Fluid Mechanics

Introduction To
Fluid Statics
Unit : 1

Content

Properties of Fluid
Pressure and its measurement
Hydrostatic force on surface
Buoyancy and Flotation

Properties of Fluid
Chapter :1

1
Topics To Be Covered
What is fluid Mechanics
What is fluid
Application of fluid mechanics
Properties of fluid
Viscosity

Variation of viscosity with Temp

Some basic Understanding

Fundamental units : time, length, mass, temperature

Shear stress
Atoms : H, O, C etc
Molecular : H2, O2
Particle : p, n and e
Cohesive Bond & Adhesive Bond
Control volume
Control mass

What is Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the
behavior of the fluids at rest as well as in motion.
This branch of science is deals with the static, kinematics and
dynamics aspects of fluid.
The study of fluid at rest called fluid statics.
The study of fluid motion, where pressure forces are not
considered is called fluid kinematics
And If the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in
motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.

Applications
This subject involves various branches of engineering like
hydraulic engineering, aerodynamics, marine engineering, gas
dynamics ect.
It's practical applications are numerous. Some of which are
Fluid Manometers, buoyancy measurements for floating body
density calculations.
Hydrostatics offers physical explanations for many phenomena
of everyday life, such as why atmospheric pressure changes with
altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why the surface of
water is always flat and horizontal whatever the shape of its
container.

Definition of fluid

A fluid is a substance that offers no resistance to deformation under the

application of shear stress, no matter how small that shear stress may
be,.
It is a substance which flows. It has no definite shapes of its on but
contains the shape of the containing vessel.
Fluid may be liquid or gas.

Properties of Fluid
1)
2)
3)
4)

Density of Mass density = m/v

Specific Weight or weight Density = w/v
Specific Volume= 1/mass density
Specific Gravity = weight density of liquid (gas)/Weight
Density of water(Air)

Viscosity
Definition : Viscosity is that property of fluid by virtue of which it offers
resistance to the movement over an adjoining layer.
Example: Water, oil, tar , honey
Unit: N s/m2

Cause of Viscosity
The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two factors:
(i) intermolecular force of cohesion
(ii) molecular momentum exchange
Due to strong cohesive forces between the molecules, any layer in a moving fluid tries to drag the
adjacent layer to move with an equal speed and thus produces the effect of viscosity . Since cohesion
decreases with temperature, the liquid viscosity does likewise.

Figure : Movement of fluid molecules between two adjacent moving layers

Molecules from layer aa in course of continuous thermal agitation migrate into layer bb
Momentum from the migrant molecules from layer aa is stored by molecules of layer bb by way of
collision Thus layer bb as a whole is speeded up. Molecules from the lower layer bb arrive at aa and
tend to retard the layer aa

Every such migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration or deceleration to drag the layers so
as to oppose the differences in velocity between the layers and produce the effect of viscosity.

Variation of viscosity with Temp

The viscosity of a gas increases with temperature but the
viscosity of a liquid decreases with temperature.
This difference is due to different intermolecular
characteristics of liquid and gas.
A liquid has larger value of cohesive force than a gas.
A liquid has larger cohesive force than a gas. Cohesion is
mainly responsible for causing viscosity in liquid and since
cohesive force decreases with increasing the temp, the
viscosity decreases unlike gas. A gas has very small cohesive
force and viscoisity however the molecular momentum
transfer increases and hence viscosity increase.

Viscosity

Consider a fluid is placed between two closely spaced plates as shown in figure.
Here plates are sufficiently so large that the edge conditions may be neglected.
The lower plate is fixed, whereas a force F is applied to the upper plate which
exerts a shear stress F/A on fluid between the plates.
A is area of upper plate. If the force F causes the upper plate to move then the
layer immediate in contact with upper plate has the same velocity as the upper
plate. There is no slip at the boundary. The fluid in the area PQRS flows to the new
position.
The velocity u will vary uniformly from zero at the stationary plate to U at the
upper plate.
Experiments shows that the other quantities being held constant F is directly
propositional to A, u and is inversely proportional to thickness t (y)
F = X A X du/dy
= du/dy

Where = Co effiecent of Viscosity

(unit SI =N.s/m2 (10poise): MKS = kgf s/m2 :
SGS = dyn-sec/m2 (poise)

Newtons low of viscosity

It states that the shear stress () on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is
called the co-efficient of viscosity. Mathematically it is expressed as

= du/dy
Kinematic Viscosity : It is define by the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the
mass density of fluid. It is denoted by greek symbol .
= / = Viscosity/Density

