/8 to 256 Hz, normally set at 1 Hz.

17. Data Reduction System

17.1

Hardware
The UWAL data reduction system can call upon several different computers to reduce the
data with either UWAL codes or customer provided codes. The standard data reduction
system uses a network of PCs running Windows NT. Other available computers include a
DEC Vaxstation 3200 and DEC Microstation II. If the customer desires, the UWAL network
can be connected to the Internet for data transfer.

17.2

Software
Data are typically corrected using Visual BASIC programs. Programs can be written on-site
if the need arises. PCs use Microsoft Windows NT and have word processing, spreadsheet,
and plotting packages for use by the customer. Standard corrections include balance
interactions, blockage, wall effects, flow angularity, and weight tares. Other corrections can
be applied to the data, such as strut tares, as the customer desires.

17.3

Storage Media
UWAL can provide data on a variety of electronic media. The standard format is a PCformatted, CD-ROM. UWAL also supports 100MB Zip disks and 1.44MB floppy disks.
Non-standard formats can be accommodated as well. Non-standard formats increase the turnaround time for final data since the conversion takes place at the main computing center on
campus. Data can also be transferred via the Internet (see Auxiliary Services).

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18. Data Plotting

18.1

On-Line Plots
On-line plots of corrected coefficient data are available on screen within two seconds after a data
point is acquired. A PC is dedicated to plotting the data point-by-point to as many as 25 different
grids. The grids are updated and displayed on a 17 color monitor for the customer to view
immediately after the data are recorded during the run. The customer can print any grid to a laser
printer for closer analysis. Plots are available in either 11 x 17 or 8 x 11 paper sizes.
The on-line plotting system applies balance interactions, weight tares, flow angularity corrections,
wall corrections, blockage corrections, and transfers moments to three customer-specified model
moment centers. Data are available in the wind, body, and stability axes.
A desktop personal computer is located in the company room for use by the customer. It is
connected to the local network of PCs so that the customer can plot either on-line or final data at
his/her convenience. The off-line version of the plotting program allows the user more flexibility
in plotting and is distributed with the test data to the customer. The PC also allows the customer
to view the digital configuration photos taken by UWAL personnel.

18.2

Final Plots
The final data set has more detailed weight tares, wall corrections, and can have additional tares
applied. Final plots of the corrected data are available at the Test Engineer's request. Final plots
are produced on 11" x 17" or 8" x 11" paper using the off-line plotting software. Each plot can
be printed with legends, multiple title lines, and additional notes. Final plots are generally
available one week after test completion.
However, the customer has the option of doing the plotting by him/herself with the PC-based
UWAL off-line plotting program. This option allows plots to be created during and after the test.
Please see the Appendix for a sample plot.

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19. Auxiliary Services

19.1

Model Design/Construction
UWAL has aeronautical engineers who can assist in the design and supervision of
manufacturing model parts through the Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics machine
shop. For larger projects involving the design and construction of complete models, local
model builders can be subcontracted. Please contact UWAL for a list of model builders.
If special electrical instrumentation is required for a test, UWAL can call upon several
electrical engineers to assist in the design and/or setup of the equipment.

19.2

Data Analysis
Faculty and staff from within the Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics can be called
upon for their services in the fields of airplane design, gas and fluid dynamics, structures,
control systems, propulsion, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). For customers with
non-aero needs, faculty from around the campus can also be consulted. Rates for consulting
services are determined on an individual basis.

19.3

Copy & Duplication Services

UWAL has a standard 8x11-format photocopier near the company room to meet the
photocopying needs of the customer. UWAL also has access to the Department of
Aeronautics & Astronautics larger photocopier which is capable of handling double-sided
copies, document feeding, and paper sizes up to 11x17. For additional copy services, a
University Copy Center is located a short walk from the Kirsten Wind Tunnel and is capable
of producing color photocopies, 11x17 copies, etc.

19.4

Internet Access
UWAL can provide the customer with a computer account on one of the Department of
Aeronautics & Astronautics computer systems. The account allows the customer Internet
access and use of email.

19.5

Vinyl Letters & Logos

The University of Washington Sign Shop can produce vinyl letters and logos with adhesive
backing for placement on the model. Please provide one week notice so that the shop has
enough time to produce the desired product. Typical costs for such projects are less than
$100.

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20. Miscellaneous
20.1

Model Acclerometer Mount

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20.2

Inclinometer Drawings & Images

Image of Inclinometer (side view)

Inclinometer Mounted on Wing Reference Block

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Drawing of Inclinometer Base & Front View

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20.3

Sample Run Log

The generic run log is customized for each test. Below is a sample run log used to track the
progress of the test. The run log information is also stored digitally for easy recall using a
UWAL-provided software package called the Wind Tunnel Data Organizer.

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20.4

Sample Plot
Below is a sample of what the plotting software looks like that is used by the customer to
produce final data plots.

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20.5

Driving Instructions to UWAL

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Travel on I-5 Northbound to Seattle

Take the exit for the NE 45th and 50th Streets (University of Washington exit)
Stay in the far right lane and turn right on 45th Street
Remain in the right lane until you get to 17th Avenue
Turn right into the University of Washington campus.
You must stop at the gate at the entrance and pay for parking. They will provide you with
a more detailed map, like the one below.

Campus Map - Follow the purple line to UWAL

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20.6

Air Speed Conversion Chart

The following chart can be used to determine the approximate air speed in the test section for a
given dynamic pressure (q). The tunnel is operated by setting a dynamic pressure. The
conversion from dynamic pressure to air speed assumes Standard Day Conditions (temperature =
59F, pressure = 29.92 inHg, 2116 psf, 14.7 psi).
Re/ft is the Reynolds number per foot of reference length. It uses a Standard Day kinematic
viscosity of 1.565x10-4 ft2/sec.
Table 8: Conversion Table From Dynamic Pressure to Air Speed

q (psf)

MPH

Knots

19.8

17.2

29.0

8.8

31.8

185,348

44.2

38.4

64.9

19.8

71.2

414,450

10

62.5

54.3

91.7

28.0

100.7

586,121

15

76.6

66.5

112.3

34.2

123.3

717,848

20

88.4

76.9

129.7

39.5

142.3

828,900

25

98.9

85.9

145.0

44.2

159.1

926,738

30

108.3

94.1

158.9

48.4

174.3

1,015,191

35

117.0

101.7

171.6

52.3

188.3

1,096,531

40

125.1

108.7

183.5

55.9

201.3

1,172,241

45

132.7

115.3

194.6

59.3

213.5

1,243,350

50

139.8

121.5

205.1

62.5

225.1

1,310,606

55

146.7

127.5

215.1

65.6

236.0

1,374,575

60

153.2

133.1

224.7

68.5

246.5

1,435,697

65

159.5

138.6

233.9

71.3

256.6

1,494,320

70

165.5

143.8

242.7

74.0

266.3

1,550,730

75

171.3

148.8

251.2

76.6

275.6

1,605,158

80

176.9

153.7

259.4

79.1

284.7

1,657,800

85

182.3

158.4

267.4

81.5

293.4

1,708,821

90

187.6

163.0

275.2

83.9

302.0

1,758,362

95

192.8

167.5

282.7

86.2

310.2

1,806,545

100

197.8

171.9

290.1

88.4

318.3

1,853,476

Page 49

ft / sec m / sec km / hr

UNIVERSITY

OF

Re / ft

WASHINGTON AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY