MECH826 Week02 BasicsofMechanicalVibrations

Machine Condition Monitoring
and
Fault Diagnostics
Chris K Mechefske
September 22, 2010
Page 1
Current Topic
Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring
and Condition Based Maintenance
Basics of Mechanical Vibrations
Vibration Transducers
Vibration Signal Measurement and Display
Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance
Limits (Condition Monitoring)
Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)
September 22, 2010
Page 2
Basics of Mechanical Vibration

Definition
The variation with time of the magnitude of a
quantity, which is descriptive of the motion or position
of a mechanical system, when the magnitude is
alternately greater and smaller than the average
value or reference.
Basically an object oscillates back and forth about
an equilibrium point.
September 22, 2010
Page 3
Basics of Mechanical Vibration
Vibration in machines is a result of dynamic forces in

machines which have moving parts and in structures which are
connected to the machine. Different parts of the machine will
vibrate with various frequencies and amplitudes. Vibration
causes wear and fatigue. It is often responsible for the ultimate
breakdown of the machine.
September 22, 2010
Page 4
Why Measure Mechanical Vibration
It is a benign, non-intrusive method, which can be

performed without having to take the machine off-line.
It is applicable to a broad range of machinery and
mechanical components, including bearings, motors, and
gears.
It is applicable to a broad range of fault types, including:
wear, fracture, unbalance, misalignment, flow problems.
The associated hardware used to measure and record
mechanical vibrations is relatively economical and
reliable, is commonplace in industry, and is relatively
straight-forward to use.
Vibration signals are well suited for continuous on-line
monitoring.
September 22, 2010
Page 5
Vibration Monitoring
Dominant condition monitoring
technology
Good for rotating and cyclical machines.
Various levels of analysis
September 22, 2010
broadband trending (maximum overall

level)
narrow band trending (max. level in a
specific frequency range)
spectrum (signature) analysis (details
of frequency spectrum)
Page 6
September 22, 2010
Page 7
Typical Vibration Problems

Vibration is usually identified as a maintenance
problem if
machine reliability/maintainability is affected (short term

or long term)
machine operation is unacceptable
Vibration can be categorized according to the

source of vibration
rotary mechanical
other mechanical
hydraulic
electrical
September 22, 2010
Page 8
September 22, 2010
Page 9
Rotary Mechanical Vibration

Mass Unbalance (Imbalance)
non-uniform mass distribution on rotating part (typically

a shaft)
Caused by loss or build-up of material, poor design, etc.
Coupling Misalignment
centre-lines of coupled machines
maintenance often requires uncoupling of driver and

driven machines
Bent Shaft/Rotor
heavy rotors bend if stationary for long periods

shafts are prone to damage during operation
Bearings
Gears, Belts, Pulleys, ...
September 22, 2010
Page 10
Other Mechanical Vibration

Looseness
loose parts hit against limits of movement
off-harmonic frequency components: 1.5, 2.5, etc.
Soft Foot
hold-down bolts can result in distortion of machine

casing - hence change in stiffness
this stiffness change shifts the resonant frequency
and/or causes misalignment of machines
remedy by loosening hold-down bolts and shim base of

machine, then tighten bolts.
Structural Resonance
September 22, 2010
Page 11
Non-Mechanical Vibration Problems

Hydraulic
Vane Passing
Cavitation
freq.= (number of vanes) x (rotational speed)

causes erosion damage, resulting in broadband,
high frequency vibration
Piping
Electrical
A.C. Motor and Transformer Vibrations
September 22, 2010
60 Hz and 120 Hz, due to magnetostriction
Page 12
Basic Machinery Vibrations
Spring-Mass-Damper model of vibration

Simple Harmonic Motion
Wave Fundamentals amplitude, frequency,
phase
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration and how
they relate
Vibration Measurement (sensors and techniques)
September 22, 2010
Page 13
Classification of Vibration
By Motion:
The simplest form of vibration.
Seen as principal component in most rotating equipment
vibration signals.
Exact position is predictable from the equation of motion.
Mathematical description:
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
September 22, 2010
Page 14
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
Terms:
x (t ) - instantaneous displacement (m)
- maximum amplitude (m)

- angular velocity (Radians/Second)
- phase angle (Radians)
f = frequency,
= 2 f
T = cycle/period, T = 1 / f
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T
A
t
Graphical description of simple harmonic motion
September 22, 2010
Page 16

