PRINCIPLES OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS

A Study of Conservation Principles with Applications

by

J. N. Reddy
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3123

Under contract to be published by

Cambridge University Press

July 2009

When even the brightest mind in our world has been trained up from childhood in a
superstition of any kind, it will never be possible for that mind, in its maturity,
to examine sincerely, dispassionately, and conscientiously any evidence or any
circumstance which shall seem to cast a doubt upon the validity of that superstition.

Mark Twain
The fact that an opinion has been widely held is no evidence whatever that it is
not utterly absurd; indeed in view of the silliness of the majority of mankind, a
widespread belief is more likely to be foolish than sensible.
Bertrand Russell
Desire for approval and recognition is a healthy motive, but the desire to be
acknowledged as better, stronger, or more intelligent than a fellow being or fellow
scholar easily leads to an excessively egoistic psychological adjustment, which may
become injurious for the individual and for the community.

Albert Einstein

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PREFACE

Preface
You cannot teach a man anything, you can only help him find it within himself.

Galileo Galilei

This book is a simplified version of the authors book, An Introduction to

Continuum Mechanics with Applications, published by Cambridge University
Press (New York, 2008), intended for use as an undergraduate text book.
As most modern technologies are no longer discipline-specific but involve
multidisciplinary approaches, undergraduate engineering students should be
educated to think and work in such environments. Therefore, it is necessary
to introduce the subject of principles of mechanics (i.e., laws of physics
applied to science and engineering systems) to undergraduate students so
that they have a strong background in the basic principles common to all
disciplines and be able to work at the interface of science and engineering
disciplines. A first course on principles of mechanics provides an introduction
to the basic concepts of stress and strain and conservation principles, and
prepares engineer-scientists for advanced courses in traditional as well as
emerging fields such as biotechnology, nanotechnology, energy systems, and
computational mechanics. Undergraduate students with such background
may seek advanced degrees in traditional (e.g., aerospace, civil, electrical,
mechanical, physics, applied mathematics) as well as interdisciplinary
degrees programs (e.g., bioengineering, engineering physics, nanoscience and
engineering, biomolecular engineering, and so on).
There are not many books on principles of mechanics that are written
keeping the undergraduate engineering or science students in mind. A
vast majority of books on the subject are written for graduate students of
engineering and tend to be more mathematical and too advanced to be of
use for third year or senior undergraduate students. This book presents
the subjects of mechanics of materials, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer in
unified form using the conservation principles of mechanics. It is hoped that
the book, which is simple and facilitates in presenting the main concepts of
the previous three courses under a unified framework.
With a brief discussion of the concept of a continuum in Chapter 1, a
review of vectors and tensors is presented in Chapter 2. Since the analytical
language of applied sciences and engineering is mathematics, it is necessary
for all students of this course to familiarize themselves with the notation and
operations of vectors, matrices, and tensors that are used in the mathematical

PREFACE

vii

description of physical phenomena. Readers who are familiar with the topics
of this chapter may refresh or skip and go to the next chapter. The subject
of kinematics, which deals with geometric changes without regard to the
forces causing the deformation, is discussed in Chapter 3. Measures of
engineering normal and shear strains and definitions of mathematical strains
are introduced here. Both simple one-dimensional systems to as well as twodimensional continua are used to illustrate the strain and strain-rate measures
introduced. In Chapter 4, the concept of stress vector and stress tensor are
introduced. It is here, the readers are presented with entities that require two
directions - namely, the plane on which they are measured and the direction
in which they act - to specify them. Transformation equations among
components of stress tensor referred to two dierent orthogonal coordinate
systems are derived, and principal values and principal planes (i.e., eigenvalue
problems associated with the stress tensor) are also discussed.
Chapter 5 is dedicated to the derivation of the governing equations of
mechanics using the conservation principles of continuum mechanics (or
laws of physics). The principles of conservation of mass, linear momentum,
angular momentum, and energy are presented using one-dimensional systems
as well as general three-dimensional systems. The derivations are presented
in invariant (i.e., independent of a coordinate system) as well as in component
form. The equations resulting from these principles are those governing
stress and deformation of solid bodies, stress and rate of deformation of fluid
elements, and transfer of heat through solid media. Thus, this chapter forms
the heart of the course. Constitutive relations that connect the kinematic
variables (e.g., density, temperature, deformation) to the kinetic variables
(e.g., internal energy, heat flux, and stresses) are discussed in Chapter 6 for
elastic materials, viscous fluids, and heat transfer in solids.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the application of the field equations derived in
Chapter 5 and constitutive models presented in Chapter 6 to problems of
heat conduction in solids, fluid mechanics (inviscid flows as well as viscous
incompressible flows), diusion, and solid mechanics (e.g., bars, beams, and
plane elasticity). Simple boundary-value problems are formulated and their
solutions are discussed. The material presented in this chapter illustrates how
physical problems are analytically formulated with the aid of the equations
resulting from the conservation principles.
As stated previously, the present book is an undergraduate version of
the authors book An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics (Cambridge
University Press, New York, 2008). The presentation herein is limited in
scope when compared to the authors graduate level textbook. The major
benefit of a course based on this book is to present the governing equations
of diverse physical phenomena from a unified point of view, namely, from
the conservation principles (or laws of physics) so that students of applied
science and engineering see the physical principles as well as the mathematical
structure common to diverse fields. Readers interested in advanced topics
may consult the authors continuum mechanics book cited above or other
titles listed in references therein.