Types of Fluid

Real fluid A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the
fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids.
Newtonian fluid : The real fluid in which there is a linear relation between
magnitude of applied shear stress and the resulting rate of deformation.
(example : gases, thin liquid)
Non Newtonian Fluid: The real fluid in which there is a non linear relation
between applied shear stress and velocity gradient.(when n >1 Dilatant(sugar
syrup), n<1 pseudoplastic(milk, cement). N = flow behavior index))
Ideal Plastic Fluid : An ideal fluid which has a definite yield stress and a
constant linear relation of shear stress and velocity gradient is called ideal
plastic fluid.
Ideal Fluid :- This is a fluid where shear stress does not exist,
whether the fluid is at rest or in motion.
It is represented by the horizontal axis, =0

Compressibility & Bulk modulus

When a pressure is applied to a fluid, it contacts and when pressure is

released it expands. Compressibility of a fluid is ability to change its volume
under pressure .
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity K.
K is define as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
Consider volume V of a certain fluid contained in a piston cylinder
arrangement as shown in figure.
V = volume of a gas enclosed in cylinder
P = Pressure of gas with volume V
dp = increase in the pressure
dv = decrease in the volume
K = Increase of pressure/Volumetric strain = -dp/(dv/V)
Compressibility = 1/K
We consider liquid to be incompressible fluid.

2
Topics To Be Covered
-

Surface Tension

Capillary, capillary rise and fall

Vapor pressure

Vapor Pressure

All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a gaseous atmosphere.

The rate of evaporation depends upon the molecular energy of the liquid which in
turn depends upon the type of liquid and its temperature.
The vapor molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above the liquid,
known as vapor pressure.
If the space above the liquid is confined and the liquid is maintained at constant
temperature, after sufficient time, the confined space above the liquid will contain
vapor molecules to the extent that some of them will be forced to enter the
liquid.
Eventually an equilibrium condition will evolve when the rate at which the number
of vapor molecules striking back the liquid surface and condensing is just equal to
the rate at which they leave from the surface.
The space above the liquid then becomes saturated with vapor.
The vapor pressure of a given liquid is a function of temperature and pressure. A
liquid may boil even at ordinary temperature if the pressure above the liquid
surface is reduced so as to be equal to or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid
at that temperature.
Therefore the phenomenon of boiling of a liquid is closely related to the vapor
pressure. In fact, when the vapor pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the total
pressure impressed on its surface, the liquid starts boiling.

Surface Tension

The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of intermolecular
forces
(i) Cohesion : The force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid by virtue of
which they are bound to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is
known as the force of cohesion.
This property enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.

(ii) Adhesion : The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e. between the
molecules of different liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and those of a
solid body when they are in contact with each other, is known as the force of
adhesion.
This force enables two different liquids to adhere to each other or a liquid to
adhere to a solid body or surface.
Surface tension is due to cohesion between liquid particles at the surface where
as capillarity is due to both cohesion and adhesion.

Surface Tension
A & B experience equal force of cohesion in all directions, C experiences a net force
interior of the liquid The net force is maximum for D since it is at surface.
Due to downward force a surface is produced by the liquid particles called as free surface.
Due to molecular on free surface of liquid experience a down ward force ,to keep the equilibrium,
an equal force must be applied to oppose the inward tension in the surface.
Thus SURFACE TENSION [ ] is the force per unit length that must be applied parallel to the
surface so as to counterbalance the net inward pull and has the units of dyne/cm (CGS)or MKS
(N/m)
Definition : The surface tension is define as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquid such that the contact surface
behaves like a membrane under tension.
It decreases slightly with increasing temperature. The surface tension of water in contact with air at
20C is about 0.073 N/m.
For example warm the water before cleaning.

Example of Surface Tension

Application : Die, Soap & Detergent, facial creams, capillary fall

Surface Tension Equations for

Droplet, Bubble & Water Jet
Surface Tension for Droplet =4 /d
Surface Tension for Bubble = 8 /d
Surface Tension for Water Jet = 2 /d

Cavitations
Cavitations is the formation of vapor cavities in a liquid i.e. small liquidfree zones ("bubbles" or "voids") that are the consequence of forces
acting upon the liquid.
It the pressure at any point of the flowing liquid falls below or equal to the
vapor pressure, there will be local boiling and a cloud of vapor bubbles
will foam. The cloud of vapor bubbles are carried by flowing liquid to high
pressure region where the collapse and give rise to high impact pressure.

Capillary, capillary rise and fall

The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface relative to the adjacent general level of liquid
is known as capillarity.
The interplay of the forces of cohesion and adhesion explains the phenomenon of capillarity.
When a liquid is in contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion between the molecules of
the liquid and the solid are greater than the forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules
themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid surface. The area of contact
between the liquid and solid increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface.
The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is greater than the force of
adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by
which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid depending upon whether
the force of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not.