Phase (degrees)
The time relationship between vibrations at the
same frequency, but at different locations
Vibration at point B leads the vibration at point A
motor
displacement
B
phase
A
time
September 22, 2010
Page 17

Phase measurement related to a trigger
Vibration
Signal
phase
lag
phase
lead
reference signal
360
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Page 20
Periodic Motion
Motion repeats itself in equal time periods.
Includes harmonic motion, pulses, etc.
1
0.8
0.6
Amplitude
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
September 22, 2010
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (ms)
70
80
90
Page 21
Periodic Motion
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Page 22
Periodic Motion
September 22, 2010
Page 23
Random Motion
Motion is not deterministic (That is, not
repeatable).
Statistics of motion history may be well defined, but
exact location as a function of time is not obtainable.
Vibration signal contains all frequencies in a given
band.
Often generated by machine looseness.
September 22, 2010
Page 24
Random Motion
1
0.8
0.6
Amplitude
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
10
20
30
40
50
Time (ms)
60
70
80
90
Graphical description of Random Motion.

September 22, 2010
Page 25
Chaotic Motion
Combination of random and periodic motion.

Random and repeatable characteristics combined
in a non-linear fashion.
Vibration signal contains all frequencies in a given
band but not in equal proportions.
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Transient Motion
Any motion other than the above.

Impulsive in nature, but not regularly repeated.
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Page 28
Classification of Vibration by Excitation

Free vibration:
Oscillation occurs at natural frequency after an
initial force input has disappeared.
Forced vibration:
Oscillation occurs at the frequency of a driving
force input.
Self-induced vibration:
Vibration of a system resulting from conversion of
energy within system.
Non-oscillatory energy to oscillatory excitation.
September 22, 2010
Page 29
Basic Theory of Vibration

Single Degree-of-Freedom System Model
F(t)
x(t)
Mass M
September 22, 2010
Page 30

The equation of motion comes from the force
balance equation,
M&
x&
(t ) + Cx&(t ) + Kx (t ) = F (t )
The total solution to the equation of motion has
two parts. The transient solution (x1) and the
steady state part (x2). We are usually more
interested in the steady state solution, but will
consider both here for completeness.
September 22, 2010
Page 31

Solution to equation of motion.
Transient state solution ( F (t ) = 0 ) general form.
x1 (t ) = Ae
S1,2
s1t
+ Be
s2 t
= 1 0
A, B are initial conditions
0 is the natural frequency, 0 = K M

is the damping ratio, = C (2 M )
0
September 22, 2010
Page 32
There are three special cases of transient vibration.

1. Underdamped <1
2. Critically Damped
=1
3. Overdamped > 1
September 22, 2010
Page 33

Underdamped <1
0 t
2
x1 ( t ) = A e
sin( 1 0 t + )
Oscillation with frequency 0

Amplitude decays exponentially
September 22, 2010
Page 34
Responses of free vibration versus damping

2
Underdamped, =0.15
1.5
x(t)
0.5
-0.5
-1
September 22, 2010
0.5
1.5
Time (s)
2.5
Page 35

Critically Damped = 1
x1 (t ) = ( A + Bt )e
0t
Quick restoration to equilibrium state
September 22, 2010
Page 36

2
Critically damped, =1.0

1.5
x(t)
0.5
-0.5
-1
September 22, 2010
0.5
1.5
Time (s)
2.5
Page 37

Overdamped > 1
x1 (t ) = Ae
s1t
+ Be
s2t
s1 , s2 R
Exponential decaying without oscillation
September 22, 2010
Page 38

2
Overdamped,
=3.0
1.5
x(t)
0.5
-0.5
-1
September 22, 2010
0.5
1.5
Time (s)
2.5
Page 39

2
=0.15
Underdamped,
=1.0
Critically damped,
=3.0
Overdamped,
1.5
x(t)
0.5
-0.5
-1
September 22, 2010
0.5
1.5
Time (s)
2.5
Page 40

Solution to equation of motion.
Steady state solution ( F (t ) = F0 sin(t ) ).
F0
x 2 (t ) =
sin( t )
2
C + (K M )
Total solution to equation of motion.
x ( t ) = x1 ( t ) + x 2 ( t )
September 22, 2010
Page 41
Relationship between Displacement,

