John Larson Onay

Subject AP
Gawain 10
Thailand
I

INTRODUCTION

Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand (Prathet Thai, or Land of the Free), country in Southeast
Asia. Thailand is the only Southeast Asian country never to have been occupied by any European or
other foreign power, except in war. The country was an absolute monarchy from 1782 until 1932, when
rebels seized power in a coup and established a constitutional monarchy. Since then, Thailand has
come under the rule of many governments, both civil and military. The country was known as Siam
until 1939 (when it was renamed Thailand), and again for a few years in the late 1940s. In 1949 the
name Thailand was adopted a second time.
Central Thailand is dominated by a large fertile plain, formed by the countrys chief river, the Chao
Phraya, and its tributaries. Much of the countrys rice and other crops are grown in this region.
Mountains and plateaus surround the central plain on the west, north, and east. The western mountain
ranges extend south onto the Malay Peninsula (Malaya). Bangkok, located on the Chao Phraya near the
Gulf of Thailand, is Thailands capital and largest city.
Thai people form the large majority of Thailands population, and most of them practice Theravada
Buddhism. Other ethnic groups within the population include Chinese, Malays, and indigenous hill
peoples, such as the Hmong and Karen. Thailand is known for its highly refined classical music and
dance and for a wide range of folk arts. Traditionally based on agriculture, Thailands economy began
developing rapidly in the 1980s.
The Introduction to this article was contributed by Philip Stott.

II

LAND AND RESOURCES OF THAILAND

Thailand is bordered on the west and northwest by Myanmar (formerly Burma); on the northeast and
east by Laos and Cambodia; and on the south by the Gulf of Thailand (also known as the Gulf of Siam,
the northwestern portion of the South China Sea), peninsular Malaysia, and the Andaman Sea. With an
area of 513,115 sq km (198,115 sq mi), Thailand is similar in size to France. Its distinctive shape is
often compared to an elephants head, with the trunk extending south into the slender Malay
Peninsula. This unusual shape means that Thailand is more than twice as long from north to south
(about 1,770 km/1,100 mi) as it is wide from east to west (about 800 km/500 mi). The country as a
whole pivots around the Gulf of Thailand.

Natural Regions

Thailand comprises five major natural regions. The first is the countrys heartland: a wide alluvial plain
whose fertile soils are replenished by the Chao Phraya and other rivers flowing out of the northern
mountains. This central plain has been described as one of the rice bowls of Asia because of its high
agricultural productivity. The plain was originally a swamp, created by a much older river system that
was partially submerged when the sea level rose at the end of the last Ice Age (about 10,000 years
ago). The plain is still subject to severe flooding during the wet season of the southwest monsoon
(approximately April to September).
Thailands second natural region consists of mountain ranges lying north of the central plain. Oriented
on a north-south axis, the ranges are formed of granite and limestone. Separating them are valleys,

where the first Thai settled between the 9th and the 14th centuries. Thailands highest mountain, Doi
Inthanon, rises among the northern mountains southwest of the city of Chiang Mai to a height of 2,595
m (8,514 ft). The northern ranges are part of a wider mountain system that was created when sections
of the Indo-Australian plate moved north, pressing against the Eurasian continental plate and forcing
up the Himalayas and the mountains of Indonesia. See also Plate Tectonics.
Thailands third natural region, which lies to the west along the border with Myanmar, is also marked
by north-south trending mountains. These mountains create a natural frontier that is breached at
Three Pagodas Pass, which has been a strategic crossing point and defense outpost throughout
Thailands history.
To the east of the central plain, the Khorat Plateau, an undulating sandstone area that rarely rises
above 200 m (660 ft), forms the fourth natural region. Dry and infertile, the plateau is drained by
tributaries of the Mekong River.
Lastly, a long peninsulapart of the greater Malay Peninsulamakes up the south of the country,
forming the fifth region. Although dominated by north-south mountains, this region is also noted for its
coastal beaches and its many islands, some formed of limestone.

Rivers

The central river of Thailand is the Chao Phraya, also known in Thailand as Menam (Mother of
Waters) Chao Phraya. Along with a number of shifting, unstable distributaries, the Chao Phraya drains
the central plain into the Gulf of Thailand. The river forms at Nakhon Sawan, the head of the central
plain, where it receives the waters of four other important rivers, the Nan, Ping, Wang, and Yom. These
rivers flow out from the northern mountains. Downstream, the Chao Phraya is fed by waters from the
Pa Sak River flowing from the edge of the Khorat Plateau in the east. At its mouth, the Chao Phraya is
tidal and is fringed with nipa palms. The river is subject to both flooding and drought. In areas subject
to such frequent flooding, the inhabitants adapted by developing the traditional Thai stilt house.
Thailands other important rivers are the Chi and the Mun, which drain the Khorat Plateau eastward
into the Mekong River.

Coastline

Thailand has a long and intricate coastline measuring 3,200 km (2,000 mi). It faces the Andaman Sea
in the west and the Gulf of Thailand in the east and south. The coast is characterized both by rocky
shoreline and more gentle shorelines with mangrove swamps, beaches, and offshore coral reefs.
Resorts built on Thailands beaches are popular tourist destinations, and some, such as Pattaya in the
southeast and Hua Hin in the south, have become particularly famous.

Plant and Animal Life

Thailands natural vegetation includes a wide range of forest types. In the south, tropical
semievergreen rain forests are most common. In the north, two types of forests grow: monsoon forests,
characterized by dense-growing, broadleaf deciduous trees, and savanna forests, in which grasses and
sedges (grasslike flowering plants with triangular stems) grow beneath open stands of widely spaced
trees. During the dry season, in both the monsoon and savanna forests, the trees shed their leaves and
fires can occur. The monsoon forests are particularly noted for their useful species of trees and plants,
including teak, which is highly valued for its strength and durability, and many types of bamboo. The
forests abound in orchids, which are widely collected and grown in gardens.
Many animal species inhabit Thailands forests. Elephants, traditionally used as beasts of burden, are
raised in captivity but also live in the wild. Other large animals native to Thailand include the
rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, gaur (wild ox), water buffalo, and gibbon. Thailand has more than 50 species
of snakes, including several poisonous varieties. Crocodiles are numerous, as are fish and birds. Other
animals, such as the Schomburgks deer of the central plain, have become extinct.

Natural Resources

Thailand possesses a range of mineral resources. Tin is mined in the peninsula. Important gemstones,
such as sapphires, are found in the southeast, and coal reserves, particularly lignite, are in the north.
Fish are abundant in rivers and coastal waters. In addition to being consumed domestically, fish are
also exported.

Climate

Thailand experiences a typical monsoon climate. Winds blow from the northeast during the winter
months of October to March or April (known as the dry season), while rain-bearing monsoon winds
blow from the southwest during the summer months of April or May to September (the wet season).
This remarkable annual wind reversal is related to changes in air pressure and temperature taking
place above the high Tibetan Plateau. Due to these shifting winds, Thailands climate varies markedly
throughout the year. Conditions depend on the direction of the winds in relation to the north-south
trending mountain systems.
During the wet season each year, average rainfall is 1,500 mm (60 in), and during the dry season,
rainfall averages between 150 and 250 mm (6 and 10 in). The Thai portion of the Malay Peninsula
typically receives a large amount of rainfall, averaging 2,600 mm (100 in) per year, whereas
northeastern Thailand normally experiences much less rainfall (1,300 mm/50 in per year).
Temperatures are somewhat higher inland than they are along the coast, except at points of high
elevation. In the south and center of the country, temperatures vary little from month to month, while
in the northern hills temperatures are cooler during the wet season. In Bangkok, highs average 35C
(95F) in April (usually the hottest month) but fall to 21C (70F) in December.

Environmental Issues

Many environmentalists regard the loss of forest in Thailand as a serious problem. In 1960 Thailand
was more than 50 percent forested. Since then, however, deforestation has eliminated over half of
Thailands woodlands. Forests now cover 28 percent of the country, and deforestation continues at a
rate of 0.6 percent per year. Some environmentalists claim that deforestation has caused major
landslides, lowered the water table, affected local climates, and reduced animal and plant diversity.
More than 30 mammal species, for example, including the tiger, are threatened with local extinction.
The destruction of coastal mangrove swamps and the resulting movement of sediment into the sea
have damaged both fisheries and coral reefs. In and around Thailands cities, rivers and canals are
heavily polluted. Notorious traffic congestion and air pollution afflict Bangkok.
The Land and Resources section of this article was contributed by Philip Stott.