Capillary, Capillary Rise and Fall

The angle as shown in is the area wetting contact angle made by the interface
with the solid surface.
For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the capillary rise takes
place with = 0 . Mercury causes capillary depression with an angle of contact of
about 1300 in a clean glass in contact with air. Since h varies inversely with D an
appreciable capillary rise or depression is observed in tubes of small diameter only.
The capillary rise can be determined by considering the condition of equilibrium in
a circular tube of small diameter immersed partially in a liquid. Let h is the height
by which liquid has risen (or fallen) above or below the general liquid surface.
Let be the angle of contact between the liquid and the glasstube. It is also called
wetting angle.
For the equilibrium of vertical forces the weight of column of liquid of height h in
the tube is balanced by vertical component of surface tensile force.

3
Topics To Be Covered

Fluid pressure at a point

Pascals law
Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric & Vacuum pressure

Pressure at a point
The normal force exerted by a fluid on a unit area is called pressure or
pressure intensity or hydrostatic pressure.
If F represents the total force uniformly distributed over an area A, the
pressure at a point will be p = F/A.
Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid. If the fluid is stationary,
then the force exerted by surrounding fluid on the area dA will always be
perpendicular to the surface dA. Let dF is the force action on the area dA
in the normal direction. Then the ration of dF/dA is known as the intensity
of pressure or simply pressure and this ratio is represented by p.
Mathematically the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is p = dF/dA
It is convenient to express fluid pressure in terms of pressure head
(vertical height of the free surface of liquid above any point).
P = gh

Pascals law
The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest has same magnitude
in all directions. It can also be stated that, when a certain pressure is
applied at any point in static fluid the pressure is equally transmitted in all
the directions.
Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest
as shown in Fig . Let the width of element is unity and px, py and pz are
the pressure or intensity of pressure or intensity of pressure action on the
face AB, AC & BC respectively. Let angle ABC = , The force action on

Pxy

Pss

X direction
Pxy.1-Pss.1sin = 0(1)
Y direction
Pyx.1-Pss.1cos xy/2= 0 . (2)
Since, y = s sin, x = s cos, and
xy/2 neglecting, we get
Px = Py = Pz (3)

xy/2

Pyx

Since is arbitrary angle the equation 3 prooves

that the pressure is same in all the directions at a
point in a static (rest fluid).

Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydrostatic
law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically
downward direction must be equal to the weight density of fluid (Due to
gravity ) at that point.
Consider a small element as shown in figure.
A = Cross-section area of element
Z = Height of fluid element
P = pressure on face AB
Z = distance of fluid element from free surface.
p X A
Z
(p + p/z Z) X A

Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

The pressure action on the fluid element are :
1. Pressure force on AB = p X A and acting perpendicular to face AB in the
downward direction.
2. Pressure force on CD = (p + p/z Z) X A, acting perpendicular to face
CD, vertically upward direction.
3. Weight of fluid element = weight density X volume = w x (A x Z)
4. Pressure forces BC and AD are equal and opposite. For equilibrium of
fluid element, we have
p X A - (p + p/z Z) X A + w x (A x Z) = 0
p/z = w = g
So, dp = gZ p = gZ
Where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z is the height
of the point from free surfaces. Z is also call pressure head

The hydrostatic paradox

The pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible fluid at rest depends
on the depth of the fluid relative to some reference plane, and it is
not influenced by the size or shape of the tank or container (p = gh).
The pressure intensity is independent of the weight of fluid. This
situation is Called Hydrostatic Paradox.
Fluid is the same in all containers

Pressure is the same at the bottom of all containers

Ref Plane A

Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric &

Vacuum pressure

Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric &

Vacuum pressure
Absolute Pressure : It is define as the pressure which is measured with
reference to absolute vacuum pressure.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure : It is defined as the pressure which is measured with the
help of a pressure measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric
pressure is taken as datum.
Vacuum pressure : It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric
pressure . It is also called negative gauge pressure. Measured by Vacuum
gauge. Vacuum pressure = atmospheric pressure Absolute pressure
Atmospheric Pressure : It is the pressure exerted by air on the surface of
earth(due to weight of air).
At sea level at 15C is equal to 1.033 kgf/m2 (1 bar)
The Atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury or 10.33 m of
water.

Unit

Definition or
Relationship

1 pascal (Pa)

1 kg m-1 s-2

1 bar

1 x 105 Pa

1 atmosphere (atm)

101,325 Pa

1 torr

1 / 760 atm

760 mm Hg

1 atm

14.696 pounds per

sq. in. (psi)

1 atm