Resource Geology Vol. 59, No.

3: 295306

doi: 10.1111/j.1751-3928.2009.00097.x

Thematic Short Communication

rge_097

295..306

A Preliminary Study on Skarn-Related Calc-silicate Rocks

Associated with the Batu Hijau Porphyry Copper-Gold
Deposit, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia
Arifudin Idrus,1 Jochen Kolb,2 F.Michael Meyer,2 Johan Arif,3 Dudy Setyandhaka3
and Syamsul Kepli3
1

Department of Geological Engineering, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 2Institute of Mineralogy and Economic
Geology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany and 3Mine Geology Department, PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara, Batu
Hijau project, Sumbawa, Indonesia

Abstract
Batu Hijau is a world-class gold-rich porphyry copper deposit, situated in Sumbawa Island, Indonesia. Deep
drilling indicates that several intervals of calc-silicate rock were intersected, where they are apparently interbedded with volcaniclastic rocks. The calc-silicate rocks occur at the contact with copper-gold-bearing tonalite
porphyries. The rocks are ne-grained and granular with green, reddish-brown and white layers. The green
layers consist mostly of ne-grained clinopyroxene (diopside and hedenbergite) and the reddish-brown layers
consist mostly of garnet (andradite), whereas the white layers are commonly composed of calcite and zeolite
(chabazite). The calc-silicate rocks were formed by contact metasomatism of andesitic volcaniclastic rocks, as
it is calcic in composition. Paragenesis study reveals at least two stages of calc-silicate mineralization. Stage 1
(prograde) is characterized by the presence of garnet (andradite), clinopyroxene (diopside and hedenbergite),
anorthite and quartz at 340360 C (high salinity 3545 NaCl wt percentage eqn.). Stage 2 (retrograde) is
characterized by chlorite and rare epidote at 280300 C (low salinity 110 NaCl wt% eqn.). Late calcite quartz
veinlets and calcite + chabazite veins/veinlets may also be related to this stage and cross cut the oldest mineral
assemblages. Mineralization (magnetite, chalcopyrite and pyrite) may occur during the retrograde stage.
Clinopyroxene and garnet were modied by Fe-rich hydrothermal uid (oxidizing condition) indicated by
increase of Fe from core to rim of both the cogenetic minerals. The presence of the calc-silicate rocks associated
with massive magnetite-chalcopyrite-pyrite assemblage indicates the occurrence of calcic-exoskarn surrounding the Batu Hijau porphyry copper-gold deposit.
Keywords: Batu Hijau porphyry Cu-Au deposit, calc-silicate, Indonesia, skarn, Sumbawa.

1. Introduction
The Batu Hijau porphyry Cu-Au deposit is situated
in the south-western part of Sumbawa Island, Indonesia (Fig. 1). The deposit contains 914 Mt of ore at an

average grade of 0.53% Cu (10.58 billion pounds

copper) and 0.40 g t-1 Au (11.8 million ounces gold).
The Batu Hijau mine, since its discovery in 1990, has
been investigated by many researchers including
Meldrum et al. (1994), Irianto and Clark (1995), Maula

Received 27 October 2008. Accepted for publication 12 February 2009.

Corresponding author: A. IDRUS, Department of Geological Engineering, Gadjah Mada University, Jl. Graka 2 Bulaksumur (55281),
Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Email: aridrus@ugm.ac.id
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295

A. Idrus et al.

Fig. 1 Distribution of mineralized Tertiary magmatic arcs in Indonesia (modied from Carlile & Mitchell, 1994). The location
of the Batu Hijau porphyry Cu-Au deposit is also shown.

and Levet (1996), Mitchell et al. (1998), Clode et al.

(1999), Garwin (2002), Arif and Baker (2004), Imai and
Ohno (2005), Imai and Nagai (2009) and Idrus et al.
(2007; 2009). Their studies were mostly focused on the
deposit geology, petrology of wall-rocks and intrusions, alteration and mineralization, detailed regional
geology of Batu Hijau area, gold deportment, uid
inclusion and geothermobarometry of causative intrusions of the porphyry copper-gold deposit. The rst
published paper on the Batu Hijau skarn mineralization was written by Setyandhaka et al. (2008), which
was based on hand lens and petrographic examination
of drill core during deep drilling program in 2003.
The deep drilling review indicated the presence of
calc-silicate rocks which are apparently interbedded
with andesitic volcaniclastic rocks (Proffett, 2003;
Setyandhaka et al., 2008). Andesitic volcaniclasitic
rocks are the major wall-rock unit within the Batu Hijau
deposit (Clode et al., 1999; Idrus et al., 2007). The origin,
nature and occurrence of the skarn-related calc-silicate
rocks at Batu Hijau are still poorly understood. This
paper therefore describes a preliminary study on the
mineralogy, whole-rock geochemistry, mineral chemistry and uid inclusion microthermometry of the
skarn-related calc-silicate rocks at the Batu Hijau
deposit.