III

PEOPLE AND SOCIETY OF THAILAND

Thailand (known until 1939 as Siam) has never been heavily populated. In 1668 an Indian king was
reported to have commented somewhat disparagingly to a Siamese visitor that the King of Golconda
is a king of men, while your king is only a king of the forests and the mosquitoes! By the 1800s
Thailands population remained low at 2,000,000, and by 1950 it had risen to only 20,041,628. By
2008 the total population had increased to 65,493,298, giving a population density of 128 persons per
sq km (332 per sq mi), still one of the lowest in Asia.
Residents of cities are 32 percent of Thailands inhabitants. More than 10 percent is concentrated in
Bangkok, where serious problems of overcrowding do exist. Since World War II, a significant number of
rural Thai have moved from the countryside to cities in search of better economic opportunities. Many
Thai people also have migrated abroad either on a permanent basis, mainly to the United States and
Canada, or on a temporary one, as migrant laborers, to other Southeast Asian countries (such as
Singapore) and to countries of the Middle East.

With an annual rate of population growth of 0.6 percent, Thailands population is expected to double in
108 years. However, family size is falling. The Thai have a long tradition of family planning and the use
of contraception, which partly reflects the fact that women gain status through their ability to trade
rather than through family size. In 2008 the birthrate was 13.6 births per 1,000 people, and the
average number of children per woman was 1.6. The proportion of the Thai population that is elderly
has grown in recent decades, with 8 percent of the population age 65 or older in 2008. This number is
expected to reach 14 percent by 2025.

Principal Cities

Bangkok, known in Thai as Krung Thep (City of Angels), is Thailands capital and largest city, and it
dominates the country politically and economically. A seaport located in the southern part of the
central plain on the estuary of the Chao Phraya, it became the capital of Siam in 1782, following Thon
Buri, which was the capital from 1767 to 1782, and Ayutthaya (1351-1767). Bangkok is a vibrant city,
in which the old blends with the new. Within the city, traditional, multicolored temples (wat) and royal
palaces are dwarfed by modern skyscrapers. Bangkok suffers from notorious traffic congestion, annual
flooding, and severe air pollution. Migration to Bangkok from north and northeast Thailand has swelled
the citys population.
Other important Thai cities include Nakhon Ratchasima, an industrial city in east Thailand; Nonthaburi,
a suburb of Bangkok; Chiang Mai, the largest city in the northern mountains; and Songkhla, a coastal
city in the southern peninsula. Chiang Mai and Songkhla are noted for their tourist attractions.

Ethnic Groups

Although the majority of Thailands people (about 75 percent) are classified as Thai, the country has a
complex ethnic composition. The Thai themselves vary considerably, with those of the central plain
differing markedly in culture and language from those of the north and northeast, known as the Lao.
Many Thai have some Chinese ancestry, and Chinese constitute the largest single minority group in the
country (about 14 percent of the total population).
The mountains of northern Thailand are home to a number of different hill peoples, including the Akha,
the Hmong (also known as the Meo or Miao), the Karen, and the Lua. Most of these peoples practice
slash-and-burn agriculture. Many produce dry hill (or upland) rice, and some, such as the Hmong,
produce opium. Farther south are populations of Mon people as well as groups of Khmer (Cambodian)
and Vietnamese refugees. The southern peninsula is home to ethnic Malays.

Language

Thailands official language is standard Thai, formerly known as Siamese, which is spoken by about 40
percent of the population. Thai is the predominant member of the Tai family of languages, which
includes about 60 languages spoken throughout Southeast Asia. The Tai languages are difficult to place
linguistically but usually are linked to either the Sino-Tibetan or Austronesian language families.
Standard Thai is written in the Thai alphabet, derived from the Indian Devanagari script, and is
characterized by the use of five tones. A strong Thai literary tradition goes back to the 13th century.
Another 50 percent of Thailands population speak Tai languages other than Thai, such as Lao, spoken
in the northeast. Most educated Thai speak English, and Chinese is also widely used. English, Chinese,
and Japanese are often the languages of commerce. The Mon-Khmer family of languages is
represented both among the hill peoples of the north and in lowland groups of Mon and Khmer
peoples. Some Malay is spoken in the south.

Religion

Theravada Buddhism is the prevailing religion in Thailand, with about 95 percent of the Thai majority
being Theravada Buddhist. Theravada is a school of Buddhist belief that spread to Thailand beginning
in the 13th century, primarily via Sri Lanka. Thailands most characteristic architectural feature is the
wat, the Thai Buddhist temple, of which there are an estimated 18,000. Nearly all Thai men enter a
Buddhist monastery for at least a few days or months.
Despite the predominance of Buddhism, Thai religion is highly syncretic, meaning that it combines
different systems of religious practice and belief. Many Buddhist ceremonies include elements of
animism (worship of objects and phenomena of nature), Hinduism, and even Christianity. Small Muslim
groups, comprising about 7 percent of the population, are found throughout the country, especially in
the southern peninsula (see Islam). Some hill peoples, including members of the Karen, are Roman
Catholic, while missionaries from Europe and North America have converted others to Protestantism.
Very few ethnic Thai have converted to Western religions.

Education

An estimated 96 percent of Thailands population is literate. The country has a comprehensive

educational system that extends from kindergarten to university and adult education. Education is free
and compulsory for 9 years beginning at age 6, and 97 percent of primary-school aged children are
enrolled. About 81 percent of students continue to secondary education, which normally finishes at age
17. The country has a wide range of private schools, from international schools to palace and
experimental schools.
Thailand has a growing university sector, and 38 percent of Thais of university age are enrolled.
Universities include the prestigious Chulalongkorn University, Mahidol University (a medical school),
Kasetsart University (for agriculture, forestry, and fisheries), Thammasat University (for the social
sciences), Silpakorn University (for fine arts), and the Asian Institute of Technology, all located in
Bangkok, and Chiang Mai University, in the north. The country also has a number of teacher-training
colleges. Many Thai students choose to study abroad, especially in North America, Europe, Australia,
and Japan.

Way of Life

The Thai have always been an agricultural people of the lowland valleys and intermontane basins,
where they cultivated wet rice with the use of water buffalo and harvested a wide range of fish and
shellfish from the rivers and the sea. These occupations were often supplemented, especially in the
north and northeast, by the collection of forest products, ranging from timber, such as teak and
bamboo, to foods stored for consumption during the dry season. In the northern mountain valleys, Taispeaking peoples developed an intricate system of small-scale irrigation, called muang fai. The
eventual move to the great central plain necessitated the development of canals for transportation
and, from the late-19th century onwards, of much larger irrigation and flood-control systems. Small
nuclear families occupied villages, comprising a wat and wooden houses on stilts. The pattern of life
was governed above all by the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons and by a series of important religious
festivals. Many of these festivals were closely associated with fertility and the arrival and ending of the
rains.
The Thai are now an increasingly urbanized people, with a strong interest in shopping and trade. Thai
cookery is considered one of the worlds great cuisines, known for its range of subtle spices and
sauces. Favorite Thai foods include salads of meat, fish, and vegetables; soups; curries (stews flavored
with a blend of ground spices); and tropical fruits.

Social Issues

Thailand faces a number of social problems. Corruption affects government, business, and even the
Buddhist monkhood (known as the sangha), and the press frequently reports scandals. Drugs and drug
trafficking are ongoing concerns. In rural areas, many tropical diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever,

and cholera, remain a threat. Wide social gapsbetween rich and poor, city and countryside
compound these problems.
The People and Society section of this article was contributed by Philip Stott.

IV

CULTURE OF THAILAND

In the 13th century two Thai chiefs united to form the kingdom of Sukhothai, the first Thai state.
Lasting until the 15th century, Sukhothai set forth a cultural foundation that developed throughout
Thailands history and continues today. Under Ramkhamhaeng, who ruled over Sukhothai during the
late 13th century and greatly expanded its territory, the kingdom experienced a period of artistic
growth. Ramkhamhaeng is credited with developing the Thai alphabet and producing the first written
inscription. The various people living within the kingdom were united in part by Theravada Buddhism,
which had spread to the area from Sri Lanka (then Ceylon). Fostered by the tenets of this new religion,
Sukhothai reached a golden age of artistic achievement during the 14th and 15th centuries. In this
period, artisans produced artifacts of exceptional quality in stone, bronze, and fired clay.
In the mid-14th century the kingdom of Ayutthaya was founded in southern Thailand. It rapidly became
a major power in the region, ultimately absorbing the kingdom of Sukhothai as well as the Khmer
(Cambodian) kingdom of Angkor. Located on an island in the Chao Phraya River with access to the sea,
Ayutthaya lay well situated to serve as a port for the increasing regional trade and for religious
pilgrimages and commercial ventures from Europe. Extended contact with foreign cultures and the
solidarity of the kingdom inspired a flowering of the arts. Ayutthaya lasted until the second half of the
18th century, when it was sacked by the Burmese.
Today, the fundamental characteristics of traditional Thai culture still prevail in many mediums.
However, certain art forms, such as painting, sometimes synthesize the ideals of Thai beauty and form
with Western-influenced modern concepts.