Velocity and Acceleration
We are primarily interested in the Steady State
response of a system due to some continuous
forcing function input.
For now, recall that the equation that describes

simple harmonic motion is:
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
September 22, 2010
Page 42

Measures of Simple Harmonic Motion
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
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Page 43
Displacement
Velocity
Velocity (m/s)
- The rate of change of displacement with time
v ( t ) = x&( t ) = A sin( t + + )
2
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Page 44
Velocity
Acceleration
Acceleration (m/s2)
- The rate of change of velocity with time
a (t ) = &
x&(t ) = A sin(t + + )
2
September 22, 2010
Page 45

0.25
0.2
0.15
Amplitude
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
displacement
velocity
acceleration
-0.2
-0.25
September 22, 2010
10
15
20
Time (ms)
25
30
35
40
Page 46
Descriptors of Vibration Signals

Average
Indicates average vibration level of the signal.
Definition:
x av
September 22, 2010
1
=
T
x(t ) dt
Page 47
Vibration Descriptors
Amplitude
xav
time
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Page 48

Peak Value (zero-to-peak)
Indicates peak vibration level of the signal.
Definition:
x p = max [x (t ) x ]
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Page 49
Amplitude
xp
time
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Page 50

Peak-to-Peak
Indicates total fluctuation in the vibration signal.
Definition:
x p p = max [x (t )] min[x (t )]
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Page 51
Amplitude
xp p
time
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Page 52

RMS (root mean square)
Value proportional to the energy in the vibration
signal.
Definition:
xRMS
September 22, 2010
1
2
[x(t )] dt
=
Page 53
Amplitude
xRMS
time
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Page 54
Amplitude
xp
xav
xRMS
xp p
time
September 22, 2010
Page 55

With respect to A in the original equation of
simple harmonic motion:
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
x RMS = 0.707A
xp = A
x p p = 2 A
x av = 0.637A
September 22, 2010
Page 56

Note that equations on the last slide are true for
simple harmonic motion only. If the vibration
signal has a different character the simplification
above does not hold.
xRMS 0.707 A
But rather, the RMS value must be calculated
from...
xRMS
September 22, 2010
1
2
[x(t )] dt
=
T
Page 57
September 22, 2010
Page 58
Time and Frequency Domains
F2
F1
September 22, 2010
Page 59

Amplitude
Frequency
F2
F1
Time
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Page 60
Amplitude
Time
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Page 61
Amplitude
F1
September 22, 2010
Frequency F2
Page 62
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Page 66

Component Frequencies of a Square Waveform
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Page 67

Component Frequencies of a Square Waveform
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Page 71

Fourier series.
y (t ) = A0 + ( An cos nt + Bn sin nt )
n =1
Example Fourier series: T = 10 (-5 to +5), A0 = 0.
2
4
6
4
10
y (t ) = sin
t+
sin
t+
sin
t +
10
5
10
10
3
20
1
1
y (t ) = sin t + sin 3t + sin 5t +

3
5

September 22, 2010
Page 72
What is Mechanical Vibration?

Using the Single Degree-of-Freedom System Model
y(t) - output
Mass M
K
x(t) - input
F(t)
September 22, 2010
Page 73
Mechanical Vibration is:

How mechanical systems respond to forcing
function inputs?
Consider an everyday example the motor vehicle.
A wide range of different inputs can cause
vibrations in motor vehicles.
Wind
Engine Combustion
Road surface
Mechanical Imbalance
Engine Fan
Misalignment
September 22, 2010
Page 74
Mechanical Vibration
All vibrations experienced by the driver and other

occupants are the result of mechanical dissipation
of energy in response to some forcing function
input.
Consider only one source of potential forcing
function input the road surface.
Also consider the vehicles suspension system as
a linear single degree-of-freedom system.
September 22, 2010
Page 75
Using the single Degree-of-Freedom System
model for the suspension system
Mass of
vehicle, M
C shock damping
y(t) output
(vehicle vibration)
K spring stiffness
x(t) input
(road surface)
F(t)
September 22, 2010
Page 76
Assume unsprung mass (wheel) is small (but not
negligible) compared to that of the vehicle.
K is the spring stiffness (linear). Spring stores energy
when stretched or compressed and acts to oppose
motion proportional to position. Unstretched or
uncompressed spring no force.
C is the damping coefficient of the shock absorber,
which is modeled as a viscous damper. The shock
absorber dissipates energy rather than storing it and
opposes motion proportional to velocity. Zero velocity
zero force.
September 22, 2010
Page 77
Response to System Inputs