viii

PREFACE

The author is pleased to acknowledge the fact that the manuscript was
tested with the undergraduate students in the College of Engineering at
Texas A&M University as well as in the Engineering Science Programme
at the National University of Singapore. The students, in general, have
liked the contents and the simplicity with which the concepts are introduced
and explained. They also expressed the feeling that the subject is more
challenging than most at the undergraduate level but a useful prerequisite to
graduate courses in engineering.
The book contains so many mathematical expressions that it is hardly
possible not to have typographical and other kinds of errors. The author
wishes to thank in advance those who are willing to draw the authors
attention to typos and errors, using the e-mail address jn_reddy@yahoo.com.
J. N. Reddy
College Station

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Contents

Preface

vi

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Continuum Mechanics
1.2 Objective of the Study
1.3 Summary

1
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7
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2 VECTORS AND TENSORS

2.1 Motivation
2.2 Definition of a Vector
2.3 Vector Algebra
2.3.1 Unit Vector
2.3.2 Zero Vector
2.3.3 Vector Addition
2.3.4 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
2.3.5 Scalar Product of Vectors
2.3.6 Vector Product
2.3.7 Triple Products of Vectors
2.3.8 Plane Area as a Vector
2.3.9 Components of a Vector
2.4 Index Notation and Summation Convention
2.4.1 Summation Convention
2.4.2 Dummy Index
2.4.3 Free Index
2.4.4 Kronecker Delta and Permutation Symbols
2.4.5 Transformation Law for Dierent Bases
2.5 Theory of Matrices
2.5.1 Definition
2.5.2 Matrix Addition and Multiplication of a Matrix
by a Scalar
2.5.3 Matrix Transpose and Symmetric and Skew Symmetric
Matrices
2.5.4 Matrix Multiplication
2.5.5 Inverse and Determinant of a Matrix

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2.6 Vector Calculus

2.6.1 The Del Operator
2.6.2 Divergence and Curl of a Vector
2.6.3 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinate Systems
2.6.4 Gradient, Divergence and Curl Theorems
2.7 Tensors
2.7.1 Dyads
2.7.2 Nonion Form of a Dyad
2.7.3 Transformation of Components of a Dyad
2.7.4 Tensor Calculus
2.8 Summary
Problems
3 KINEMATICS OF A CONTINUUM
3.1 Deformation and Configuration
3.2 Engineering Strains
3.2.1 Normal Strain
3.2.2 Shear Strain
3.3 General Kinematics of a Solid Continuum
3.3.1 Configurations of a Continuous Medium
3.3.2 Material and Spatial Descriptions
3.3.3 Displacement Field
3.4 Analysis of Deformation
3.4.1 Deformation Gradient Tensor
3.4.2 Various Types of Deformations
3.4.2.1 Pure dilatation
3.4.2.2 Simple extension
3.4.2.3 Simple shear
3.4.2.4 A nonhomogeneous deformation
3.4.3 Green Strain Tensor
3.4.4 Infinitesimal Strain Tensor
3.4.5 Principal Values and Principal Planes of Strains
3.5 Rate of Deformation and Vorticity Tensors
3.5.1 Velocity Gradient Tensor
3.5.2 Rate of Deformation Tensor
3.5.3 Vorticity Tensor and Vorticity Vector
3.6 Compatibility Equations
3.7 Summary
Problems

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4 STRESS VECTOR AND STRESS TENSOR

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Stress Vector, Stress Tensor, and Cauchys Formula
4.3 Transformation of Stress Components and Principal Stresses
4.3.1 Transformation of Stress Components
4.3.2 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes
4.4 Summary
Problems