Literature

Thai literature evolved from a longstanding oral tradition of myths and legends, handed down through
the generations. Themes were based on the Ramakien (a Thai version of the Ramayana, one of the
great Sanskrit epics of ancient India) and on the Jataka tales, stories of the former lives of the Buddha.
Sunthorn Phu was a classical poet of the early 19th century Thai court who wrote renowned romantic
epic poems.
In the late 19th century the first modern Thai poetry, short stories, and novels appeared. These works
addressed everyday social issues of common Thai people. Notable 20th-century authors include Phya
Anuman Rajadhon (pseudonym Sathira Koses) and Kukrit Pramoj, a former prime minister who wrote
acclaimed short stories and novels.

Architecture and Sculpture

The most celebrated architectural form of Thailand is the wat, the Thai Buddhist temple complex. The
wat comprises several buildings that serve the religious needs of the laity and the monastic
community. Buddhist structures from India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Cambodia influenced the form
and decoration of the wat. The temples often have multitiered roofs with rust-colored glazed tiles and
overhanging eaves; wooden finials (crowning ornaments) in the shape of mythical beasts; and goldgilded beams, ridges, and pillars. Ornamental features are often intricately decorated with mosaics of
colored glass, mirrors, porcelain, and inlaid mother-of-pearl. Among the countrys many well-known
and greatly admired temples are Wat Phra Kaeo (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) and Wat Arun (Temple
of Dawn), both in Bangkok.
Stone and bronze depictions of the Buddha in sitting, standing, walking, or reclining positions are
characteristic Thai sculptural forms. Classic features, such as an oval face and a flamelike

protuberance at the head that is seen in works from the Sukhothai period, continue in modern
renditions.

Painting, Ceramics, and Crafts

Temple mural paintings are one of Thailands great artistic achievements. Bold, vibrant colors
enhanced with gold leaf adorn walls in many temple buildings in a tapestry-like motif. The scenes,
which cover entire walls, are inspired by Buddhist doctrines and usually intended to teach worshipers
about religion and morality. They are painted without depth, shadow, or perspective. Some Thai artists,
particularly those who have traveled abroad for training or exhibitions, are experimenting with
combining Thai Buddhist concepts and western abstraction. Others are producing paintings that
maintain traditional Thai cultural values but reflect problems in society.
Glazed ceramics are also one of the classic Thai arts. Architectural ceramics adorned the numerous
temples built by the kingdom of Sukhothai. Thai glazed ware later included bowls, dishes, jars, bottles,
and pots made for export to other areas of Southeast Asia.
The Thai crafts of cotton and silk weaving have a long tradition of royal patronage and continue to
reflect the countrys distinct national identity. In weaving centers in the north, the northeast, and parts
of the south, weavers reproduce traditional Thai patterns. Other crafts include ornamental
woodcarving, lacquerwork, and mother-of-pearl inlay. The country is also known for its metalwork,
including intricate use of twisted and soldered metal threads to form a filigree pattern.

Music, Dance, and Theater

Thai classical dance developed from the court music of India. Today, the movements of Thai dance and
the music accompanying it remain predominantly Indian, although some of the instruments used in a
Thai orchestra are unique. A typical work begins with a structured composition that evolves naturally
into improvisation. The music and dance of Thailand is closely related to that of Cambodia and Laos.
Themes are often drawn from the Ramakien and focus on Rama and his beautiful wife Sita.
Private and government-sponsored groups have been working to preserve Thailands heritage in music
and dance. The premier dance troupe at Srinakharinwirot University has achieved international acclaim
for its performances abroad, which have included venues in the United Kingdom, Europe, the United
States, and Asia. Some dancers have received royal titles conferred by the king in recognition of their
contributions.
Thailands traditional form of theater is khon (masked drama), which is based on ancient court rituals
and depicts tales from the Ramakien. Performances involve elaborate, colorful masks and costumes
and highly formalized action. Lakhon, less formal than khon, is a dance-drama involving elegant and
fluid movement performed without masks. In nang yai, large, black shadow puppets made from
cowhide are manipulated by dancer-puppeteers. See also Asian Theater.

Libraries and Museums

Thailands three major libraries are the National Library, the library of the Siam Society (a preeminent
research and scholarly organization), and the Neilson-Hays Library. All three are located in Bangkok
and contain extensive collections on Southeast Asian culture.
The National Museum in Bangkok and its branches in cities throughout the country have collections
representing Thai culture from the prehistoric period onwards. The branch in Bangkok occupies a group
of buildings, some of which were formerly part of a royal palace. It includes artifacts from the ancient
Thai capitals as well as modern crafts.
Several traditional Thai teakwood houses are now public museums. The Kamthieng House, originally
from northern Thailand, is now located at the Siam Society. The Suan Pakkad Palace includes several

traditional houses and a number of art collections. Vimanmek, the worlds largest golden teakwood
mansion, was built during the reign (1868-1910) of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). And the Jim
Thompson House, former home of an American who contributed substantially to the development of
the Thai silk industry after World War II, houses collections on Thai art and archaeology.
The Culture section of this article was contributed by Dawn F. Rooney.

ECONOMY OF THAILAND

The recent history of Thailands economy is defined by more than a decade of sustained and rapid
economic growth beginning in 1985, followed by a severe recession that started in late 1997. During
the boom years, economic growth averaged more than 7 percent annually, one of the highest rates in
the world. The crisis of 1997 and 1998 wiped out some of the gains of the boom and forced major
adjustments in Thai industry and economic policy.
Many different factors contributed to the rapid growth of Thailands economy. Low wages, policy
reforms that opened the economy more to trade, and careful economic management resulted in low
inflation and a stable exchange rate. These factors encouraged domestic savings and investment and
made the Thai economy an ideal host for foreign investment. Foreign and domestic investment caused
manufacturing to grow rapidly, especially in labor-intensive, export-oriented industries, such as those
producing clothing, footwear, electronics, and consumer appliances. These industries also benefited
from a tremendous expansion in world trade during the 1980s. As industry expanded, many Thai
people who previously had worked in agriculture began to work in manufacturing, slowing growth in
the agriculture sector. Meanwhile, manufacturing growth spurred the expansion of service sector
activities.
By 2006 Thailands per capita income reached $3,050, making it an upper-middle income developing
economy. Although Thailand was technically still a poor country, spectacular income gains enjoyed by
the urban middle class made the country one of the worlds large markets for luxury cars and other
expensive consumer goods. However, by Asian standards the gains of growth were not distributed
equally among the Thai population: between 1981 and 1994 the incomes of the richest 20 percent of
the population grew significantly in comparison to those of the poorest 20 percent. Nevertheless,
nearly all Thai benefited in some fashion from growth. The percentage of the population living in
poverty fell from 23 percent in 1981 to less than 10 percent in 1994.
In the early 1990s a series of economic policy reforms introduced by the Thai government made it
easy and attractive for foreign banks to offer loans to Thai banks. The Thai banks used the capital to
lend money to domestic finance companies, property developers, and other investors, stimulating an
investment boom. In an atmosphere of great optimism about continued rapid growth, the resulting
investment boom created a bubble economy based on speculation in urban property and stocks. The
bubble burst in 1996 and 1997, when stock and property prices declined steeply. As speculators in
these sectors failed to repay loans, many Thai banks became unable to service their foreign debt,
causing investor confidence to fall sharply. The consequent outflow of capital caused the Thai banking
system to crash in mid-1997. The resulting credit shortage drove many companies into bankruptcy and
created a large pool of unemployed workers. Thailands economy remained deep in recession through
1998, with gross domestic product (GDP) shrinking an estimated 8.5 percent that year. In the early
2000s Thailand made a full economic recovery, driven by strong growth in exports.

Role of Government

Thai governments, including unelected military regimes, have in general worked to ensure price
stability while promoting economic growth. Other than in some key infrastructure and energy sectors,
the government has not made extensive use of direct interventions in the market. Instead, it prefers to
exert influence through indirect measures, such as investment incentives and taxes on trade.