296

2. Geology of the Batu Hijau deposit

The pre-mineralization rock units consist of interbedded andesitic volcaniclastic rocks, intrusive andesite
and at least two texturally distinct intrusive quartz
diorites (equigranular quartz diorite and porphyritic
quartz diorite). The andesitic volcaniclastic rocks
deposited between 20 and 15 Ma (Garwin, 2002) are
the most common rock-type within the deposit. The
intrusive andesite crosscuts the andesitic volcaniclastic
units suggesting that the intrusive andesite is younger
than the volcaniclastic succession. The intrusive andesite is the earliest intrusive unit identied in the Batu
Hijau area (Clode et al., 1999). Field relationships indicate that the equigranular quartz diorite intrudes the
andesitic volcaniclastic rocks, intrusive andesite and
porphyritic quartz diorite. This suggests that the intrusion is younger than the other wall rock units within
the Batu Hijau deposit.
These wall-rock units are intruded by at least two
texturally distinct stages of tonalite porphyries, which
are referred to as intermediate tonalite and young
tonalite, respectively. The U-Pb SHRIMP zircon dating
indicates that the emplacement of the tonalite porphyry intrusions was rapid from 3.76 0.123.67
0.10 Ma (Garwin, 2002). The copper and gold-bearing
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Skarn at Batu Hijau, Indonesia

Setyandhaka et al., 2008). The age of the calc-silicate

layers are not clear, however, it may be coeval with the
formation of the early biotite (potassic) alteration zone
(3.73 0.08 Ma; Garwin, 2002) at the Batu Hijau porphyry Cu-Au deposit. A representative suite of calcsilicate rock samples is collected from deep drill cores
(Fig. 3).

3. Analytical methods

Fig. 2 Geological map of the Batu Hijau deposit (as of

early 2002) (after Imai & Ohno, 2005). Cross section
along the Line 9020N is presented in Figure 3.

tonalite porphyries are emplaced spatially and

temporally associated with north-south (NS) and
north-eastsouth-west (NESW) trending structures
(Priowarsono & Maryono, 2002) and distributed along
the contact between the andesitic volcaniclastic rocks
and the equigranular quartz diorite. NS trending
structures are closely related to the emplacement of the
intermediate tonalite and it seems to be slightly older
than NESW trending structures, which controlled the
emplacement of the young tonalite.
The geological map and cross section of the Batu
Hijau deposit (after Imai & Ohno, 2005) is presented in
Figures 2 and 3, respectively. A deep drilling program
through 2003 has intercepted calc-silicate layers at
deeper level, which in most intervals are interbedded
with andesitic volcaniclastic rocks (Proffett, 2003;
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Journal compilation 2009 The Society of Resource Geology

In this preliminary study, a total of four calc-silicate

rock samples were petrographically analysed on polished thin sections using transmitted and reected
light. Two samples were analysed using XRF spectroscopy (X-Laboratory 2000; Spectro, Burladingen,
Germany) for major oxides and infra-red optical emissions spectroscopy (IROES) (RC-412 and S-200; Leco,
Michigan, USA) for the volatile components, particularly carbon and sulphur at the RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany. Two other samples were
analysed at the Activation Laboratories Ltd (Actlabs,
Ancaster, Canada) for major oxides, trace and REE
contents using inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometer (ICP-MS).
Chemical compositions of calc-silicate minerals
identied optically were determined quantitatively by
using a JEOL JXA-8900R electron probe microanalyser
(EPMA) (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). A beam of electrons
excites the sample, X-rays are analysed and their intensities are converted into concentrations using the ZAF
software (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). Element determinations
were peformed using a beam size of 3 mm, an accelerating potential voltage of 15 kV, a probe current of
24 nA. All standards used are natural, which include
plagioclase for Si, Al and Ca, rutile for Ti, fayalite for Fe,
manganese oxide for Mn, spinel for Mg, jadeite for Na
and orthoclase for K. The structural formula was calculated using the MINPET software (Minpet Geological Software Inc., Qubec, Canada).
Microthermometry of uid inclusions for four silicate rock samples containing late calcite quartz veinlets and calcite + chabazite veins/veinlets was analysed
using a US Geological Survey adapted gas-ow
heating-freezing stage. The doubly polished thin sections of quartz (~100 mm thick) were used in this analysis. The inclusions were rst frozen at about -150 C
before heating to higher temperatures. The temperature of eutectic point (Te), temperature of melting (Tm),
temperature of homogenisation (Th) of the phases and
melting temperatures of halite (Tm NaCl) were
recorded during the heating. If the halite daughter

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A. Idrus et al.