Road Input
Ampl.
Vehicle Output
Ampl.
Time
Time
Evaluation of these plots reveals two important

quantities gain and phase shift.
September 22, 2010
Page 78
Gain is the change in amplitude (usually a
decrease, but often an increase) from input to
output (often expressed in decibels).
Gain = Output Amplitude
Input Amplitude
The phase shift is the change in the position of the
output vibration signal relative to the input
vibration signal.
The frequency of the output does not change
relative to the input.
September 22, 2010
Page 79
Response to System Inputs

Road Input
Vehicle Output
Gain
Ampl.
Ampl.
Time
Time
Phase Shift
September 22, 2010
Page 80
Consider now the gain and phase shift of a system
over a range of frequencies.
In order to do this we need to introduce what is
known as the Transfer Function (TF).
Gain
(dB)
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
Gain Plot
September 22, 2010
Freq.
Phase Plot
Page 81
When considered together the gain and the phase
shift plots represent the Transfer Function of a
particular mechanical system.
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
The Gain and Phase Shift at

any particular frequency are
found from these plots.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
September 22, 2010
Page 82
The gain at low

frequencies is one
or close to one.
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
The frequency shift

is zero.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
September 22, 2010
Page 83
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
September 22, 2010
There is little change in

the gain as the frequency
increases, until the
system Natural Frequency
is approached where the
gain quickly increases
with increasing frequency.
The phase shifts
towards 90 as the
frequency gets close to
the Natural Frequency.
Page 84
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
Above the Natural

Frequency, the
gain decreases at
a constant rate
(usually rapid).
Phase
(degrees)
The frequency shift

approaches 180.
Freq.
September 22, 2010
Page 85
As the frequency increases the gain initially increases (until
natural frequency) and then decreases (after natural
frequency). Note there may be more than one natural
Frequency.
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
While low frequency inputs are

passed through the system
(gain equals one), high
frequency inputs are
attenuated.
Such a system is called a low
pass filter.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
September 22, 2010
Page 86
September 22, 2010
Page 87
All mechanical systems act as low pass filters for
two reasons.
High frequencies require higher speeds to reach
the same amplitudes as lower frequencies
All machines have a maximum velocity (due to
inertia). Once the maximum velocity is reached,
higher frequencies can only be reached by
reducing the amplitude.
September 22, 2010
Page 88
Mechanical Resonance
An increase in gain and dramatic phase shift
occur at the frequency of mechanical resonance.
Many system responses or
forcing function frequencies exist
at or close to resonance.
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
September 22, 2010
It is essential to consider the

existence of these resonances
when designing new machines
and when maintaining existing
machines.
Page 89
Mechanical Resonance
Note:
The gain remains relatively

constant at low frequencies.
Systems natural frequency
(resonance) occurs when the
phase shift is exactly -90o
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
September 22, 2010
The peak gain occurs slightly

below the system resonance due
to damping.
For frequencies above resonance
the gain decreases as the phase
shift approaches -180o.
Page 90
System Damping
As noted earlier system damping affects the
response of the system.
Gain
(dB)
Increased damping results in

lower peak gain.
Freq.
Increased damping results in

reduced phase shift slope.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
Changes in damping result in only minimal changes in

gain and phase shift at low and high frequencies.
September 22, 2010
Page 91
Analysis of Mechanical Vibrations

Typically only outputs can be measured, not inputs.
To complicate this a different transfer function
exists from each vibration forcing function input to
the point where the output is measured.
Not all (if any) transfer functions are known due to
their complex nature.
As a result separately analyzing transfer functions
and inputs is extremely challenging.
September 22, 2010
Page 92
Non-Linearities
Damping is usually modeled as linear.
Using this model - as velocity slows the
damping force goes to zero.
This is, of course, not true in real systems.
Damping
Force
Velocity
In reality, the damping force levels off as velocity

approaches zero.
September 22, 2010
Page 93
Summary
Vibration is the mechanical dissipation of energy in
response to a mechanical input.
All mechanical systems act as low pass filters of
vibration inputs.
In a simple linear system, the response to a
sinusoidal input is a sinusoidal output with the
same frequency, but different phase and
amplitude.
September 22, 2010
Page 94
Summary
A system response to vibration input depends on
the frequency of the input.
The change in amplitude and phase shift of the
output relative to the input is slight at low
frequencies, but is dramatic close to the system
natural frequency (resonance) and above.
In vibration analysis it is essential to consider both
the specifics of the input and the system
characteristics (transfer function) such as
resonances and non-linearities.
September 22, 2010
Page 95