Labor

The Thai labor force totaled 36.5 million workers in 2006. Although agricultures share in national
income is now very small, official statistics indicate that 43 percent of the labor force is still employed
in that sector, with 20 percent in industry and 37 percent in services. These statistics are likely to
overstate agricultures true share of the labor force, as many rural Thai engage in seasonal migration,
working in cities for part of the year and returning to the countryside during peak demand periods in
agriculture, such as the rice harvest. Within industry, most employment is with small firms (those with
less than 50 employees). Less than 10 percent of the labor force is unionized, although that figure rises
to more than 20 percent in larger firms of 50 or more employees.
The economic boom of 1985 to 1996 caused massive growth in total employment, especially of
unskilled and semiskilled workers. From 1990 to 1996, real wages (adjusted for inflation) rose by about
10 percent per year. The employment boom drew many Thai from rural areas to urban centers and
resulted in a large influx of illegal immigrants from poorer neighboring countries, such as Laos and
Myanmar.
Following the 1997 collapse of Thailands economy, unemployment and underemployment became
serious problems, with the former peaking at nearly 3 million jobless in mid-1998. Some of the
unemployed returned to rural areas, but many more remained in the cities in the hope that jobs would
become available again once the economy recovered.
A longer-term issue for the Thai economy is the prevailing low educational attainment of Thai workers,
as compared to their counterparts in other middle-income developing economies. Although the literacy
rate is high, official figures show that only 56 percent of children of high school age are enrolled in high
school.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Agriculture was traditionally the mainstay of the Thai economy. However, along with the remarkable
acceleration of economic growth in the 1980s came rapid changes in the countrys economic structure.
While agricultural production increased, the economic contributions of industry and services grew
faster, which decreased the relative importance of farming. Agricultures share of GDP fell from 23
percent in 1980 to 11 percent in 1996 as Thailand moved into the ranks of the so-called newly
industrializing economies.
Thailand has 18 million hectares (44 million acres) of land under cultivation. Of this total, about 5
million hectares (12 million acres) of irrigated land produce most of the countrys major crop, rice.
Other important crops include sugarcane, natural rubber, corn, soybeans, coconuts, and other tropical
fruits. Agricultural exports, especially of rice, were the basis for most of Thailands early trade. The
country is still a major exporter of rice, but its agricultural trade has diversified to include rubber,
cassava, fruits, flowers, and many other products.
Much of the expansion of agriculture has taken place at the expense of forest cover, which is
disappearing at a rate of 0.6 percent per year. The timber harvest in 2006 was 28 million cubic meters
(1 billion cubic feet), nearly all of which was burned for fuel. Following severe flood damage caused by
deforestation, the Thai government banned all commercial logging in 1989. Formerly an exporter of
tropical hardwoods, Thailand now imports much of its timber from neighboring countries.
Fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, along with inland and coastal fish farms,
yielded 3.7 million metric tons of fish and shellfish in 2005, up from 1.8 million metric tons in 1980.
Thailand is one of the worlds leading exporters of fish and seafood products, especially farmed shrimp.
The rapid growth of agriculture and fisheries has raised concerns about the long-term sustainability of
these industries. Urbanization and the spread of irrigation have generated water shortages and
spawned conflicts over water use. In dryland agriculture (farming in dry areas using methods other
than irrigation), intensive cultivation has led to soil erosion and land degradation, which in turn have
required farmers to increase fertilizer use in order to maintain yields. Mangrove swamps and other
coastal ecosystems have been severely depleted to create fisheries, and the rapid expansion of the

commercial ocean fishing fleet has reduced catches. These natural resource management issues pose
major policy problems for current and future Thai governments.

Mining

Thailand is not richly endowed in mineral resources. Chief mineral products include lignite (a form of
coal), zinc ore, lead concentrates, tin, gypsum, and iron ore. However, supplies of most minerals are
insufficient to satisfy the growing domestic demand. An exception is gemstones, which form the basis
of an export-oriented jewelry industry.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing has led Thailand's economic growth. Manufacturing output grew at 10 percent annually
during the 1980s and early 1990s, much faster than the economy as a whole. As a result, the
manufacturing share of GDP rose from 22 percent in 1980 to 35 percent in 2006. While all industries
grew, expansion was most rapid among manufacturers of labor-intensive products, such as clothing,
footwear, and consumer appliances. Industrial production diversified considerably, spurred by foreign
investment, new technologies, and the growth of domestic and export markets. Major industries
include food processing, textiles and clothing, electronics, motor vehicles and parts, cement,
petroleum, plastics, and chemical products.

Services and Tourism

Thailands rapid growth transformed the services sector. This sector, which includes housing,
restaurant and hotel services, personal services, wholesale and retail trade, and many other related
activities, grew very quickly in response to increased demand, especially from the expanding urban
population in and around Bangkok. The service share of GDP was 45 percent in 2006. The sector has
shifted from low-skilled jobs to formal, high-skilled jobs in banking, finance, management, and trade.
Tourism is a major industry within Thailands services sector, with 13.9 million tourists visiting the
country in 2006. Revenues from tourism make up the largest single component of Thailands export
earnings. Popular tourist destinations include Bangkok and the countrys beach resorts.

Energy

In 2003 Thailand produced 114.7 billion kilowatt-hours (kwh) of electricity, up from about 3 billion kwh
in 1968. Of this, 92 percent was produced by generating plants powered by oil, gas, and coal. Thailand
is heavily dependent on imported fossil fuels and electricity to meet its energy demands. The country
imports electricity from hydroelectric plants in neighboring Laos, and natural gas along a pipeline from
Myanmar.

Transportation

Thailand has an extensive network of inland waterways, based on the Chao Phraya River and linking
the agricultural heartland of central Thailand to Klong Toey Port in Bangkok. These waterways provided
the major mode of transport until just a few decades ago and are still widely used to ship bulky
products, such as rice and oil. Ferries on Bangkoks extensive system of canals (khlongs) serve
thousands of commuters every day.
Thailands railway system, established a century ago, consists of 4,071 km (2,530 mi) of track. It links
Bangkok to the northern city of Chiang Mai as well as to the countrys western, northeastern, and
southern extremities. The country has 57,400 km (35,700 mi) of roads and highways. Major
improvements to the road system, begun in the 1970s, have brought all but the most remote
communities within relatively easy reach of markets and services.

In September 2006 the Suvarnabhumi Airport opened in Bangkok to replace the overloaded Don
Muang International Airport. The new international airport ranked as one of the largest in Asia. Smaller
domestic airports are located throughout the country.

Communications

Thailand has a thriving newspaper industry, in large part due to the 1991 repeal of a press censorship
law. Network television is largely controlled by corporations owned either by the government or by
institutions such as the military. Satellite technology has helped television reach almost every town
and village. In 1997 Thailand had 234 radio receivers and 281 television sets for every 1,000 residents.
Although there are only 110 fixed telephone lines per 1,000 people, the rapid spread of cellular
telephones has facilitated personal communications in all parts of the country. In 2004 there were 430
mobile phones per 1,000 people. That year there were 58 personal computers per 1,000 people.

Foreign Trade

Thailands economy is closely linked to world markets through trade, as well as through investment
and other capital flows. The composition of trade has shifted dramatically toward manufactures;
between 1980 and 2003 manufactures as a percentage of total exports increased from 25 percent to
75 percent. In 2003 Thailands exports earned $80.3 billion, while the cost of imports totaled $75.8
billion.
Thailands economy is highly vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices of its major imports, such as oil.
On the other hand, it has successfully taken advantage of growth in world demand for many of its
exports, including seafood products, clothing and textiles, and electronics. The United States and Japan
are Thailands largest trading partners. The establishment of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Area in 2002 substantially increased Thailands trade with other Asian
economies.

Currency, Banking, and Foreign Capital Flows

Thailands basic unit of currency is the baht. The central bank is the Bank of Thailand (established in
1942), which issues the currency. Until 1997 the Thai banking system combined private and publicly
owned banks, with limited participation by foreign banks.
In the late 1980s economic policy reforms greatly facilitated foreign purchases of Thai stocks and
bonds as well as international borrowing by Thai banks. Whereas private foreign capital flows had
previously consisted mainly of direct investments in factories and equipment, by the early 1990s the
major source of foreign capital was short-term loans to Thai banks. The boom in capital inflows placed
great stresses not only on the private banking system (to which most foreign loans flowed) but also on
the capacity of the Bank of Thailand to monitor and regulate the financial sector. These institutional
weaknesses formed fault lines along which the Thai financial economy fragmented when capital
inflows abruptly reversed in 1997.
Beginning in the mid-1980s the bahts exchange rate with the United States dollar was fixed at
approximately 25 baht to U.S.$1. However, the 1997 capital outflow forced the abandonment of the
fixed rate. Allowed to float, the baht fell as low as 60 to the dollar before stabilizing at around 36 by
late 1998. The 1997 crisis also led to a number of reforms in banking and finance. Restrictions on
foreign ownership of Thai banks, property, and corporations were relaxed, and measures were passed
to improve the structure of the banking sector and the transparency and efficiency of financial
transactions.
The Economy section of this article was contributed by Ian Coxhead.