Fig. 3 East-west geologic section

along Line 9020N (after Imai &
Ohno, 2005). The locations of the
studied calc-silicate samples
from drill holes (SBD287/
794.7, SBD300/753.6, SBD284/
827, SBD275/684) are shown. The
surface is original topography.

crystals are present, particularly in Type-III inclusions,

the salinity is determined on the basis of the melting
temperature of the halite (cf. Sourirajan & Kennedy,
1962). Mineral chemistry and uid inclusion microthermometry were analysed at the RWTH Aachen
University.

4. Results
4.1 Mineralogy
The Batu Hijau calc-silicate rocks are typically green,
reddish-brown, locally black colour, ne-grained and
granular (Fig. 4a). The rocks are commonly layered in
several intervals and interbedded with andesitic volcaniclastic rocks. The green layers consist mostly of negrained clinopyroxene (diopside and hedenbergite),
and the reddish-brown layers consist mostly of garnet
(andradite), whereas the white layers are commonly
composed of calcite and zeolite (chabazite) (Fig. 4a, b).
Ca-rich plagioclase (anorthite), quartz, chlorite and
rare epidote are also identied in the rocks. Anhydrite
is observed mostly as cavity lling in deep drill cores,
but it might not be directly associated with calc-silicate
layers. Texturally, clinopyroxene (diopside and hedenbergite), andradite garnet, anorthite and quartz may
represent the prograde stage of calc-silicate mineralization, whereas calcite, zeolite, quartz, chlorite and rare
epidote may correspond to the retrograde stage. Petro-

298

graphic examination indicates that clinopyroxene and

garnet are mostly zoned. Petrologic characterization
and cross-cutting relationship observation reveals at
least two types of veins/veinlets in the rocks which
include calcite quartz veinlets and chabazite-calcite
veins/veinlets (Fig. 4a, c). Both vein/veinlet types are
genetically related to the retrograde stage of calcsilicate mineralization. However, calcite quartz veinlets are oldest and truncated by chabazite-calcite
veins/veinlets (Fig. 4a).
Ore mineralization is typied by the presence of
massive magnetite, structurally controlled, sheared
and broken ore associated with disseminated pyrite
and chalcopyrite. Chemical analysis of deep drill cores
from three mineralization zones including broken
magnetite, in contact with tonalite and calc-silicate
zones show that the highest Cu and Au grade is closely
related to the broken magnetite zone (Proffett, 2003;
Setyandhaka et al., 2008). Based on ore microscopic
study, magnetite and chalcopyrite, in part, are distributed along the contact margin between the veins/
veinlets and their wall-rocks (Fig. 4c).

4.2 Whole-rock geochemistry

Whole-rock geochemical data of the four rock samples
analyzed are virtually identical (Table 1). However,
their elemental concentrations indicate some variations
due to variability in their mineral proportions. The
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Skarn at Batu Hijau, Indonesia

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 4 (a) Drill core sample of calc-silicate rock identied during deep drilling (SBD284/827) at the contact with Cu-Aubearing tonalite porphyries characterized by the presence of green layers of ne-grained clinopyroxene (Cpx), reddishbrown layers of garnet (Grt), magnetite (Mag) and chalcopyrite (Ccp), calcite (Cal) as well as late calcite quartz veinlets
and chabazite (Cbz)-calcite veins/veinlets (b) Photomicrograph of calc-silicate rock (dashed square area in Fig. 4a),
composed of garnet, clinopyroxene and anorthite (prograde stage) and calcite (late stage), and (c) Ore microscopy of
calc-silicate rock showing magnetite and chalcopyrite mostly distributed along the wall-rock of late veins/veinlets.

geochemical data reveal that SiO2 and CaO contents

ranging from 44.148.8 wt% and 21.726.1 wt%,
respectively. The relatively high SiO2 and CaO contents
obviously reect the occurrence of calc-silicate minerals in the skarn-related rocks. The concentrations of
2009 The Authors
Journal compilation 2009 The Society of Resource Geology

other major elements including Al2O3, MnO and Na2O

are relatively low; even K2O and P2O5 contents are
below the detection limit, implying the minor presence
of non calc-silicate mineral phases. The calc-silicate
rocks are also typied by low concentrations of large

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A. Idrus et al.