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5 CONSERVATION OF MASS, MOMENTA AND

ENERGY
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Conservation of Mass
5.2.1 Preliminary Discussion
5.2.2 Conservation of Mass in Spatial Description
5.2.3 Conservation of Mass in Material Description
5.2.4 Reynolds Transport Theorem
5.3 Conservation of Momenta
5.3.1 Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum
5.3.2 Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum
5.4 Thermodynamic Principles
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Energy Equation for One-Dimensional Flows
5.4.3 Energy Equation for a Three-Dimensional Continuum
5.5 Summary
Problems

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6 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Elastic Solids
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Generalized Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials
6.2.3 Generalized Hookes Law for Isotropic Materials
6.3 Constitutive Equations for Fluids
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Ideal Fluids
6.3.3 Viscous Incompressible Fluids
6.4 Heat Transfer
6.4.1 General Introduction
6.4.2 Fouriers Heat Conduction Law
6.4.3 Newtons Law of Cooling
6.4.4 StefanBoltzmann Law
6.5 Summary
Problems

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7 APPLICATIONS IN HEAT TRANSFER, FLUID

MECHANICS, AND SOLID MECHANICS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Heat Transfer
7.2.1 Governing Equation
7.2.2 Analytical Solutions of One-Dimensional Heat Transfer
7.2.2.1 Steady-State Heat Transfer in a Cooling Fin
7.2.2.2 Steady-State Heat Transfer in
a Surface Insulated Rod
7.2.3 Axisymmetric Heat Conduction in a Circular Cylinder
7.2.4 Two-Dimensional Heat Transfer
7.3 Fluid Mechanics
7.3.1 Preliminary Comments
7.3.2 Summary of Equations
7.3.3 Inviscid Fluid Statics
7.3.4 Parallel Flow (Navier-Stokes Equations)
7.3.4.1 Steady flow of viscous incompressible fluid
between parallel plates
7.3.4.2 Steady flow of viscous incompressible fluid
through a pipe
7.3.5 Diusion Processes
7.4 Solid Mechanics
7.4.1 Governing Equations
7.4.2 Analysis of Bars
7.4.3 Analysis of Beams
7.4.3.1 Principle of Superposition
7.4.4 Analysis of Plane Elasticity Problems
7.4.5.1 Plane strain and plane stress problems
7.4.5.2 Plane strain problems
7.4.5.3 Plane stress problems
7.4.5.4 Solution Methods
7.4.5.5 Airy stress function
7.5 Summary
Problems

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REFERENCES

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ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS

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SUBJECT INDEX

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About the Author

J. N. Reddy is a Distinguished Professor and the Holder of Oscar S. Wyatt
Endowed Chair in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M
University (http://www.tamu.edu/acml).
Professor Reddy is a renowned researcher and educator in the broad fields
of mechanics, applied mathematics, and computational engineering science.
Professor Reddys research areas include theory and finite element analysis
of problems in structural mechanics (composite plates and shells), fluid
dynamics, and heat transfer; theoretical modelling of stress and deformation
of biological cells and soft tissues; nanocomposites; and development of
robust computational technology (including the K-version finite element
models based on the least-squares method in collaboration with Professor
Karan Surana of the University of Kansas). He is the author of over 375
journal papers and 16 books on these subjects. The books published by Dr.
Reddy include Introduction to the Finite Element Method, 3rd ed., McGrawHill, 2006; Mechanics of Laminated Plates and Shells: Theory and Analysis,
2nd ed., CRC Press, 2004; An Introduction to Nonlinear Finite Element
Analysis, Oxford University Press, 2004; and An Introduction to Continuum
Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Dr. Reddys outstanding research credentials have earned him wide
international acclaim in the form of numerous professional awards, citations,
fellowship in all major professional societies including AAM, AIAA,
ASC, ASCE, ASME, IACM and USACM, membership on two dozen
archival journals, and numerous keynote and plenary lecture invitations
at international conferences. Dr. Reddy is the Editor-in-Chief of Applied
Mechanics Reviews, Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures,
International Journal of Computational Methods in Engineering Science and
Mechanics, and International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics.
The extent of Dr. Reddys original and sustained contributions to
education, research, and professional service is substantial. As a result of
his extensive publications of archival journal papers and books on a wide
range of topics in applied sciences and engineering, Dr. Reddy is one of the
selective few researchers in engineering around world who are recognized by
ISI Highly Cited Researchers with over 10,000 citations with H-index of over
40. In February 2009 he was awarded a Honoris Causa (Honorary Doctorate)
by the Technical University of Lisbon.