VI

GOVERNMENT OF THAILAND

Thailand was ruled by an absolute monarchy from 1782 until 1932, when a small group of rebels
seized control of the country and persuaded the king to accept the introduction of a constitutional
monarchy. The countrys first constitution called for a government headed by a legislature (the
National Assembly), with the king maintaining an advisory role as head of state. When the king sought
to dissolve the new legislature the following year, the army moved to prevent him, thus becoming the
dominant political force in the country. For most of the next half century, Thailand was under the
control of various military governments.
In 1997 Thailands 16th constitution took effect. It was the countrys first constitution to be drafted by
a process involving public debate, and the first to include a bill of rights guaranteeing equality and
basic human rights to all citizens. The constitution was intended to move the center of power away
from the military and bureaucracy and toward the elected members of the legislature. It contained
guarantees for social welfare and environmental protection and required the government to report its
activities. Following a military coup in September 2006, the 1997 constitution was rescinded. The
military government drafted a new constitution, which voters approved by referendum in August 2007.
Thailand is a unitary state, in which the authority of the central government is superior to that of the
countrys provincial and municipal governments. However, in recent years pressure has increased for
more devolution of power to the provinces and municipalities. All citizens age 18 and older are eligible
to vote.

Executive

The king is Thailands head of state and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Although the king
has little direct power, he may exercise considerable influence on political leaders and moral influence
on society as a whole. Since 1946 the king of Thailand has been Bhumibol Adulyadej, or Rama IX.
The countrys chief executive official is the prime minister. The prime minister is designated from
among the members of the House of Representatives and is usually the leader of the dominant party
following elections. The king formally appoints the prime minister. The prime minister heads the
cabinet, which consists of no more than 35 members. Under the 2007 constitution the prime minister
is limited to two four-year terms in office.

Legislature

Legislative power in Thailand is vested in a bicameral (two-chamber) National Assembly (Ratha

Sapha), consisting of a House of Representatives (Sapha Poothaen Rassadorn) and a Senate (Woothi
Sapha). The House of Representatives has 480 members; 400 of them are elected from single-member
constituencies (geographical areas that each have one representative) and the remaining 80 are
elected through a party-list system. House members are elected to four-year terms, but these terms
can be cut short if the king decides to dissolve the legislature and call for new elections. The Senate
has 150 members, 76 of whom are directly elected from districts corresponding to Thailands provinces
and 74 of whom are selected by a committee. Most provinces have a single representative in the
Senate, but the larger ones have additional representatives. The elected members of the Senate serve
six-year terms, and the appointed senators serve three-year terms.

Judiciary

Thai citizens are guaranteed due process and equal justice under the law. At the top of the court
system is the San Dika (Supreme Court), located in Bangkok. It serves as a court of final appeal in all
civil, criminal, and bankruptcy cases. Below the San Dika is the San Uthon (Court of Appeal), which has
appellate jurisdiction in all cases. Courts of first instance include magistrates courts, provincial courts,
and courts with exclusive jurisdiction in Bangkok and its immediate environs. The 1997 constitution
recognized, and increased the independence of, the judiciary. As part of the countrys reforms to
enhance the rights and freedoms of the Thai people, a royal decree created the 15-member

Constitutional Court in 1998. This court makes final and binding decisions in cases involving
constitutional issues, and it may recommend amendments to the constitution.

Local Government

Thailand is divided into 76 provinces (changwat), each headed by a governor. Except for the governor
of Bangkok, who is elected by popular vote, the provincial governors are appointed by the minister of
the interior. The provinces are divided into 744 districts (amphoe), headed by appointed district
officers. Municipalities are governed by elected and appointed officials, while elected heads hold power
at the village level.

Political Parties

Thailands political parties were severely restricted for several decades following the 1932 change of
government but have multiplied since that time. Many parties serve as the personal political machines
of individuals or small groups, and few represent defined ideologies. The populist Thai Rak Thai (Thais
Love Thais) Party, founded in 1998 by businessman (later prime minister) Thaksin Shinawatra, was
ordered to be disbanded by the Constitutional Court in May 2007 for breaking electoral laws in the
April 2006 election campaign for parliament. Former members of the Thai Rak Thai party regrouped to
form the new Peoples Power Party (PPP), which won the 2007 elections. Other prominent parties
include the Prachatipat (Democrat) Party, founded in 1945 as a royalist party, and the Chart Thai (Thai
Nation) Party of former prime minister Banharn Silpa-archa.

Social Services

Thailand has an extensive network of public health facilities down to at least the district level, and an
expansion of medical education has increased the number of doctors. The average life expectancy in
Thailand (72.8 years as of 2008) is high by world standards. Basic medical care is heavily subsidized by
the government. Medical services have been strained by the spread of acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes the disease. The World
Health Organization estimated that the number of HIV-infected people in Thailand was about 560,000
in 2005, with 236,000 new cases reported annually. The countrys AIDS-prevention campaign, launched
in 1991, was among the first in Southeast Asia. Thailand does not have unemployment insurance,
disability provisions, or retirement benefits.

Defense

Military service is compulsory for two years for all able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 30. In
2004 the armed forces included an army of 190,000 members, a navy of 70,600, and an air force of
46,000. Beginning in the early 1990s, the proportion of GDP spent on the military was reduced
substantially. In 2003 military expenditures totaled 1.3 percent of GDP.

International Organizations

Thailand joined the United Nations (UN) in 1946 and has been an active member of the organization.
The country also belongs to a number of UN agencies, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), and the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Thailand is a member of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which plays a central role in the countrys foreign
policy. Thailand became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.
The Government section of this article was contributed by David K. Wyatt.

VII

HISTORY OF THAILAND

Although Thailand only recently took its current name and assumed its present-day borders, its history
extends back many thousands of years. One of the pervasive themes of the countrys history has been
the ability of its inhabitants to adapt to, and accommodate, the changes that have constantly
surrounded them.

Early History

It is natural to think that the history of Thailand is the history of the Thai people, but in fact it is much
more than that. The Thai were relative latecomers on the scene, becoming the majority of the regions
population only 700 or 800 years ago. The lands now included in Thailand have been inhabited for
4,000 or 5,000 years. Even long ago, people of the region were adept at adopting new technologies
and absorbing new populations.
The society and economy of Thailands earliest inhabitants, in prehistoric times, went through a long
evolution. As is demonstrated by archaeological discoveries at Ban Chiang and other sites, these early
peoples were among the first in the world to make and use bronze tools and weapons, to which they
later added iron. They domesticated pigs and chickens, cultivated rice and caught fish, and produced
fabrics from bark and fibrous plants. They lived in small villages scattered over a broad area.
In early historic times, the peoples living in what is now central Thailand probably spoke Mon-Khmer
languages (a group of languages of the Austro-Asiatic language family) and were absorbed into a
number of local states that developed in the area. Especially between the 6th and 9th centuries, the
kingdom of Dvaravati dominated the central plain of the Chao Phraya River system and the Khorat
Plateau to its east. The most enduring legacy of this period was Theravada Buddhism, which was
strongly influenced by the Buddhism of Sri Lanka (then Ceylon). Many of the regions inhabitants
embraced Buddhism. Many also were exposed regularly to foreign trade by traders passing through
the region when traveling between China and India by sea.
Between the 9th and 13th centuries the central plain and the Khorat Plateau were incorporated into
the Khmer (Cambodian) kingdom of Angkor, centered on the ancient city of Angkor in what is now
western Cambodia. This added a Khmer element to a population that already included indigenous and
Dvaravati elements.
The Thai people began to incorporate themselves into this mixture of peoples from the 10th or 11th
century onwards. The Thai had been moving steadily southwestward from the border region between
Vietnam and China, usually occupying the mountainous areas between major lowland states. They
may have founded tiny upland principalities in the upper Mekong River region near present-day Chiang
Saen as early as the 7th century. However, only in the early 13th century did they suddenly burst upon
the scene in the Dvaravati and Angkor domains.