Table 1 Whole-rock geochemical data of the Batu Hijau

calc-silicate rocks
Sample no.

SBD
287/79.7

Major oxides (wt%)

44.44
SiO2
9.53
Fe2O3
0.58
TiO2
13.05
Al2O3
MnO
1.08
MgO
2.69
CaO
23.32
0.62
Na2O
bd
K2 O
bd
P 2 O5
LOI
3.77
Total
99.07
Elements (ppm)
S (wt%)
0.03
C (wt%)
0.32
Cr
19.8
Co
27.6
Sn
4.4
V
118.9
Cu
40.8
Zn
99.8
Ga
15.8
Sr
109.0
Y
20.6
Zr
62.4
Ba
14.4
La
na
Ce
na
Pr
na
Nd
na
Sm
na
Eu
na
Gd
na
Tb
na
Dy
na
Ho
na
Er
na
Tm
na
Yb
na
Lu
na
Hf
3.8
Au (ppb)
na

SBD
300/753

SBD
284/827

SBD
275/684

46.76
8.13
0.58
13.29
0.38
5.42
24.22
0.34
bd
bd
1.55
100.66

44.10
13.27
0.56
11.29
0.52
2.88
26.10
0.38
bd
bd
1.52
100.61

48.76
11.40
0.62
11.22
0.28
2.08
21.68
0.28
bd
bd
3.74
100.05

0.02
0.17
32.9
25.9
2.1
82
44
64
12
187
23
96
12
5.5
14.9
2.07
11.7
3.6
0.94
4.1
0.8
4.2
0.9
2.7
0.41
2.6
0.37
3.2
5.5

0.02
0.26
40.4
37.4
3.5
113.20
21.1
109.0
13.1
126.2
32.5
73.6
25.7
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
3.7
na

0.09
0.77
43.2
24.1
2.3
150
33
66
11
187
25
63
114
4
10.7
1.77
10.5
3.2
1.07
3.6
0.7
3.7
0.8
2.6
0.39
2.4
0.35
1.9
12

Sample numbers are referred to sample locations in Figure 3.

bd, below the detection limit; LOI, Loss of Ignition; na, not
analysed.

Fig. 5 REE-chondrite (C1) normalized pattern of calcsilicate rocks. For comparison, REE-chondrite (C1) normalized diagrams of associated least-altered andesitic
volcaniclastic rocks at the Batu Hijau deposit are
shown (data from Idrus, 2006). Note: C1 chondrite data
are from Sun and McDonough (1989).

the calc-silicate zone, but with the structurallycontrolled broken magnetite zone, which is dened
as skarn mineralization interval (Fig. 3).
Generally, concentrations of REE are low, and show a
nearly at or gently inclined pattern (LaN/LuN = ~1.41)
at 30 times the C1 chondrite (Sun & McDonough, 1989)
(Fig. 5). The light rare earth elements (LREE) have a
steeper slope (LaN/SmN = ~0.90), than those of heavy
rare earth elements (HREE) (GdN/YbN = ~1.25). For
comparison, C1 chondrite-normalized REE patterns of
associated least-altered Batu Hijau volcaniclastic rocks
are also shown in Figure 5 (data from Idrus, 2006). The
chondrite-normalized REE patterns of both rocks are
relatively identical, with an exception of LREE (particularly La and Ce) and Eu, which tend to be depleted in
calc-silicate rocks. The similar REE patterns of both
rocks reect their intimate occurrence as interbedded
layers in the Batu Hijau deposit. A depletion (minor
negative) Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.86) in calc-silicate
rocks may correspond to a minor abundance of Ca-rich
plagioclase (anorthite) in these rocks.

4.3 Mineral chemistry

ion lithophile elements (LILE) and high eld strength
elements (HFSE). Transition metals are also consistently low, for instance, copper grades varying between
21.1 and 40.8 ppm. Gold content is very low with an
average of 8.8 ppb. As outlined in the previous section,
the highest grade of Cu and Au is not associated with

300

Chemical compositions of identied calc-silicate minerals were analysed using electron microprobe analyser
(Tables 2, 3). Fine-grained clinopyroxenes were quantitatively identied as diopside and hedenbergite.
Microprobe backscattered electron image shows that
clinopyroxene grains are mostly symmetrically zoned
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Skarn at Batu Hijau, Indonesia

Table 2 Representative electron microprobe data of clinopyroxene, garnet and plagioclase characterizing prograde stage in
the Batu Hijau calc-silicate rocks
Clinopyroxene

Garnet

Anorthite

Sample no.