We are primarily interested in the Steady State
response of a system due to some continuous
forcing function input.
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Decibel (dB) units
A measure of vibration amplitude

Logarithmic scale
With respect to a reference value
Effective in displaying small values together
with very large values.
September 22, 2010
Page 107
Decibel (dB) units

Definition (Mechanical and Acoustics)
Arms
dB = 20 log10
A
ref
Arms - RMS value of a parameter
Aref
- Reference value of the parameter
Double amplitude corresponds to an increase of 6 dB
September 22, 2010
Page 108
Decibel (dB) units

Linear Scale
1 10
100
1000
Logarithmic Scale
September 22, 2010
10
100
1000
Page 109
Decibel (dB) units
5 000 Hz
September 22, 2010
Page 110
Dynamic Range
Small signals in the presence of large ones
(logarithmic scale is preferred)
1
0
-20
.5
-40
-60
-80
Logarithmic scale
September 22, 2010
frequency
Linear scale
Page 111
Dynamic Range
gear mesh
4 gs @ 4500 Hz
5 000 Hz
gear mesh - 4 gs
September 22, 2010
Page 112
Dynamic Range
gear mesh
4 gs @ 4500 Hz
5 000 Hz
gear mesh - 4 gs
September 22, 2010
Page 113
Dynamic Range
gear mesh
4 gs @ 4500 Hz
5 000 Hz
gear mesh - 4 gs
September 22, 2010
Page 114
Decibel (dB) units

Standardised reference values (ISO standard)
Parameter
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
1 10 6 g
Reference
September 22, 2010
1 10 12 m
1 10 9 m
or
1 10 6 m
s2
Page 115
Decibel (dB) units

dB increase
6
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
September 22, 2010
Linear Multiplication
x2
x3
x 10
x 30
x 100
x 300
x 1000
x 3000
Page 116
Decibel (dB) units
September 22, 2010
Page 117
Next Time
Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring
and Condition Based Maintenance
Basics of Mechanical Vibrations
Vibration Transducers
Vibration Signal Measurement and Display
Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance
Limits (Condition Monitoring)
Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)
September 22, 2010
Page 118

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Machine Condition Monitoring

September 22, 2010

Basics of Mechanical Vibration

September 22, 2010

Basics of Mechanical Vibration

Vibration in machines is a result of dynamic forces in

September 22, 2010

Why Measure Mechanical Vibration

It is a benign, non-intrusive method, which can be

September 22, 2010

September 22, 2010

broadband trending (maximum overall

September 22, 2010

Typical Vibration Problems

machine reliability/maintainability is affected (short term

Vibration can be categorized according to the

September 22, 2010

September 22, 2010

Rotary Mechanical Vibration

non-uniform mass distribution on rotating part (typically

Caused by loss or build-up of material, poor design, etc.

centre-lines of coupled machines

maintenance often requires uncoupling of driver and

heavy rotors bend if stationary for long periods

Other Mechanical Vibration

loose parts hit against limits of movement

off-harmonic frequency components: 1.5, 2.5, etc.

hold-down bolts can result in distortion of machine

remedy by loosening hold-down bolts and shim base of

September 22, 2010

Non-Mechanical Vibration Problems

freq.= (number of vanes) x (rotational speed)

A.C. Motor and Transformer Vibrations

September 22, 2010

60 Hz and 120 Hz, due to magnetostriction

Basic Machinery Vibrations

Spring-Mass-Damper model of vibration

September 22, 2010

Simple Harmonic Motion

x (t ) - instantaneous displacement (m)

- maximum amplitude (m)

Simple Harmonic Motion

Graphical description of simple harmonic motion

September 22, 2010

Simple Harmonic Motion

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Simple Harmonic Motion

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Simple Harmonic Motion

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Simple Harmonic Motion

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Graphical description of Random Motion.

Combination of random and periodic motion.

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Any motion other than the above.

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September 22, 2010

Classification of Vibration by Excitation