Sukhothai and Ayutthaya

Beginning in about 1220 a number of states, most of them Buddhist, arose in the region. In general,
the southernmost states tended to assimilate the broadest range of cultures and languages, while
those to the north tended to be more heavily Thai. By the end of the 1200s the most important such
states were Sukhothai, Phayao, Chiang Mai, and Nakhon Si Thammarat. Of these, Sukhothai was the
largest. Under King Ramkhamhaeng, who ruled in the late 1200s, Sukhothai prospered, gaining
tributary territories that extended the kingdoms territory to the Andaman Sea to the west, into
present-day Laos to the east, and to the southern Malay Peninsula to the south. The acquisitions were
opposed by the kingdom of Angkor, whose western outpost at Lopburi (the preeminent Khmer city of
the central plain) contested control of the Chao Phraya valley and seaborne international trade.
The Thai people continued moving southward onto the central plain. This movement brought about the
establishment of a new center of Thai power, the kingdom of Ayutthaya, founded by King Ramathibodi

I in 1351. Ayutthaya was on an island in the Chao Phraya, located at a point reachable by seagoing
vessels. Thus the kingdom was visited regularly by trading ships from Japan, the Ryukyu Islands, China,
India, and Persia. International trade was a significant source of Ayutthayas strength, but so was its
relative cosmopolitanismthe fact that its people were so varied and their skills and outlooks so
diverse.
The first century of Ayutthayas existence was filled with warfare, which culminated in its defeat of its
main rivals, Angkor (in 1434) and Sukhothai (in 1438). When Ayutthayas next ruler, King
Borommatrailokanat, or Trailok, came to the throne in 1448, he focused his efforts on reforming the
kingdoms laws and strengthening his administration. Trailok also extended the wars of conquest
farther afield, beginning a long series of wars with the kingdom of Lan Na, centered on Chiang Mai in
the far north.
The Burmese kingdom (present-day Myanmar) conquered Ayutthaya in 1569 after virtually annexing
Lan Na in 1558, inaugurating a period of warfare that persisted throughout the century. Ayutthaya did
not reestablish its independence until the 1590s, under the great warrior king Naresuan. Naresuan and
subsequent kings worked to strengthen the state by further developing its international trade with the
Dutch East India Company, the English East India Company, and, somewhat later, with China.
Meanwhile, Ayutthaya increasingly became known to visitors as Siam.
In the mid-1700s the Burmese monarchy under King Alaunghpaya began another period of expansion,
turning again to the south. In 1760 Burma launched an invasion against Ayutthaya. The military effort
lasted until 1767, when the Thai capital finally fell following a two-year siege that resulted in many
deaths and widespread famine and destruction.
The Burmese might have remained to colonize Siam, but a series of Chinese invasions of Burma forced
them to beat a hasty retreat. In the immediate aftermath of Ayutthayas fall, a competition ensued for
the Siamese throne. The prize fell to a former governor who came to be known as Taksin. Taksin was an
excellent general who had fled Ayutthaya to the southeast and built up an army. After defeating his
kingly rivals, he abandoned the ruined Ayutthaya and established a new capital farther south at Thon
Buri, on the western shore of the Chao Phraya. Taksin sent his forces far afield, south along the Malay
Peninsula, east to Cambodia and Laos, and north against Lan Na. In the last years of his reign, Taksins
successes went to his head. He became arbitrary and dictatorial, even requiring Buddhist monks to
pay homage to him. Such actions infuriated Taksins contemporaries, who deposed him and brought to
the throne his chief general, known as the Chakri (in reference to his function) or as Chaophraya
Mahakasatsuk (his title, meaning Great King of Warfare). This marked the beginning of the Chakri
dynasty, which continues to rule the Thai state.

Early Years of the Chakri Dynasty

The Chakri took the throne as King Rama I (Phraphutthayotfa) in 1782. It was natural that at a time of
ongoing, bitter warfare with Burma, an exceptionally able general should have been chosen as king.
However, Rama I was much more than that. He was highly intelligent and a natural leader. He also was
related by blood or marriage to all the leading families of the kingdom and thus had strong
connections with Thai trading interests, including China and India.
The new king moved the capital across the river to the eastern shore because the main Burmese
military threat to the Thai came from the west. The new capital came to bear the name of the village it
supplanted (Bang Kok, or Bangkok), although the Thai state continued to be known abroad as Siam.
Rama I was not free of the Burmese threat until 1805; nevertheless, he devoted effort to laying the
foundations for a modern kingdom. He undertook fundamental legal and administrative reforms as well
as extensive cultural, religious, and artistic activities. When his son succeeded him as King Rama II
(Phraphutthaloetla) in 1809, the Thai kingdom was stronger and more extensive than ever,
encompassing all of present-day Laos as well as portions of northeastern Burma, western Cambodia,
and the northern Malay Peninsula.

Rama II died in 1824, and one of his sons succeeded him as King Rama III (Nangklao). By this time, the
world seemed a more threatening place to the Thai. The British were beginning their colonial
involvement in the Malay Peninsula and entering into war with Burma. Rama III faced increasing
pressure from the British to open up Siams trade. Following the British victory over Burma in 1826, the
Thai government agreed to sign a treaty with Britain that allowed British merchants some trade
concessions in Siam. The Thai signed a similar treaty with the United States in 1833.
In the 1830s and 1840s Siam went to war with the Vietnamese over Cambodia and Laos, emerging
with its dominant position grudgingly recognized. As the end of Rama IIIs reign approached around
1850, Siam faced a renewed threat from the West. Both Britain and the United States sent missions to
Siam demanding free trade, extraterritorial rights (which allowed the people of these foreign nations to
live in Siam under the laws of their own countries), and other reforms. The royal court refused the
demands quietly, explaining that progressives in the Thai government could not afford to appear too
lenient with the West. However, the foreigners were encouraged to return once the progressives had
managed the accession of a new king who would be more receptive to concessions.

Colonialism Averted

The new monarch was King Mongkut (Rama IV), the younger son of Rama II, who assumed the throne
in 1851. Mongkut had spent 27 years as a Buddhist monk and had used the time in intellectual
pursuits, learning Western languages and science. He was well acquainted with the few British and
Americans in Bangkok and had much more experience of the lives of common people than had any of
his predecessors. Mongkut and his son Chulalongkorn (Rama V), who reigned from 1868 to 1910, are
given much credit for Siams conciliation of the West during the next half-century. While this is justified,
much credit also is due to their ministers. Together they blunted the force of Western imperialism,
which swept over much of the rest of the world during this period. In 1855 Siam signed the Bowring
Treaty, which yielded free trade, extraterritorial rights, and some special privileges to Britain. The
treaty served as a model for subsequent treaties with the United States, France, Japan, and many other
nations. These treaties were known as unequal treaties because they placed Thailand in a subordinate
diplomatic position. However, by upholding these treaties, avoiding offending the imperial powers, and
playing those powers against one another, Siam managed to secure its own independence while
working to earn the respect of the West.
As modern as King Mongkut might have been in the eyes of the West, he undertook no fundamental
reforms during his reign. Such reforms would have been bitterly resisted by Siams entrenched noble
and bureaucratic families. His successor, Chulalongkorn, was unable to undertake real reform until the
leading members of the old families began to retire from public life in the 1880s.
Cambodia had come under French control in 1863, and in 1885 France completed its conquest of
Vietnam. Britain took the last remaining portion of Burma the same year. When in 1893 Siam mounted
a resistance against French troops sent to Laos to press Vietnams claims there, France sent gunboats
to Bangkok. The Thai capitulated and had to yield to France their sovereignty over Laos and also pay a
large indemnity. Most of Laos then became part of French Indochina, Frances colony in the region.
France gained additional territories in Laos and Cambodia from Siam by treaty in 1904 and 1907. In
1909 Siam ceded to Britain the four northern Malay states (Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu),
while the British agreed to assist in financing a Bangkok-Singapore rail line and to yield some of their
extraterritorial rights.
Meanwhile, between about 1890 and 1910 Chulalongkorns government launched a major
administrative reform, establishing virtually all of Siams modern government. The existing
departments were reorganized into twelve ministries, including ministries of war (for a new army),
justice, education, interior (for administration of the countryside), and public works, as well as
specialized departments for such things as postal services, railroads, and hospitals. Chulalongkorn also
established new, modern schools and encouraged study abroad. The kingdoms new administration
made tax collection possible. The government used the tax revenues to finance reforms and to create
jobs for the many modern educated people emerging from the kingdoms new schools.