SBD287/794.7

Sample no.

SBD287/794.7

Sample no.

SBD287/794.7

Analysis no.

63-153f
Core

181-60
Rim

Analysis no.

70-96c
Core

49-119
Rim

Analysis no.

181-21
Unzoned

181-32
Unzoned

SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K 2O
Total
Si
Al
Fe+3
Ti
Fe+3
Fe+2
Mg
Mn
Ca
Na
K
XCa
XMg
XFe
Q
J
WO
EN
FS

53.33
bd
0.36
4.40
0.52
15.32
25.71
0.10
0.01
99.75
1.97
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.84
0.02
1.02
0.01
0.00
0.52
0.43
0.00
1.94
0.01
50.54
41.90
7.56

48.22
0.16
2.20
19.18
1.78
5.58
23.40
0.33
bd
100.85
1.88
0.10
0.02
0.01
0.13
0.48
0.33
0.06
0.98
0.03
0.00
0.53
0.18
0.01
1.78
0.05
49.22
16.33
34.45

SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Cr2O3
Fe2O3
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Total
Si
Al
AlVI
Fe+3
Ti
Cr
Fe+2
Mg
Mn
Ca
XCa
XFe
XMg
Alm
And
Gross
Pyrope
Spess
Uvaro

35.64
0.56
6.47
bd
22.14
bd
0.44
0.05
34.29
99.61
5.84
0.16
1.09
2.73
0.07
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.06
6.02
0.99
0.00
0.00
0.00
70.12
28.54
0.20
1.00
0.03

35.00
0.95
3.23
0.03
26.14
1.40
2.24
0.12
30.28
99.36
5.90
0.10
0.54
3.32
0.12
0.00
0.20
0.03
0.32
5.47
0.91
0.03
0.01
3.27
83.28
7.48
0.50
5.31
0.10

SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
FeO
MnO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
BaO
Total
Si
Al
Ti
Fe+2
Mn
Ca
Na
K
Ba
Cations
Ab
An
Or

44.87
bd
35.40
0.48
bd
18.41
1.00
0.02
bd
100.17
8.28
7.69
0.00
0.07
0.00
3.64
0.36
0.00
0.00
20.04
8.90
91.00
0.10

44.14
bd
34.82
0.24
bd
19.27
0.56
bd
bd
99.03
8.25
7.66
0.00
0.04
0.00
3.86
0.20
0.00
0.00
20.01
5.00
95.00
0.00

Sample numbers are referred to sample locations in Figure 3.

Pyroxene:
Q = Ca + Mg + Fe2; J = 2Na; WO = 100*Ca/(Ca + Mg + Fe2 + Fe3 + Mn); EN = 100*(Fe2 + Fe3 + Mn)/(Ca + Mg + Fe2 + Fe3 + Mn) and FS = 100*(Fe2
+ Fe3 + Mn)/(Ca + Mg + Fe2 + Fe3 + Mn) (after Morimoto, 1989)
Garnet:
Alm = Almandine (Fe3Al2Si3O12); And = Andradite (Ca3Fe3+2Si3O12); Gross = Grossular (Ca3Al2Si3O12); Pyrope = Pyrope (Mg3Al2Si3O12); Spess
= Spessartine (Mn3Al2Si3O12); Uvaro = Uvarovite (Ca3Cr2Si3O12).
Structural formula calculation:
Pyroxene is based on 6 oxygens, Fe+3 calculated with charge balance.
Garnet is based on 24 oxygens; Plagioclase is based on 24 oxygens.
Plagioclase:
Ab, albite; An, Anorthite; bd, below the detection limit; Or, Orthoclase.

(Fig. 6a). Microprobe analysis traversing the zoned clinopyroxenes from core to rim indicates a change in
chemical composition from diopside (Ca-rich) to
hedenbergite (Fe-rich) (Fig. 6b). Similarly, garnet crystals are commonly zoned (Fig. 6a) and identied as
andradite (XAnd = 7080; Table 2). The zoned andradite garnet also slightly changes in its composition to
be Fe-rich on the rim (Fig. 6a, c). Ca-plagioclase (anor 2009 The Authors
Journal compilation 2009 The Society of Resource Geology

thite) mostly displays unzoned crystal (Fig. 6a) with

XAn = 9095 (Table 2). Clinopyroxene, garnet and
anorthite, texturally are interpreted to be cogenetic and
formed during the prograde stage of skarn-related calcsilicate alteration.
In addition, chemical compositions of retrograde
calc-silicate minerals including epidote, calcite and
zeolite were also analysed (Table 3). Epidote comprises

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A. Idrus et al.

Table 3 Representative electron microprobe data of epidote, calcite and zeolite characterizing retrograde stage in the Batu
Hijau calc-silicate rocks
Epidote

Calcite

Chabazite (Ca-zeolite)

Sample no.

SBD300/753.6

Sample no.

SBD284/827

SBD275/684

Sample no.

SBD275/684

SBD287/794.7

Analysis no.

182-01

182-02

Analysis no.

183-01

184-01

Analysis no.

184-01

181-08

SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
Na2O
K2O
H 2O
Total
Si
AlIV
AlVI
Ti
Fe+3
Ca
Na
mole.% Ps

38.12
bd
25.04
10.62
24.07
0.02
bd
1.92
99.79
2.98
0.02
2.29
0.00
0.69
2.02
0.00
23.26

37.61
0.06
23.68
12.12
23.95
bd
bd
1.90
99.32
2.97
0.03
2.18
0.00
0.80
2.03
0.00
26.88

FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
BaO
SrO
CO2
Total

0.02
0.10
0.01
56.43
bd
bd
0.01
44.36
100.93

0.02
0.20
0.00
55.83
0.02
bd
0.05
43.98
100.10

SiO2
Al2O3
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K 2O
Total

54.07
20.86
0.02
0.02
0.03
8.97
0.46
1.20
85.64

51.29
24.35
bd
bd
0.01
10.74
1.15
1.67
89.21

Sample numbers are referred to sample locations in Figure 3.

Epidote:
Structural formula based on 13 oxygens and 1 OH
mole.% Ps = mole percentage of pistacite (100*Fe+3/(Fe+3 + AlVI)
Calcite and chabazite:
CO2 in calcite is calculated from stoichiometry
H2O measurement of chabazite (Ca-zeolite) is excluded.
bd, below the detection limit.

2327 mole percentage pistacite (Ps) (= 100*Fe+3/(Fe+3 +

AlVI), corresponding to 0.690.80 atoms per formula
unit (apfu) of Fe+3 and 1.862.04 apfu of AlVI. Calcite is
nearly pure, indicated by CaO and CO2 contents of
56 wt% and 44 wt%, respectively. Zeolite crystals are
typically Ca-rich (CaO = ~10 wt%) with total alkaline
(Na2O + K2O) contents less than 3 wt%.

4.4 Fluid inclusion microthermometry

Similar to porphyry deposits, uid inclusion types in
skarn deposits are classied into (i) Type-I liquid-rich,
liquid-vapour (1040 vol percentage vapour); (ii)
Type-II vapour-rich, liquid-vapour (6090 vol percentage vapours); and (iii) Type-III liquid-rich, liquidvapour with daughter mineral (commonly halite)
(Nash, 1976). All inclusion types are obviously recognized in the Batu Hijau calc-silicate samples. In most
cases, Type-I inclusions are identied as secondary
origin, but some of primary origin are also present. The
secondary inclusions are commonly localized along
annealed fracture planes. The primary inclusions are

302

found abundantly in the late calcite quartz and

calcite-chabazite veins/veinlets. Type-II and III inclusions have a common form of perfect negative crystal.
The inclusions are irregularly distributed or follow
planes that terminate at quartz crystal boundaries, and
could be primary or pseudo-secondary. The inclusions
are abundantly observed in quartz crystals in the
matrix of the calc-silicate rocks, and very rarely found
in the veins/veinlets.
Overall microthermometric data of Type-I and TypeIII inclusions indicate that homogenization temperature spans from 230 to 400 C, with a wide range of
salinity from 2.5 to 45 NaCl wt% eqn. Type-II inclusions were microthermometrically not analysed in the
samples as the homogenization of vapour phases are
difcult to observe. Temperature and salinity distribution in histogram exhibits at least two main peaks of
temperature and salinity, which may represent two
stages of calc-silicate mineralization (Fig. 7). Stage 1
(prograde) occurred at high temperature of 340360 C
by high salinity uid of 3545 NaCl wt% eqn. Stage 2
(retrograde) formed at relatively low temperature of
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Skarn at Batu Hijau, Indonesia