In 1910 Chulalongkorn was succeeded by his son Vajiravudh (Rama VI), who had been educated in
England. King Vajiravudh was an active proponent of the idea of the nation, and he popularized the
idea of sacrificing, and even dying, for Siam. In July 1917 he entered Siam in World War I on the side of
the Allies, winning for the kingdom a seat at the Versailles peace conference. Vajiravudh hoped to gain
a sympathetic hearing for Siams wishes to end extraterritoriality. His strategy worked, and in the early
1920s the Western nations and Japan agreed to end their unequal treaties with Siam as soon as Siam
completed modernizing its laws and courts.
But King Vajiravudh wastefully spent the nations budget on his favorites and on personal pursuits,
forcing his younger brother and successor, King Prajadhipok (Rama VII), to institute a massive cutback
of expenses. The worldwide economic slump known as the Great Depression, which hit Siam by 1930,
intensified the countrys financial troubles. Although Prajadhipok favored modest democratization, he
was overruled repeatedly by his elderly uncles. Dissatisfaction grew within the kingdom, especially
among young Siamese educated abroad who objected to the tight political control maintained by their
countrys rulers.

The Revolt of 1932 and Its Aftermath

On June 24, 1932, a small revolutionary group, including European-educated civilians and discontented
army officers, overthrew the absolute monarchy in a bloodless coup. The leaders of the coup and their
associatesa group that became known as the Promoterspersuaded the king to accept the
introduction of a constitutional monarchy. However, they argued that the country was not yet ready for
true democratic government and thus kept the army in control. The Promoters were divided into leftist
and rightist factions. In 1933 Pridi Phanomyong, the most influential civilian Promoter and an
intellectual who had been influenced by French socialism, proposed an economic plan with an
emphasis on nationalization of land and elimination of private trade. The rightist factions denounced
the plan as communist. They were supported by monarchists, who mounted a rebellion against the
new regime that year. The monarchist forces were soon overcome, and in 1935 King Prajadhipok
abdicated in favor of his young nephew, Prince Ananda Mahidol. The prince was, at the time, studying
in Europe, so a regency was appointed to carry out the functions of the monarchy until he returned.
The 1930s brought about a more strident and assertive Thai nationalism, an increased role for the
military in national life, and a sharp decline in the role of the monarchy and of royalty in general. By
1937 the unequal treaties and extraterritorial rights of the imperialist era had finally been eliminated,
and the Thai government obtained complete autonomy over its internal and external affairs. During
this period, public education improved dramatically, and industrialization and urbanization grew.
In 1938 Siam came under the prime ministership of Phibun Songkhram, a field marshal who had
helped lead the revolt of 1932. In 1939 Phibun changed the name of the country from Siam to Thailand
in an effort to popularize the idea of its leadership of all speakers of the Tai languages, not just those
inhabiting Siams narrow bounds. In changing the countrys name, Phibun also wished to emphasize
Thai identity and distinctiveness against the countrys Chinese minority, which by this time amounted
to more than 10 percent of the population.

World War II

In 1940 Thailand fought a brief war with French Indochina, which had become cut off from France as a
result of World War II. With Japanese mediation, the Thai government regained the territories in Laos
and Cambodia that had been ceded to France in 1904 and 1907. On December 8, 1941, Japanese
troops landed on Thailands southern coast. This was around the same time that the Japanese
launched attacks on Pearl Harbor, Midway, Guam, Manila, Hong Kong, and other sites. After tense
meetings with the Japanese and his cabinet, Phibun agreed to allow the Japanese to move their troops
through Thailand to invade and occupy the British-controlled Malay Peninsula, Singapore, and Burma.
In January 1942 Thailand declared war against Britain and the United States. In 1943 Japan rewarded
the Phibun government for its cooperation with the Japanese by awarding Thailand part of the territory

that had been incorporated into British Burma in 1885 and the four Malay states that Siam had been
forced to cede in 1909.
Meanwhile, considerable anti-Japanese sentiment was developing in Thailand. With aid from the United
States government, Pridi and M. R. Seni Pramoj, the wartime Thai ambassador to the United States,
organized the underground Free Thai Movement to agitate against Japanese influence. In July 1944, as
the war began to turn against Japan, Phibun was forced from office, and Khuang Aphaiwong, a civilian,
took over as prime minister. Pridi continued to be a major power behind the scenes. When the war
suddenly ended in August 1945, M. R. Seni Pramoj returned to become prime minister. He faced not
only chaos and the disruption caused by nearly four years of Japanese presence but also extensive
demands by European nations that threatened to turn Thailand into a Western colony. With strong
American support, Thailand successfully resisted these pressures. However, the Thai government did
restore to Britain and France the territories in Indochina, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula that it had
gained during the war. After doing so, Thailand was admitted to the United Nations (UN) in December
1946.
In June 1946 King Ananda died under mysterious circumstances, an event for which many irrationally
blamed Pridi and others seen as opposing the monarchy. Anandas younger brother succeeded to the
throne as King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), but a regency council ruled until 1951 while Bhumibol
completed his studies abroad.

Domestic Instability

The Thai government faced significant challenges in the immediate postwar period, including rampant
inflation and shortages, widespread corruption, and inexperience among civilian officials. These
conditions paved the way for a return to military rule, and in November 1947 a group of military
officers seized the government. The new military regime was presided over by Phibun as prime
minister.
Phibuns government, like the military regimes that followed it, made close relations with the United
States and other Western nations central to its foreign policy. The government sent a small force to
assist UN forces in the Korean War in 1950 and accepted massive U.S. military aid, which further
strengthened military rule.
Thai representatives took part in the Geneva Conference of 1954, which temporarily ended the First
Indochina War (see Geneva Accords). Later that year, Thailand became a founding member of the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), which established its headquarters in Bangkok. This
alliance formed to provide defense and economic cooperation in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific.
Increasingly shunted aside by his military lieutenants, Phibun attempted to win popularity and
legitimacy by staging elections in 1957. However, the widespread accusations of corruption and ballot
stuffing that followed the elections served to further discredit the government. When Phibun and his
interior minister Phao Sriyanond attempted to defend their beleaguered regime, General Sarit
Thanarat, backed by considerable popular support, staged a military coup that ended Phibuns rule.
Sarit temporarily went abroad to seek medical attention, handing power over in early 1958 to a
coalition government headed by his deputy, lieutenant-general Thanom Kittikachorn. In October Sarit
returned to stage yet another military coup. He suspended the constitution, declared martial law, and
banned all political parties. Sarit declared his intention to carry out a new revolution in Thai society,
restoring authority and discipline through measures such as improved public education and rural
development.
Both Sarit and Thanom (who became prime minister following Sarits death in 1963) were alarmed by
growing unrest and insurgencymainly motivated by povertyin rural Thailand, especially in the
impoverished northeast and the south. Even more worrisome to them was the decline of pro-Western
regimes in Cambodia and Laos, territories the Thai military considered natural wards of Thailand. The
military believed these territories had to be saved from the Communism that was threatening to
overcome Indochina with the Vietnam War, which had begun in 1959. This war pitted the Communist

North Vietnamese and the National Liberation Front (a Vietnamese nationalist group based in South
Vietnam) against the South Vietnamese, who were eventually assisted by the United States.

The Vietnam War

During the 1960s Thailand increasingly was drawn into the conflict in Indochina. The Thai government
sent a military contingent to fight in South Vietnam, lent considerable covert military support to rightwing forces in Laos, and established Thailand as a major air power base. Numerous military bases were
built in Thailand to house U.S. military contingents. New roads, improved railroad service, and
telecommunications linked the bases. All of Thailand, but especially Bangkok, benefited economically
from the heightened activity the war produced.
Thailands increasing involvement in Indochina stimulated Vietnamese and Chinese Communists to
support rebellion among rural Thai, which engulfed most of Thailands outer provinces in the 1960s. As
direct American involvement in Vietnam began to diminish beginning in about 1969, Thailand was left
with considerable involvement in Indochina (especially in Laos) as well as persistent internal problems.