(a)
(b)

Fig. 6 (a) Microprobe backscattered

electron image of prograde stagerelated calc-silicate minerals
including anorthite (An), zoned
garnet (Grt) and zoned clinopyroxene (Cpx). The traverse lines
a-a and b-b from core to rim of
zoned clinopyroxene and garnet
are also displayed (b) Compositional variation of zoned clinopyroxene crossing its core to rim
(a-a line), and (c) Compositional
variation of zoned garnet crossing its core to rim (b-b line).

280300 C by low salinity uid of 110 NaCl wt% eqn.

High temperature and salinity are mostly measured
from Type-III (polyphase) inclusions identied in
quartz in the matrix of the calc-silicate rocks, whereas
low temperature and salinity are derived from Type-I
liquid-rich inclusions, predominantly associated with
the late calcite-(quartz)-chabazite veins/veinlets.

5. Discussion
A deep drilling program has intercepted calc-silicate
rock layers at deeper levels, which are mostly interbedded with andesitic volcaniclastic rocks at the contact
with copper-gold-bearing tonalite porphyries (Proffett,
2003; Setyandhaka et al., 2008). Genetically, calc-silicate
rocks are formed by contact metamorphism and metasomatism of calcareous rocks, including limestone,
impure sandy or silty limestone and dolomitic limestone (cf. Meinert, 1992). However, there is no evidence
suggesting that the Batu Hijau calc-silicate rocks were
derived from those rock types. A close relationship
between the calc-silicate rocks and the volcaniclastic
rocks may suggest that the calc-silicate layers were
directly converted from the andesitic volcaniclastic
succession, as it is calcic in composition. CaO concentration of the volcaniclasitic rocks ranges from 5.6 to
8.3 wt% (N = 6) (Idrus, 2006).
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Journal compilation 2009 The Society of Resource Geology

(c)

In addition, a careful observation by Proffett (2003)

indicating the presence of sand-sized Ti oxide grains in
the calc-silicate rocks in drillhole SBD196 supports the
conclusion that the protolith of the calc-silicate layers is
andesitic volcaniclastic rocks. This interpretation is also
consistent with relatively similar geochemical behaviours of both associated rock types, indicated by identical REE patterns with respect to C1 chondrite (after
Sun & McDonough, 1989).
At least two stages of calc-silicate mineralization
occurred. Stage 1 (prograde) is characterized by the
assemblage of reddish-brown garnet (andradite),
green clinopyroxene (diopside and hedenbergite),
white Ca-plagioclase (anorthite) and quartz mineral
assemblages formed at high temperatures of 340360 C
by high salinity uid of 3545 NaCl wt% eqn. Stage 2
(retrograde) is characterized by chlorite, rare epidote
and late calcite-(quartz)-chabazite veins/veinlets
formed at temperature of 280300C by low salinity
uid of 110 NaCl wt% eqn. The late calcite-(quartz)chabazite veins/veinlets cut massive prograde clinopyroxene and andradite garnet. The similar
prograde and retrograde mineral assemblages were
also recognized in many skarn-type deposits worldwide, for instance, King Island skarn deposit, Australia
(Kwak & Tan, 1981) and San Martin skarn deposit in
Mexico (Rubin & Kyle, 1988). Ore mineralization (mag-

303

A. Idrus et al.

at a relatively shallow environment, where rocks tend

to deform in a brittle (fracture) manner (cf. Fournier,
1999; Fig. 8). In addition, on the basis of chemical compositions of clinopyroxene and garnet, it is interpreted
that ore-bearing hydrothermal uids were enriched in
Fe indicated by an increase of Fe from core to rim of
both cogenetic minerals. The presence of andradite
garnet suggests skarn mineralization in a relatively oxidizing environment (Kwak & Tan, 1981). Those processes may have generated the calcic-exoskarn deposit
surrounding the gold-rich Batu Hijau porphyry copper
deposit.

(a)

6. Conclusions
(b)

Fig. 7 Frequency diagrams of: (a) homogenization temperature (C; maximum point of interval), and (b)
salinity (NaCl wt% eqn.; maximum point of interval)
for Type I liquid-rich and Type III halite-bearing uid
inclusions. The two main peaks of homogenization
temperature and salinity representing Stage 1 and 2 of
the formation of calc-silicate mineralization are also
indicated. Note: N is the number of analysed uid
inclusions.

netite, chalcopyrite and pyrite) may occur during the

retrograde stage (cf. Einaudi, 1982; Meinert, 1992).
By plotting microthermometric data of uid inclusions related to the two calc-silicate mineralization
stages on the P-T diagram (after Hedenquist et al., 1998;
Fig. 8), it suggests that the prograde mineral assemblages is dominated by denser and more saline magmatic hydrothermal uids at lithostatic pressure of
~0.2 kbars, whereas the retrograde mineral assemblages is formed by late hydrothermal uids, likely
resulting from a mixing of magmatic uids and meteoric water at hydrostatic pressure of ~0.1 kbars (Fig. 8).
The prograde stage of skarn-related calc-silicate
deposit formed at a deep environment therefore the
rocks tend to deform in a ductile manner rather than
brittle (fracture) (cf. Fournier, 1999; Fig. 8). The retrograde stage is associated with structurally-controlled
massive magnetite-pyrite-chalcopyrite mineralization

304

Skarn-type calc-silicate rocks recognized in deep drill

cores are apparently interbedded with volcaniclastic
rocks and occur at the contact with copper-goldbearing tonalite porphyries. It is interpreted that the
calc-silicate rocks are directly converted from the associated andesitic volcaniclastic succession, as it is calcic
in composition. In addition, this interpretation is also
supported by the presence of Ti oxides (leucoxene
grains) in the calc-silicate rocks (cf. Proffett, 2003) and
identical REE patterns with respect to C1 chondrite
between the two rock types.
Three mineralization zones associated with the
skarn-related calc-silicate deposit at Batu Hijau are recognized including broken magnetite, in contact with
tonalite and calc-silicate zones. The highest grade of
copper and gold is the structurally-controlled broken
magnetite zone, which is commonly dened as skarn
mineralization interval.
Two stages of calc-silicate mineralization were recognized: Stage 1 (prograde) is represented by clinopyroxene (diopside and hedenbergite), andradite garnet,
anorthite and quartz, whereas calcite, zeolite, epidote,
quartz and chlorite correspond to Stage 2 (retrograde
stage). Ore mineralization (magnetite, chalcopyrite and
pyrite) occurred during the retrograde stage. Stage 1
mineral assemblages formed at temperature of 340
360 C by high salinity uid of 3545 NaCl wt% eqn.),
dominated by denser, more saline magmatic uids at
lithostatic pressure of ~0.2 kbars; Stage 2 mineral assemblages occurred at relatively low temperature of 280
300 C by low salinity uid of 110 NaCl wt% eqn.,
dominated by dilute, less saline hydrothermal uids
that resulted from mixing between magmatic uids and
meteoric water at hydrostatic pressure of ~0.1 kbars. The
presence of the calc-silicate rocks associated with the
magnetite-chalcopyrite-pyrite assemblage indicates
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Skarn at Batu Hijau, Indonesia

Fig. 8 Pressure-temperature (P-T)

diagram for the H2O-NaCl system
(adapted from Hedenquist et al.,
1998), showing the ascending
path (grey arrow) for an exsolved
aqueous magmatic uid in the
Batu Hijau deposit. The P-T condition and salinity of the magmatichydrothermal uid is responsible
for the formation of early central
biotite (potassic) alteration (Idrus,
2006). P-T and salinity of hydrothermal uids associated with
stage 1 (prograde) and stage 2 (retrograde) of the Batu Hijau skarnrelated calc-silicate formation are
dened by microthermometric
data of uid inclusions in quartz
in the rock matrix and in the late
chabazite-(quartz)-calcite veins/
veinlets, respectively. Notes: The
brittle-plastic transition zone lies
at about 400C (Fournier, 1999).
The critical curve is shown by the
dashed thick line with labels for
10, 20 and 30 wt% NaCl eqn.
uids. Thick lines are contours of
constant wt percent NaCl dissolved in brine (liquid) with
values for 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and
80 wt% NaCl eqn. Dotted lines are
contours of constant wt% NaCl
dissolved in vapour with values
for 0.1, 0.5, 2.0 and 5.0 wt% NaCl
eqn., respectively.

the occurrence of a potential calcic-exoskarn deposit

at the contact with the Batu Hijau copper-gold
mineralization-bearing tonalite porphyries.

structive reviews from Dr Akira Imai and Dr

Graciano P. Yumul, Jr are acknowledged.

Acknowledgments

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The authors are very thankful to the management of

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