Struggle for Democracy

As a result of improved education and heightened prosperity among the Thai people, as well as
frustration with governmental corruption and inefficiency, the countrys military rulers came under
increasing political pressure by the late 1960s. Thanoms government took gradual steps to restore the
political rights suspended in 1958. Elections to municipal councils were held for the first time in a
decade in 1967, and a new constitution was promulgated in 1968. In 1969 Thailand held legislative
elections. The United Thai Peoples Party won a plurality of 75 seats in the House of Representatives,
while the largest opposition group, the Democrat Party, won 56 seats.
As the United States gradually decreased its military involvement in Vietnam and moved to establish
friendly relations with Communist China, Thailand sought to establish a more flexible foreign policy,
especially toward China and North Vietnam. Meanwhile, the United States withdrew from Southeast
Asia, contributing to a decline of the Thai economy, and opposition to Thanoms government increased
in the outer provinces and in Bangkok. The government responded by reestablishing military rule in
1971, abolishing the constitution, and dissolving the legislature.
In 1973 a series of student-led demonstrations against the military government resulted in Thanoms
resignation and the appointment of a civilian cabinet. A new constitution was approved in late 1974,
and a new government was freely elected in early 1975. Stability remained elusive, however, and
elections in 1976 made little difference. Thailand became deeply polarized between liberals and
conservatives, especially after Communist regimes took power throughout Indochina in 1975 and the
monarchy was abolished in Laos. When Thanom returned from exile abroad in mid-1976,
demonstrations grew into bloody battles on the streets of Bangkok between leftist students and
Thanoms right-wing supporters. In October the Thai military and police launched a bloody assault on
students demonstrating at Thammasat University. As disorder spread, a military group led by Admiral
Sa-ngad Chaloryu seized control of the country and installed a civilian and former Supreme Court
judge, Thanin Kraivixien, as head of a conservative government.
Thanins government proved to be more authoritarian than even the most repressive of the countrys
military regimes. In October 1977 he was overthrown by Sa-ngad and his group and replaced by
General Kriangsak Chomanand. The many students who had fled Bangkok slowly began drifting back
to a society that was slowly righting itself.
The military maintained tight reins on the government until a new constitution was promulgated
(December 1978), elections were held (April 1979), and military leaders were sufficiently satisfied with
the new order. The military then allowed the installation of a new cabinet headed by General Prem
Tinsulanonda as prime minister. Elections in 1983 confirmed Prem as head of a new coalition
government, and he was reelected in 1986. General Chatichai Choonhavan replaced Prem following
elections in 1988, but in 1991 the military overthrew Chatichai and installed their own interim coalition

government. When the military manipulated 1992 elections to guarantee a victory, demonstrations
broke out in Bangkok calling for democratic reforms. The protests were violently suppressed.
Thailands king then intervened, ending military rule and installing another interim prime minister,
Anand Panyarachun.

Civilian Governments

In September 1992 new elections brought a genuinely civilian government to power under prime
minister Chuan Leekpai, leader of the Prachatipat (Democrat) Party. Chuan began the process of
writing an entirely new and more democratic constitution for Thailand, which was completed in 1997.
He also presided over a period of economic boom during which Thailand experienced one of the
highest economic growth rates in the world.
Chuans government collapsed in 1995 following accusations of corruption. He was succeeded by
Banharn Silpa-archa, leader of the Chart Thai (Thai Nation) Party. However, Banharns government was
soon accused of corruption and other wrongdoing, and he resigned from office in 1996. Chavalit
Yongchaiyudhs New Aspiration Party won September 1996 elections, and Chavalit became the new
prime minister.
In mid-1997 Thailands economy experienced a significant setback as the Thai currency fell sharply
against the U.S. dollar. Many businesses and financial institutions failed, and unemployment rose
sharply. The crisis then spread, affecting the economies of other Asian nations. To control and contain
the situation, the International Monetary Fund stepped in with a package of loans, in return for which
Thailand accepted measures intended to restore its economy to health. By late 1998 the exchange
rate had improved.
Thailands economic crisis spawned a number of related problems, including urban unemployment, a
widening gap between rich and poor, and a decline in social services. The crisis made it difficult for the
government to fund adequate educational reform and to care for the countrys considerable population
of AIDS and HIV patients. A test of Thailands strength in the years to come will be its ability to restore
its own self-confidence and surmount these and other challenges.
In November 1997, meanwhile, Chavalit resigned as prime minister in the face of criticism for his
economic policies. Chuan Leekpai was appointed to the post a second time. The January 2001 general
elections were the first to be held under the reformist 1997 constitution, which created the Election
Commission to monitor elections for vote fraud. The Thai Rak Thai (Thais Love Thais) Party of
telecommunications tycoon Thaksin Shinawatra won by a landslide on a populist platform, promising
economic initiatives to benefit small businesses and farmers. Thai Rak Thai entered a three-party
coalition controlling 325 of 500 seats in the House of Representatives, and Thaksin secured a
parliamentary mandate to become prime minister. His party then merged with the New Aspiration
Party (NAP) and the Seritham (Liberal Democratic) Party to gain 50 additional seats, making it the first
governing party in the countrys history to secure a simple majority.
Thai Rak Thai won another landslide victory in the February 2005 parliamentary elections, taking 377
seats. Forming the relatively powerless political opposition in the legislature were the Democrat Party,
with 96 seats; the Chart Thai party, with 25 seats; and the Mahachon Party, with 2 seats. Thaksin was
appointed to a second term as prime minister and formed Thailands first democratically elected
single-party government.

Tsunami Disaster of 2004

On December 26, 2004, the worlds most powerful earthquake in 40 years struck deep under the
Indian Ocean. The magnitude 9.0 earthquake was centered off the northwestern coast of the
Indonesian island of Sumatra. The earthquake triggered a tsunami (massive waves), which crashed
into the coasts of 14 countries from Southeast Asia to the eastern coast of Africa. The western coast of
Thailand, about 480 km (about 300 mi) from the quakes epicenter, was hit by huge wave surges
within two hours. Thailands many offshore islands, such as the popular tourist resorts of Ko Phuket

and Ko Phi Phi Le, were hit during their busy holiday season. In the absence of a tsunami early warning
system in the Indian Ocean region, coastal communities received no warning of the impending
disaster.
The tsunami was the deadliest in recorded history. The International Committee of the Red Cross
reported a death toll of more than 250,000 people as a result of the tsunami and the earthquake.
Indonesia, nearest the epicenter of the quake, suffered the largest loss of life. Thailand, Sri Lanka, and
India reported high death tolls from the tsunami. Thai officials estimated that about half of the more
than 5,000 people known to have died in the country were foreigners, most of them vacationers from
Europe.
The tsunami destroyed entire coastal communities in the stricken countries. Millions of survivors were
left in desperate need of food, water, shelter, and medical care. A number of countries and
international humanitarian organizations responded to the widespread devastation with one of the
largest relief efforts in modern history.

Military Coup

Thailand entered a period of political crisis in early 2006. After the Thaksin family sold a 49.6 percent
stake in the telecommunications firm that it controlled, opposition forces renewed charges that Thaksin
had used his political position to bolster his fortune. In response to charges of corruption and abuse of
power, Thaksin dissolved parliament and called for new elections to win a show of confidence.
Three opposition parties boycotted the April election, which Thaksins Thai Rak Thai Party won with
more than 50 percent of the vote. The large protest vote combined with the opposition boycott led
Thaksin to announce his resignation the day after the election. He handed over power to a deputy
prime minister, the April elections were annulled, and new elections were scheduled. Thaksin returned
to work as caretaker prime minister in May. In September, while Thaksin was out of the country
attending a session of the UN General Assembly in New York City, a military coup was staged. A
Democratic Reform Council was formed, headed by General Sonthi Boonyaratkalin, leader of the
coup. The 1997 constitution was rescinded, and the council appointed retired army chief General
Surayud Chulanont as interim prime minister until new elections could be held.
In May 2007 the Constitutional Court ruled that Thai Rak Thai had violated electoral laws in the April
2006 election and ordered that the party be disbanded. Earlier the court had acquitted the Democrat
Party, finding that it had not violated election laws. In disbanding Thai Rak Thai, the court also ruled
that more than 100 Thai Rak Thai officials, including Thaksin, could not participate in politics for five
years. That would prevent them from running in elections that the military government promised to
hold by the end of 2007.
The military leaders made the holding of elections contingent on the approval of a new constitution,
which they claimed was needed to curb executive power. In August 2007 nearly 58 percent of voters
approved a referendum on a new constitution drafted by a military-appointed panel. Among other
changes from the 1997 constitution, the new charter imposed a two-term limit on future prime
ministers and made it easier to impeach them.
Elections to choose a new civilian government were held as promised in December 2007. The Peoples
Power Party (PPP), a new party formed by former members of the dissolved Thai Rak Thai, won the
largest share of the vote and formed a governing coalition with five smaller parties. PPP leader Samak
Sundaravej, a veteran politician and supporter of Thaksin, became the new prime minister of Thailand.
The History section of this article was contributed by David K. Wyatt.

Contributed By:
David K. Wyatt
Philip A. Stott

Dawn F. Rooney
Ian Coxhead
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.